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McGuirt AF, Brezing CA. Opioid-induced hypogonadism in opioid use disorder, its role in negative reinforcement, and implications for treatment and retention. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2024; 50:132-138. [PMID: 38320237 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2023.2292012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Hypogonadism is a highly prevalent complication of chronic opioid use associated with a constellation of affective, algesic, and cognitive symptoms as well as decreased quality of life. Given that the mainstays of pharmacologic opioid use disorder (OUD) treatment - methadone and buprenorphine - are themselves agonists or partial agonists at the mu opioid receptor, opioid-induced hypogonadism (OIH) remains an underappreciated clinical concern throughout the course of OUD treatment. Prominent theoretical frameworks for OUD emphasize the importance of negative reinforcement and hyperkatifeia, defined as the heightened salience of negative emotional and motivational states brought on by chronic opioid use. In this perspective article, we highlight the striking parallels between the symptom domains of hyperfakifeia and hypogonadism in males, who comprise the vast majority of existing clinical research on OIH. By extension we propose that future research and ultimately clinical care should focus on the identification and treatment of OIH in OUD patients to help address the longstanding paradox of poor treatment retention despite efficacious therapies, particularly in the setting of the current opioid overdose epidemic driven by high potency synthetic opioids such as fentanyl. We then review evidence from chronic pain patients that testosterone replacement provides clinically significant benefits to men with OIH. Finally, using this framework, we compare extant OUD therapeutics and discuss critical gaps in the clinical literature-including the relative dearth of data regarding hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal function in females who use opioids-where future study should be focused.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery F McGuirt
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Christina A Brezing
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
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2
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Kelly AM, Thompson RR. Testosterone facilitates nonreproductive, context-appropriate pro- and anti-social behavior in female and male Mongolian gerbils. Horm Behav 2023; 156:105436. [PMID: 37776832 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2023.105436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
A growing body of literature suggests that testosterone (T) rapidly modulates behavior in a context-specific manner. However, the timescales in which T can rapidly mediate distinct types of behavior, such as pro- vs. anti- social responses, has not been studied. Thus, here we examined acute T influences on social behavior in male and female Mongolian gerbils in nonreproductive contexts. Females and males received an injection of either saline or T and were first tested in a social interaction test with a same-sex, familiar peer. 5 min after the peer interaction, subjects then underwent a resident-intruder test with a novel, same-sex conspecific. After another 5 min, gerbils were tested in a novel object task to test context-specificity (i.e., social vs. nonsocial) of T effects on behavior. Within 1 h, males and females injected with T exhibited more huddling with a peer but more active avoidance of and less time spent in proximity of an intruder than did animals injected with saline. T effects on behavior were specific to social contexts, such that T did not influence investigation of the novel object. Together these findings show that T rapidly promotes pro-social responses to a familiar peer and anti-social responses to an intruder in the same individuals within 5 min of experiencing these disparate social contexts. This demonstrates that T rapidly facilitates behavior in a context-appropriate manner outside the context of reproduction and reveals that rapid effects of T on behavior are not restricted to males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aubrey M Kelly
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Richmond R Thompson
- Division of Social Sciences, Oxford College of Emory University, 801 Emory Street, Oxford, GA 30054, USA
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3
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Gomes GK, de Branco FMS, Santos HO, Pereira JL, Orsatti FL, de Oliveira EP. Cholesterol intake and serum total cholesterol levels are not associated with total testosterone levels in men: a cross-sectional study from NHANES 2013-2014. Lipids Health Dis 2023; 22:168. [PMID: 37798611 PMCID: PMC10552423 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-023-01928-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Testosterone (T) is an anabolic hormone crucial to the structure and function of skeletal muscle. Testosterone is partially synthesized from cholesterol, but little is known about the relationship of cholesterol intake and serum cholesterol with T levels. AIM To investigate whether cholesterol intake and serum total cholesterol (TC) levels are associated with serum total testosterone (TT) levels in men. METHODS A cross-sectional study enrolling 1996 men aged 20 to 80 years from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2013-2014 was carried out. Diet assessment was performed using two 24-h food recalls, and TT levels were measured by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Regression analyses were performed to evaluate whether TT was associated with cholesterol intake and serum TC levels. RESULTS Neither cholesterol intake nor serum TC levels were associated with TT levels in unadjusted and adjusted analyses (adjustment for energy, total fat and alcohol intake, smoking, age, physical activity, family income, marital status, race, educational level, diabetes, hypertension, and body mass index). CONCLUSION Dietary cholesterol intake and TC levels are not associated with TT levels in men from the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gederson K Gomes
- Laboratory of Nutrition, Exercise and Health (LaNES), School of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia (UFU), Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, 38400902, Brazil
| | - Flávia M S de Branco
- Laboratory of Nutrition, Exercise and Health (LