Crude extracts from Lycium barbarum suppress SREBP-1c expression and prevent diet-induced fatty liver through AMPK activation

Ya That Somdun improves hepatic steatosis in hyperlipidemic rats

Ya That Somdun (YTS) is a traditional Thai medicine composed of six herbs used as a strengthening tonic. Some of the herbs constituting YTS have antihyperlipidemic and anti-obesity activities. The objective of this study was to elucidate the antihyperlipidemic properties of YTS extract in rats with cholesterol suspension-induced hyperlipidemia. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were subdivided into four groups: normal control (NC), hyperlipidemic control (HC), and those who were administered 100 (YTS100) and 200 mg (YTS200) of YTS/kg body weight (BW). Hyperlipidemic rats were orally administered YTS extract for four consecutive weeks from the fifth week of cholesterol suspension. Serum lipid profiles, body weights, liver and renal functional markers, gene expression involved in lipid metabolism, and liver histopathology were examined. The HC and YTS groups showed a significant increase in body weights compared with the NC group. The YTS100 and YTS200 groups showed no significant difference in serum triglyceride, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels compared with the NC and HC groups. YTS treatment (100 mg/kg BW) downregulated sterol regulatory element binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c) mRNA expression and alleviated hepatic steatosis. In conclusion, the YTS extract reduced hepatic lipid accumulation in hyperlipidemic rats by reducing SREBP-1c expression levels.

Research progress of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide in prevention and treatment of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease resulting from dysregulated lipid metabolism, constituting the pathophysiological foundation of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. AS has a high incidence rate and mortality rate worldwide. As such, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been widely used recently due to its stable therapeutic effect and high safety. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP) are the main active ingredients of Ganoderma lucidum, a Chinese herbal medicine. Research has also shown that GLP has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, regulates gut microbiota, improves blood glucose and lipid levels, and inhibits obesity. Most of the current research on GLP anti-AS is focused on animal models. Thus, its clinical application remains to be discovered. In this review, we combine relevant research results and start with the pathogenesis and risk factors of GLP on AS, proving that GLP can prevent and treat AS, providing a scientific basis and reference for the future prevention and treatment of AS with GLP.

Screening of Platycodonis Radix Fractions for Antiobesity Activities and Elucidation of Its Molecular Mechanisms in High-Fat Diet-Fed C57BL/6 Mice

Obesity is a threat to public health and effective new medications are required. Platycodonis Radix (PR) is a traditional medicinal/dietary plant with activities against obesity. Using mice given a diet rich in fat, the antiobesity components of PR were identified and their molecular mechanisms were clarified further in this investigation. Initially, the impacts of PR fractions on liver histology and biochemical markers were assessed. Subsequently, the degrees of lipogenic and lipolytic gene and protein expressions were determined. Oral administration of PR polysaccharides (PG) (0.80 g/kg body weight) improved liver function (alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase) and its antioxidant activities (total superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and malondialdehyde), as well as alleviated blood lipid (total cholesterol, total triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol) values, inflammatory systemic (TNF-α and IL-1β), and histological abnormalities within the liver. Furthermore, PG administration downregulated the expression for lipogenic genes (ACC and FAS) and upregulated the expression for the lipolytic gene (PPARα, LPL, CPT1, and HSL). Importantly, PG raised AMPK phosphorylation and decreased SREBP-1c protein synthesis. Thus, it is possible that PG stimulates the AMPK-LPL/HSL path (lipolytic route) plus the AMPK-ACC/PPARα-CPT1 path (associated to β-oxidation of fatty acids), while inhibiting the AMPK/(SREBP-1c)-ACC/FAS path (lipogenic route). In summary, PG has the ability to regulate lipid metabolism, and it may be useful to pharmacologically activate AMPK with PG to prevent and cure obesity.

Pioneering PGC-1α-boosted secretome: a novel approach to combating liver fibrosis

Purpose

Liver fibrosis is a critical health issue with limited treatment options. This study investigates the potential of PGC-Sec, a secretome derived from peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α)-overexpressing adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs), as a novel therapeutic strategy for liver fibrosis.

Methods

Upon achieving a cellular confluence of 70%-80%, ASCs were transfected with pcDNA-PGC-1α. PGC-Sec, obtained through concentration of conditioned media using ultrafiltration units with a 3-kDa cutoff, was assessed through in vitro assays and in vitro mouse models.

Results

In vitro, PGC-Sec significantly reduced LX2 human hepatic stellate cell proliferation and mitigated mitochondrial oxidative stress compared to the control-secretome. In an in vivo mouse model, PGC-Sec treatment led to notable reductions in hepatic enzyme activity, serum proinflammatory cytokine concentrations, and fibrosis-related marker expression. Histological analysis demonstrated improved liver histology and reduced fibrosis severity in PGC-Sec-treated mice. Immunohistochemical staining confirmed enhanced expression of PGC-1α, optic atrophy 1 (a mitochondrial function marker), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (an antifibrogenic marker) in the PGC-Sec-treated group, along with reduced collagen type 1A expression (a profibrogenic marker).

Conclusion

These findings highlight the therapeutic potential of PGC-Sec in combating liver fibrosis by enhancing mitochondrial biogenesis and function, and promoting antifibrotic processes. PGC-Sec holds promise as a novel treatment strategy for liver fibrosis.

Recent advances in the extraction, purification, structural-property correlations, and antiobesity mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine-derived polysaccharides: a review

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has displayed preventive and therapeutic effects on many complex diseases. As natural biological macromolecules, TCM-derived antiobesogenic polysaccharides (TCMPOs) exhibit notable weight-loss effects and are seen to be a viable tactic in the fight against obesity. Current studies demonstrate that the antiobesity activity of TCMPOs is closely related to their structural characteristics, which could be affected by the extraction and purification methods. Therefore, the extraction, purification and structural-property correlations of TCMPOs were discussed. Investigation of the antiobesity mechanism of TCMPOs is also essential for their improved application. Herein, the possible antiobesity mechanisms of TCMPOs are systematically summarized: (1) modulation of appetite and satiety effects, (2) suppression of fat absorption and synthesis, (3) alteration of the gut microbiota and their metabolites, and (4) protection of intestinal barriers. This collated information could provide some insights and offer a new therapeutic approach for the management and prevention of obesity.

Distinct Role of Lycium barbarum L. Polysaccharides in Oxidative Stress-Related Ocular Diseases

Oxidative stress is an imbalance between the increased production of reactive species and reduced antioxidant activity, which can cause a variety of disturbances including ocular diseases. Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are complex polysaccharides isolated from the fruit of L. barbarum, showing distinct roles in antioxidants. Moreover, it is relatively safe and non-toxic. In recent years, the antioxidant activities of LBPs have attracted remarkable attention. In order to illustrate its significance and underlying therapeutic value for vision, we comprehensively review the recent progress on the antioxidant mechanisms of LBP and its potential applications in ocular diseases, including diabetic retinopathy, hypertensive neuroretinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa, retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury, glaucoma, dry eye syndrome, and diabetic cataract.

Lycium barbarum Polysaccharide Regulates the Lipid Metabolism and Alters Gut Microbiota in High-Fat Diet Induced Obese Mice

Bioactive compounds provide new insights into the prevention and treatment of obesity. Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP), a biological macromolecule extracted from Goji berry, has displayed potential for regulating lipid metabolism. However, the relationship between gut microbiota regulation and lipid metabolism is not entirely clear. In the present study, 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg LBP were intragastrically administered to C57BL/6J male mice fed with a high-fat diet simultaneously lasting for twelve weeks. The results showed that 150 mg/kg LBP showed significant results and all doses of LBP feeding (50, 100, 150 mg/kg) remarkably decreased both serum and liver total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) levels. Treatment of 150 mg/kg LBP seems to be more effective in weight loss, lowering free fatty acid (FFA) levels in serum and liver tissues of mice. LBP feeding increased the gene expression of adiponectin and decreased the gene expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, Cluster of Differentiation 36, acetyl-coA carboxylase, and fatty acid synthase in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the 16s rDNA Sequencing analysis showed that 150 mg/kg LBP feeding may significantly increase the richness of gut microbiota by up-regulation of the ACE and Chao1 index and altered β-diversity among groups. Treatment of 150 mg/kg LBP feeding significantly regulated the microbial distribution by decreasing the relative abundance of Firmicutes and increasing the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes at the phylum level. Furthermore, the relative abundance of Faecalibaculum, Pantoea, and uncultured_bacterium_f_Muribaculaceae at the genus level was significantly affected by LBP feeding. A significant correlation was observed between body weight, TC, TG, FFA and bile acid and phyla at the genus level. The above results indicate that LBP plays a vital role in preventing obesity by co-regulating lipid metabolism and gut microbiota, but its effects vary with the dose.

Bioactive polysaccharides and their potential health benefits in reducing the risks of atherosclerosis: A review

Atherosclerosis is a kind of lipid-driven chronic inflammatory disease of arteries and is the principal pathological basis of life-threatening cardiovascular disease events, such as strokes and heart attacks. Clinically, statins are the most commonly prescribed drugs for the treatment of atherosclerosis, but prolonged use of these drugs exhibit many adverse reactions and have limited efficacy. Polysaccharides are important natural biomacromolecules widely existing in plants, animals, microorganisms and algae. They have drawn considerable attention worldwide due to their multiple healthy functions, along with their non-toxic property. Importantly, a growing number of studies have demonstrated that bioactive polysaccharides exhibit prominent efficiency in controlling atherosclerotic risk factors like hyperlipemia, hypertension, oxidative stress, and inflammation. In recent decades, various bioactive polysaccharides with different structural features and anti-atherosclerotic potential from natural sources have been isolated, purified, and characterized. The aim of this review is to focus on the research progress of natural polysaccharides in reducing the risks of atherosclerosis based on evidence of in vitro and in vivo studies from 1966 to 2022. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: In the future, it is still necessary to strengthen the research on the development and mechanism of polysaccharides with anti-atherosclerotic potential. These anti-atherosclerotic polysaccharides with different structural characteristics and physiochemical properties from different sources will constitute a huge source of materials for future applications, especially in functional foods and drugs. The information summarized here may serve as useful reference materials for further investigation, production, and application of these polysaccharides in functional foods and therapeutic agents.

Supplementation of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharide Combined with Aerobic Exercise Ameliorates High-Fat-Induced Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis via AMPK/PPARα/PGC-1α Pathway

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a subtype of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Either Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) or aerobic exercise (AE) has been reported to be beneficial to hepatic lipid metabolism. However, whether the combination of LBP with AE improves lipid accumulation of NASH remains unknown. Our study investigated the influence of 10 weeks of treatment of LBP, AE, and the combination (LBP plus AE) on high-fat-induced NASH in Sprague-Dawley rats. The results showed that LBP or AE reduced the severity of the NASH. LBP plus AE treatment more effectively ameliorated liver damage and lowered levels of serum lipid and inflammation. In addition, the combination can also regulate genes involved in hepatic fatty acid synthesis and oxidation. LBP plus AE activated AMPK, thereby increasing the expression of PPARα which controls hepatic fatty acid oxidation and its coactivator PGC-1α. Our study demonstrated the improvement of LBP plus AE on NASH via enhancing fatty acid oxidation (FAO) which was dependent on AMPK/PPARα/PGC-1α pathway.

Supplementation with a Specific Combination of Metabolic Cofactors Ameliorates Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease, Hepatic Fibrosis, and Insulin Resistance in Mice

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) have emerged as the leading causes of chronic liver disease in the world. Obesity, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia are multifactorial risk factors strongly associated with NAFLD/NASH. Here, a specific combination of metabolic cofactors (a multi-ingredient; MI) containing precursors of glutathione (GSH) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) (betaine, N-acetyl-cysteine, L-carnitine and nicotinamide riboside) was evaluated as effective treatment for the NAFLD/NASH pathophysiology. Six-week-old male mice were randomly divided into control diet animals and animals exposed to a high fat and high fructose/sucrose diet to induce NAFLD. After 16 weeks, diet-induced NAFLD mice were distributed into two groups, treated with the vehicle (HFHFr group) or with a combination of metabolic cofactors (MI group) for 4 additional weeks, and blood and liver were obtained from all animals for biochemical, histological, and molecular analysis. The MI treatment reduced liver steatosis, decreasing liver weight and hepatic lipid content, and liver injury, as evidenced by a pronounced decrease in serum levels of liver transaminases. Moreover, animals supplemented with the MI cocktail showed a reduction in the gene expression of some proinflammatory cytokines when compared with their HFHFr counterparts. In addition, MI supplementation was effective in decreasing hepatic fibrosis and improving insulin sensitivity, as observed by histological analysis, as well as a reduction in fibrotic gene expression (Col1α1) and improved Akt activation, respectively. Taken together, supplementation with this specific combination of metabolic cofactors ameliorates several features of NAFLD, highlighting this treatment as a potential efficient therapy against this disease in humans.

Supplementation With Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides Reduce Obesity in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice by Modulation of Gut Microbiota

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) have been proved to prevent obesity and modulate gut microbiota. However, the underlying mechanisms of LBPs’ regulating lipid metabolism remain entirely unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether LBPs are able to modulate the gut microbiota to prevent obesity. The results showed that oral administration of LBPs alleviated dyslipidemia by decreasing the serum levels of total triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and elevating the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in obese mice. Furthermore, LBP treatment decreased the number and size of adipocytes in epididymal adipose tissues and downregulated the expression of adipogenesis-related genes, including acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1, fatty acid synthase, stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1, sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α. 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis showed that LBPs increased the diversity of bacteria, reduced the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, and improved the gut dysbiosis induced by a high-fat diet; for example, LBPs increased the production of short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria Lacticigenium, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, and Butyricicoccus. LBPs treatment also increased the content of fecal short-chain fatty acids, including butyric acid. These findings illustrate that LBPs might be developed as a potential prebiotic to improve lipid metabolism and intestinal diseases.

Dietary Fiber: An Opportunity for a Global Control of Hyperlipidemia

Dietary fiber has a long history in the intervention study of hyperlipidemia. In this review, current understandings of structures, sources, and natures of various kinds of dietary fibers (DFs) were analyzed first. Available evidences for the use of different varieties of DFs in the lipid-lowering action both in vitro and in vivo were subsequently classified, including both soluble ones, such as glucans, pectins, and gums, and insoluble ones, including arabinooxylans and chitosans, in order to draw a primary conclusion of their dose and molecular weight relationship with lipid-lowering effect. Their potential mechanisms, especially the related molecular mechanism of protective action in the treatment and prevention of hyperlipidemia, were summarized at last. Five major mechanisms are believed to be responsible for the antihyperlipidemic benefits of DFs, including low levels of energy, bulking effect, viscosity, binding capacity, and fermentation thus ameliorating the symptoms of hyperlipidemia. From the molecular level, DFs could possibly affect the activities of HMG-CoA reductase, LDL receptors, CYP7A1, and MAPK signaling pathway as well as other lipid metabolism-related target genes. In summary, dietary fibers could be used as alternative supplements to exert certain lipid-lowering effects on humans. However, more clinical evidence is needed to strengthen this proposal and its fully underlying mechanism still requires more investigation.

Rice Bran Oil Attenuates Chronic Inflammation by Inducing M2 Macrophage Switching in High-Fat Diet-Fed Obese Mice

Macrophages are involved in all inflammatory processes from killing pathogens to repairing damaged tissue. In the obese state, macrophages infiltrate into enlarged adipose tissue and polarize into pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages, resulting in chronic low-grade inflammation due to the secretion of inflammatory mediators. Rice bran oil (RBO) is an edible oil containing tocopherols, tocotrienols, and γ-oryzanol. Previous research in normal diet-fed mice suggested that RBO mitigates inflammatory responses by modulating mitochondrial respiration of macrophages. Therefore, we investigated if RBO had an anti-inflammatory effect in diet-induced obese mice by assessing the expression of inflammatory markers in epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) and polarization of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Rice bran oil exerted a local anti-inflammatory effect in white adipose tissue by suppressing the production of inflammatory mediators and upregulating transcription of anti-inflammatory genes. Rice bran oil also promoted anti-inflammatory M2 macrophage polarization in BMDMs thereby affecting systemic inflammation. Overall, our in vivo and ex vivo results highlight the potential of RBO as a dietary mediator that can ameliorate obesity-induced chronic low-grade inflammation by mediating the expression of inflammation-related factors and macrophage polarization.

Hesperetin inhibits foam cell formation and promotes cholesterol efflux in THP-1-derived macrophages by activating LXRα signal in an AMPK-dependent manner

Cholesterol efflux from macrophages is the first step of reverse cholesterol transport (RCT), whose increase inhibits cholesterol accumulation and foam cell formation to suppress atherogenesis. Hesperetin has been reported to exert several protective effects on cardiovascular diseases, while little is known about the role of hesperetin and its underlying mechanism in macrophage foam cell formation. In this study, we sought to investigate the potential effects of hesperetin on foam cell formation and cholesterol efflux by using human macrophages, focusing on liver X receptor alpha (LXRα) and AMPK. We found that hesperetin treatment reduced foam cell formation, intracellular cholesterol levels and the cholesterol esterification rate, and increased cholesterol efflux in THP-1 macrophages. Hesperetin increased the levels of LXRα protein and its targets, including ABCA1, ABCG1, SR-BI, and phosphorylated-AMPK. Meanwhile, the hesperetin-induced increase in LXRα expression was further increased by the AMPK agonist and inhibited by an AMPK inhibitor. Meanwhile, hesperetin increased the levels of LXRα mRNA and its target genes, all of which were decreased in cells transfected with the AMPKα1/α2 small interfering RNA (siRNA). Furthermore, the hesperetin-induced inhibition of foam cell formation and promotion of cholesterol efflux were decreased by transfection of AMPKα1/α2 siRNA. In conclusions, We are the first to report that hesperetin activate AMPK in THP-1-derived macrophages. This activation upregulats LXRα and its targets, including ABCA1, ABCG1 and SR-BI, which significantly inhibits foam cell formation and promotes cholesterol efflux. Our results highlight the therapeutic potential of hesperetin to possibly reduce foam cell formation. This new mechanism might contribute the anti-atherogenic effects of hesperetin.

PSTi8 with metformin ameliorates perimenopause induced steatohepatitis associated ER stress by regulating SIRT-1/SREBP-1c axis

Aims

Hepatic steatosis in women confronting menopause is the manifestation of substantial fructose consumption and forms a positive feedback loop to develop endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Previously pancreastatin inhibitor peptide-8 (PSTi8) and Metformin (Met) combination effectively ameliorated hepatic lipid accumulation in high fructose diet (HFrD) fed diabetic mice models at reduced doses. Moreover, SIRT-1 plays a crucial role in the regulation of SREBP-1c. Hence we hypothesized that Met and PSTi8 in combination (at therapeutic lower doses) could mitigate hepatic steatosis linked ER stress by activating SIRT-1 and precluding SREBP-1c in HFrD fed 4-Vinylcyclohexenediepoxide (HVCD) induced perimenopausal rats.

Main methods

HVCD rats were fed HFrD for 12 weeks, accompanied by 14 days of treatment with Met, PSTi8, and combination. We confirmed model establishment by estrus cycle study, estradiol level, and intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test. Plasma lipid profile and liver function were determined. Also, mRNA and protein expressions were examined. Moreover, distribution of SIRT-1 and SREBP-1c was detected in HepG2 cells by immunofluorescence staining.

Key findings

HVCD group displayed augmented insulin resistance (IR), lipogenesis, and ER stress in the liver. Combination therapy improved the estrus cyclicity, estradiol, and lipid profile of HVCD rats. Met and PSTi8 combination reduced hepatic SREBP-1c and triggered SIRT-1 expression in high fructose-induced insulin-resistant HepG2 cells; consequently, combination therapy attenuated ER stress.

Significance

Succinctly, present research promotes impetus concerning the remedial impact of Met with PSTi8 at lower therapeutic doses to ameliorate hepatic IR, steatosis, and associated ER stress by revamping the SIRT-1/SREBP-1c axis in perimenopausal rats.

Ganoderma lucidum Extract Reduces Insulin Resistance by Enhancing AMPK Activation in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice

Ganoderma lucidum is used widely in oriental medicine to treat obesity and metabolic diseases. Bioactive substances extracted from G. lucidum have been shown to ameliorate dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes in mice via multiple 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-mediated mechanisms; however, further studies are required to elucidate the anti-obesity effects of G. lucidum in vivo. In this study, we demonstrated that 3% G. lucidum extract powder (GEP) can be used to prevent obesity and insulin resistance in a mouse model. C57BL/6 mice were provided with a normal diet (ND) or a high-fat diet (HFD) supplemented with 1, 3, or 5% GEP for 12 weeks and the effect of GEP on body weight, liver, adipose tissue, adipokines, insulin and glucose tolerance (ITT and GTT), glucose uptake, glucose-metabolism related proteins, and lipogenesis related genes was examined. GEP administration was found to reduce weight gain in the liver and fat tissues of the mice. In addition, serum parameters were significantly lower in the 3% and 5% GEP mice groups than in those fed a HFD alone, whereas adiponectin levels were significantly higher. We also observed that GEP improved glucose metabolism, reduced lipid accumulation in the liver, and reduced adipocyte size. These effects may have been mediated by enhanced AMPK activation, which attenuated the transcription and translation of lipogenic genes such as fatty acid synthase (FAS), stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1), and sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP1c). Moreover, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation increased acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), insulin receptor (IR), IR substrate 1 (IRS1), and Akt protein expression and activation, as well as glucose transporter type 1/4 (GLUT1/4) protein production, thereby improving insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism. Together, these findings demonstrate that G. lucidum may effectively prevent obesity and suppress obesity-induced insulin resistance via AMPK activation.

Prevention of Nonalcoholic Hepatic Steatosis by Shenling Baizhu Powder: Involvement of Adiponectin-Induced Inhibition of Hepatic SREBP-1c

Background

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common chronic liver disease worldwide, and its incidence is increasing annually, but there is currently no specific drug for treating NAFLD. Shenling Baizhu powder (SL) is a safe herbal compound commonly used in clinical practice. Our previous research has shown that SL has the effect of preventing NAFLD, but its specific mechanism has not been determined. In this study, the potential mechanism of SL on NAFLD was explored by in vivo experiments.

Methods

Wistar rats fed a choline-deficient amino acid-defined diet (CDAA) were treated with SL for 8 weeks. Then, serum samples were collected to obtain biochemical indicators; adipose tissue and liver samples were collected for pathological detection; a moorFLPI-2 blood flow imager was used to measure liver microcirculation blood flow, and a rat cytokine array was used to screen potential target proteins. The expression of liver adiponectin/SREBP-1c pathway-related proteins was determined by Western blotting.

Results

SL effectively reduced the liver wet weight, as well as the levels of total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) in the liver, and ameliorated liver injury in CDAA-fed rats. Pathological examinations showed that SL markedly reduced liver lipid droplets and improved liver lipid accumulation. In addition, the detection of liver blood flow showed that SL increased liver microcirculation in CDAA-fed rats. Through the cytokine array, a differentially expressed cytokine, namely, adiponectin, was screened in the liver. Western blotting assays showed that SL increased the expression of adiponectin and phosphoacetyl-CoA Carboxylase (p-ACC) in the liver and decreased the expression of steroid regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) and fatty acid synthase (FAS).

Conclusion

These results suggest that SL can increase the levels of adiponectin in the liver and serum and can inhibit the expression of SREBP-1c, thereby regulating systemic lipid metabolism and reducing liver lipid accumulation.

Effects of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharide on Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Oxidative Stress in Obese Mice

Background

The incidence of obesity-associated decline in male fertility has increased over the years. Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP), a natural plant polysaccharide extracted from the Chinese herb L. barbarum has shown promising therapeutic effects in overcoming the same.

Aim

This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of LBP on the testes of obese mice.

Methods

Following administration of LBP to high-fat diet-induced obese mice for 35 days, serum, sperm, and testis samples were obtained for subsequent experiments. Biochemical analysis and sex hormone content determination were performed to observe changes in glycolipid metabolism and testosterone levels, respectively, in the blood. Hematoxylin and eosin staining were carried out to assess the pathological changes in the testicular tissue. Oxidative stress levels were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and expression levels of endoplasmic reticulum stress markers were determined using western blot in the testicular tissue.

Results

Our results suggested that LBP reduced glucose levels and insulin resistance, increased testosterone levels and insulin sensitivity, and decreased testicular oxidative stress and pathological damage in obese mice. In addition, LBP down-regulated the expression of p-eIF2α, GRP78, and CHOP in the testicular tissues of obese mice.

Conclusion

Our results show that LBP is a potential novel drug for preventing male infertility caused by obesity.

The Impacts of Herbal Medicines and Natural Products on Regulating the Hepatic Lipid Metabolism

The dysregulation of hepatic lipid metabolism is one of the hallmarks in many liver diseases including alcoholic liver diseases (ALD) and non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases (NAFLD). Hepatic inflammation, lipoperoxidative stress as well as the imbalance between lipid availability and lipid disposal, are direct causes of liver steatosis. The application of herbal medicines with anti-oxidative stress and lipid-balancing properties has been extensively attempted as pharmaceutical intervention for liver disorders in experimental and clinical studies. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying their hepatoprotective effects warrant further exploration, increasing evidence demonstrated that many herbal medicines are involved in regulating lipid accumulation processes including hepatic lipolytic and lipogenic pathways, such as mitochondrial and peroxisomal β-oxidation, the secretion of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), the non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) uptake, and some vital hepatic lipogenic enzymes. Therefore, in this review, the pathways or crucial mediators participated in the dysregulation of hepatic lipid metabolism are systematically summarized, followed by the current evidences and advances in the positive impacts of herbal medicines and natural products on the lipid metabolism pathways are detailed. Furthermore, several herbal formulas, herbs or herbal derivatives, such as Erchen Dection, Danshen, resveratrol, and berberine, which have been extensively studied for their promising potential in mediating lipid metabolism, are particularly highlighted in this review.

Effect of nanoformulated copper/zinc superoxide dismutase on chronic ethanol-induced alterations in liver and adipose tissue

BACKGROUND

We previously reported that nanoformulated copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (Nano) attenuates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and adipose tissue (AT) inflammation in obese animals. Here, we sought to determine whether Nano treatment attenuates alcohol-associated liver disease (AALD) and AT inflammation in alcohol-fed mice.

METHODS

We pre-treated E-47 cells (HepG2 cells that over-express CYP2E1) with native- or nano-superoxide dismutase (SOD) for 6 h, followed by treatment with ethanol and/or linoleic acid (LA), a free fatty acid. For in vivo studies, male C57BL/6 mice were fed the Lieber-DeCarli control or ethanol liquid diet for 4 weeks. The mice received Nano once every 2 days during the last 2 weeks of ethanol feeding.

RESULTS

Our in vitro studies revealed that Nano pretreatment reduced LA + ethanol-induced oxidative stress in E-47 cells. Our in vivo experiments showed that ethanol-fed Nano-treated mice had 22% lower hepatic triglyceride levels than mice fed ethanol alone. Nano-treated ethanol-fed mice also had 2-fold lower levels of Cd68 and similarly reduced levels of Ccl2 and Mmp12 mRNAs, than in untreated ethanol-fed mice. We also noted that ethanol feeding caused a remarkable increase in hepatic and/or plasma MCP-1 and CCR2 protein, which was blunted in ethanol + Nano-treated animals. The hepatic content of SREBP-1c, a transcription factor that promotes lipogenesis, was higher in ethanol-fed mice than controls but was attenuated in ethanol + Nano-treated animals. Further, livers of ethanol + Nano-treated mice had significantly higher levels of phosphorylated adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) than both control and ethanol-fed mice. In AT, the levels of Il6 mRNA, a hepatoprotective cytokine, and that of Arg1, a marker of anti-inflammatory macrophages, were significantly increased in ethanol + Nano-treated mice compared with control mice.

CONCLUSION

Our data indicate that Nano treatment attenuates ethanol-induced steatohepatitis and that this effect is associated with an apparent activation of AMPK signaling. Our data also suggest that Nano induces Arg1 and Il6 expression in AT, suggesting anti-inflammatory effects in this tissue.

Anti-Diabetic Effects and Mechanisms of Dietary Polysaccharides

Diabetes mellitus is a multifactorial, heterogeneous metabolic disorder, causing various health complications and economic issues, which apparently impacts the human's life. Currently, commercial diabetic drugs are clinically managed for diabetic treatment that has definite side effects. Dietary polysaccharides mainly derive from natural sources, including medicinal plants, grains, fruits, vegetables, edible mushroom, and medicinal foods, and possess anti-diabetic potential. Hence, this review summarizes the effects of dietary polysaccharides on diabetes and underlying molecular mechanisms related to inflammatory factors, oxidative stress, and diabetes in various animal models. The analysis of literature and appropriate data on anti-diabetic polysaccharide from electronic databases was conducted. In vivo and in vitro trials have revealed that treatment of these polysaccharides has hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects, which enhance pancreatic β-cell mass and alleviates β-cell dysfunction. It enhances insulin signaling pathways through insulin receptors and activates the PI3K/Akt pathway, and eventually modulates ERK/JNK/MAPK pathway. In conclusion, dietary polysaccharides can effectively ameliorate hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, low-grade inflammation, and oxidative stress in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and, thus, consumption of polysaccharides can be a valuable choice for diabetic control.

A Single Dose of Goji Berries Does Not Affect Postprandial Energy Expenditure and Substrate Oxidation in Healthy, Overweight Men

Background and Aim

Increasing energy expenditure is an effective strategy for the prevention of obesity. In this respect, Lycium barbarum (goji berry) is of interest, as it has been shown to increase postprandial oxygen consumption. Although this suggests that energy expenditure was also increased, energy expenditure and substrate oxidation can only be assessed accurately when both oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production are measured. We therefore investigated the effects of a single dose of Lycium barbarum fruit on postprandial energy expenditure and substrate oxidation in a randomized, double-blind crossover trial. In addition, markers of lipid and glucose metabolism were measured.

Methods

Seventeen healthy, overweight men received in a random order a meal containing 25 grams of dried Lycium barbarum fruit or a control meal matched for caloric content and macronutrient composition. Energy expenditure and the respiratory quotient were determined using indirect calorimetry before and up to 4 hours after meal intake. Blood was sampled before and after meal intake at regular intervals for analyses of plasma glucose, serum triacylglycerol, and free fatty acid concentrations.

Results

Energy expenditure significantly increased after the Lycium barbarum and control meal, but no differences were found between the meals (p=0.217). Postprandial changes in respiratory quotient (p=0.719) and concentrations of glucose (p=0.663), triacylglycerol (p=0.391), and free fatty acids (p=0.287) were also not affected by Lycium barbarum intake.

Conclusions

A single dose of Lycium barbarum does not affect postprandial energy expenditure, substrate oxidation, and markers for lipid and glucose metabolism in healthy, overweight men.

Intermittent Hypoxia Composite Abnormal Glucose Metabolism-Mediated Atherosclerosis In Vitro and In Vivo: The Role of SREBP-1

Objective

The aim of this study was to establish a 3T3-L1 adipocyte model and ApoE^−/− mouse model of intermittent hypoxia (IH) composite abnormal glucose metabolism (AGM) in vitro and in vivo and explore their synergistic damage effect leading to atherosclerosis (AS) and the influence of SREBP-1 signaling molecule-related mechanisms.

Methods

Mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes were cultured with complete culture medium containing DEX 1 × 10⁶ mol/L for 96 h to establish an AGM-3T3-L1 adipocyte model. Then, AGM-3T3-L1 adipocytes were treated with IH for 0 cycles, 2 cycles, 4 cycles, 8 cycles, 16 cycles, and 32 cycles and sustained hypoxia (SH). ApoE^−/− mice were treated with high-fat diet and injection of STZ solution to establish an AGM-ApoE^−/− mouse model. A total of 16 AGM-ApoE^−/− mice were randomly and averagely divided into the normoxic control group (NC) and model group (CIH). AGM-ApoE^−/− mice of the CIH group were treated with IH, which meant that the oxygen concentration fell to 10 ± 0.5% in the first 90 seconds of one cycle and then increased to 21 ± 0.5% in the later 90 seconds, continuous for eight hours per day (09 : 00-17 : 00) with a total of eight weeks. Eight C57BL/6J mice were used as the blank control group (Con) which was fed with conventional diet. qPCR and Western blotting were used to detect the expression level of SREBP-1c, FAS, and IRS-1. Oil Red O staining was used to compare the plaque of the aorta among each mouse group.

Results

As a result, within 32 cycles of IH, mRNA and protein expression levels of SREBP-1c and FAS in AGM-3T3-L1 adipocytes were elevated with the increase in IH cycles; the mRNA expression of IRS-1 was decreased after IH 32 cycles and lower than that of the SH group. For the study in vivo, Oil Red O staining showed a more obvious AS aortic plaque in the CIH group. After CIH treatment of 4 w and 8 w, fasting blood glucose (FBG) of the NC group and CIH group was higher than that of the Con group, and the insulin level of the CIH group was higher than that of the Con group after IH treatment of 8 w. The expressions of the IRS-1 mRNA level in the aorta, skeletal muscle, and liver of the CIH group were lower than those in the Con group. The mRNA and protein expression of SREBP-1c and its downstream molecule FAS in the aorta, skeletal muscle, and liver significantly enhanced in the CIH group in contrast with those in the Con group.

Conclusion

The CIH composite AGM could promote the progress of AS, which might be related to the modulation of the expression of SREBP-1-related molecular pathways.

Fraction From Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides Reduces Immunotoxicity and Enhances Antitumor Activity of Doxorubicin in Mice

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether fraction from Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) could reduce immunotoxicity and enhance antitumor activity of doxorubicin (Dox) in mice. A water-soluble LBP fraction, designated LBP3, was isolated from edible Chinese herbal Lycium barbarum and used in this study. To investigate the effect of LBP3 on Dox-induced immunotoxicity, tumor-free mice were used and treated with either normal saline, Dox, or Dox plus LBP3. To investigate the effect of LBP3 on antitumor activity of Dox, H22 tumor-bearing mice were used and treated with either normal saline, Dox, LBP3, or Dox plus LBP3. The results showed that LBP3 did not protect against the body weight loss caused by Dox, but it promoted the recovery of body weight starting at day 5 after Dox treatment in tumor-free mice. LBP3 also improved peripheral blood lymphocyte counts, promoted cell cycle recovery in bone marrow cells, and restored the cytotoxicity of natural killer cells. Furthermore, in H22 tumor-bearing mice, LBP3 enhanced antitumor activity of Dox and improved peripheral blood lymphocyte counts and the cytotoxicity of splenocytes. In brief, our results demonstrated that LBP3 could reduce the immunotoxicity and enhance antitumor activity of Dox.

Antitumor activity of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides with different molecular weights: an in vitro and in vivo study

The antitumor activity of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) has been reported, but the structure–bioactivity relationship has still not been fully elucidated. In this study, four water-soluble LBP fractions with serial different molecular weights (MWs) were separated from LBP, designated LBP-2, LBP-3, LBP-4, and LBP-5. After a characteristic analysis, the relationship between MW and antitumor activity of LBP was investigated both in vitro using murine hepatoma H22 cells and in vivo using H22 tumor-bearing mice. In vitro, the results showed that all the LBP fractions had significant inhibition on H22 cells, in which LBP-3 had the best activity. LBP-3 could induce apoptosis, mitochondrial membrane potential destruction, and S phase arrest in H22 cells. In vivo, the results showed that LBP-2, LBP-3, LBP-4, and LBP-5 could inhibit the tumor growth in H22 tumor-bearing mice by 18.18%, 37.97%, 9.09%, and 14.44%, respectively. However, only LBP-3 was able to decrease the tumor weight significantly in H22 tumor-bearing mice. Meanwhile, all the LBP fractions did not show significant toxicity to murine splenocytes, thymus, and spleen. Taken together, these results demonstrated that the antitumor activity of LBP was closely related to its MW, and LBP-3 with medium MW (40–350 kDa) was the main active fraction.

Lycium barbarum Reduces Abdominal Fat and Improves Lipid Profile and Antioxidant Status in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome

Natural antioxidants present in fruits have attracted considerable interest due to their presumed safety and potential nutritional value. Even though antioxidant activities of many fruits have been reported, the effects of phytochemicals of goji berry (GB) in patients with metabolic syndrome have not been investigated. In this study, we examined anthropometric and biochemical parameters in patients with metabolic syndrome after the consumption of GB. The patients were divided into two groups, control (C) and supplemented (S), and followed up for 45 days. Participants were individually instructed to carry out a healthy diet, but additionally, an inclusion of 14 g of the natural form of goji berry in the diet during 45 days for the S group was proposed. After 45 days of study, a significant reduction in transaminases as well as an improvement in lipid profile in the S group was observed. Likewise, a significant reduction in the waist circumference of the S group was observed when compared with that of the C group, and increased glutathione and catalase levels associated with a reduction of lipid peroxidation. These results suggest that this is an effective dietary supplement for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases in individuals with metabolic syndrome.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharide attenuates high-fat diet-induced hepatic steatosis by up-regulating SIRT1 expression and deacetylase activity

In this study, we aimed to investigate the protective effects and underlying mechanism of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) on high-fat-induced nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Recently, sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) has been shown to play an important role in the regulation of hepatocellular lipid metabolism. Here, we demonstrated that LBP up-regulates SIRT1 deacetylase activity and protein expression by enhancing the NAD⁺/NADH ratio. Subsequently, LBP promoted LKB1 deacetylation and AMPK phosphorylation via SIRT1-dependent signalling. We also found that LBP increases acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) phosphorylation and adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) protein expression and decreases fatty acid synthase (FAS) by activating the SIRT1/LKB1/AMPK pathway in vitro and in vivo. However, SIRT1 small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown reversed the LBP-mediated effects on ACC, FAS and ATGL. Moreover, LBP elevated carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 alpha (CPT-1α) expression by suppressing malonyl-CoA accumulation. Taken together, our data indicate that LBP plays a vital role in the regulation of hepatic lipid metabolism and that pharmacological activation of SIRT1 by LBP may be a strategy for the prevention of NAFLD.

A Review of Western and Traditional Chinese Medical Approaches to Managing Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a disease of attention because of increase in prevalence from 20% to 41%. The clinical and pathological conditions in patients with NAFLD range from steatosis alone to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) with or without fibrosis to hepatic cancer. In the United States, NAFLD was the second-leading indication for liver transplant between 2004 and 2013. Although imaging studies such as magnetic resonance elastography and the use of diagnostic panels and scoring systems can provide a fairly accurate diagnosis of NAFLD, there are few treatment options for patients with mild to moderate disease other than lifestyle modification. Many of the currently used medical treatments have been shown to cause severe side effects and some have been shown to be associated with increased risk for certain types of cancer. In recent years, a number of traditional Chinese herbal treatments have been examined for their potential uses as treatment for NAFLD. In this review, we provide a general overview of NAFLD and a survey of Western pharmacologic drugs currently used to treat the disease as well as the results of recent studies on the effectiveness of traditional Chinese herbal remedies for managing nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.

Resveratrol ameliorates lipid accumulation in HepG2 cells, associated with down-regulation of lipin1 expression

The pathogenesis of alcoholic fatty liver (AFL) disease is associated with the excessive accumulation of lipids in hepatocytes as well as oxidative stress. Resveratrol (RES), a dietary polyphenol found in red wine and grapes, has been shown to protect against AFL disease. However, the precise mechanisms that lead to this protective effect remain elusive. In this study, we used HepG2 cells to investigate the effects of RES on lipid metabolism and the mechanisms underlying these effects. HepG2 cells were cultured with oleic acid and alcohol for 48 h to induce excessive lipid accumulation. Oil red O staining showed that administration of oleic acid and alcohol induced more lipid accumulation than was observed in the control group, and that RES (15, 45, or 135 μmol/L) treatment reduced intracellular lipid droplets. RES treatment also significantly attenuated hepatic steatosis and lowered levels of intracellular triglycerides (TG). Western blot analysis showed that RES enhanced the phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and down-regulated the expression of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c) and lipin1. However, compound C, an AMPK inhibitor, reversed these effects of RES. In conclusion, RES reduced lipid accumulation and protected HepG2 cells. This effect may be associated with the down-regulation of SREBP-1c and lipin1 expression, increased levels of phosphorylated AMPK and ACC, and the activation of AMPK–lipin1 signaling.

Preclinical Models for Investigation of Herbal Medicines in Liver Diseases: Update and Perspective

Liver disease results from a dynamic pathological process associated with cellular and genetic alterations, which may progress stepwise to liver dysfunction. Commonly, liver disease begins with hepatocyte injury, followed by persistent episodes of cellular regeneration, inflammation, and hepatocyte death that may ultimately lead to nonreversible liver failure. For centuries, herbal remedies have been used for a variety of liver diseases and recent studies have identified the active compounds that may interact with liver disease-associated targets. Further study on the herbal remedies may lead to the formulation of next generation medicines with hepatoprotective, antifibrotic, and anticancer properties. Still, the pharmacological actions of vast majority of herbal remedies remain unknown; thus, extensive preclinical studies are important. In this review, we summarize progress made over the last five years of the most commonly used preclinical models of liver diseases that are used to screen for curative herbal medicines for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, liver fibrosis/cirrhosis, and liver. We also summarize the proposed mechanisms associated with the observed liver-protective, antifibrotic, and anticancer actions of several promising herbal medicines and discuss the challenges faced in this research field.

Regulation of AMP-activated protein kinase by natural and synthetic activators

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a sensor of cellular energy status that is almost universally expressed in eukaryotic cells. While it appears to have evolved in single-celled eukaryotes to regulate energy balance in a cell-autonomous manner, during the evolution of multicellular animals its role has become adapted so that it also regulates energy balance at the whole body level, by responding to hormones that act primarily on the hypothalamus. AMPK monitors energy balance at the cellular level by sensing the ratios of AMP/ATP and ADP/ATP, and recent structural analyses of the AMPK heterotrimer that have provided insight into the complex mechanisms for these effects will be discussed. Given the central importance of energy balance in diseases that are major causes of morbidity or death in humans, such as type 2 diabetes, cancer and inflammatory disorders, there has been a major drive to develop pharmacological activators of AMPK. Many such activators have been described, and the various mechanisms by which these activate AMPK will be discussed. A particularly large class of AMPK activators are natural products of plants derived from traditional herbal medicines. While the mechanism by which most of these activate AMPK has not yet been addressed, I will argue that many of them may be defensive compounds produced by plants to deter infection by pathogens or grazing by insects or herbivores, and that many of them will turn out to be inhibitors of mitochondrial function.

Per-Arnt-Sim Kinase (PASK): An Emerging Regulator of Mammalian Glucose and Lipid Metabolism

Per-Arnt-Sim Kinase (PASK) is an evolutionarily-conserved nutrient-responsive protein kinase that regulates lipid and glucose metabolism, mitochondrial respiration, phosphorylation, and gene expression. Recent data suggests that mammalian PAS kinase is involved in glucose metabolism and acts on pancreatic islet α/β cells and glycogen synthase (GS), affecting insulin secretion and blood glucose levels. In addition, PASK knockout mice (PASK-/-) are protected from obesity, liver triglyceride accumulation, and insulin resistance when fed a high-fat diet, implying that PASK may be a new target for metabolic syndrome (MetS) treatment as well as the cellular nutrients and energy sensors—adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and the targets of rapamycin (m-TOR). In this review, we will briefly summarize the regulation of PASK on mammalian glucose and lipid metabolism and its possible mechanism, and further explore the potential targets for MetS therapy.

An evidence-based update on the pharmacological activities and possible molecular targets of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides

Lycium barbarum berries, also named wolfberry, Fructus lycii, and Goji berries, have been used in the People’s Republic of China and other Asian countries for more than 2,000 years as a traditional medicinal herb and food supplement. L. barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are the primary active components of L. barbarum berries and have been reported to possess a wide array of pharmacological activities. Herein, we update our knowledge on the main pharmacological activities and possible molecular targets of LBPs. Several clinical studies in healthy subjects show that consumption of wolfberry juice improves general wellbeing and immune functions. LBPs are reported to have antioxidative and antiaging properties in different models. LBPs show antitumor activities against various types of cancer cells and inhibit tumor growth in nude mice through induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. LBPs may potentiate the efficacy of lymphokine activated killer/interleukin-2 combination therapy in cancer patients. LBPs exhibit significant hypoglycemic effects and insulin-sensitizing activity by increasing glucose metabolism and insulin secretion and promoting pancreatic β-cell proliferation. They protect retinal ganglion cells in experimental models of glaucoma. LBPs protect the liver from injuries due to exposure to toxic chemicals or other insults. They also show potent immunoenhancing activities in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, LBPs protect against neuronal injury and loss induced by β-amyloid peptide, glutamate excitotoxicity, ischemic/reperfusion, and other neurotoxic insults. LBPs ameliorate the symptoms of mice with Alzheimer’s disease and enhance neurogenesis in the hippocampus and subventricular zone, improving learning and memory abilities. They reduce irradiation- or chemotherapy-induced organ toxicities. LBPs are beneficial to male reproduction by increasing the quality, quantity, and motility of sperm, improving sexual performance, and protecting the testis against toxic insults. Moreover, LBPs exhibit hypolipidemic, cardioprotective, antiviral, and antiinflammatory activities. There is increasing evidence from preclinical and clinical studies supporting the therapeutic and health-promoting effects of LBPs, but further mechanistic and clinical studies are warranted to establish the dose–response relationships and safety profiles of LBPs.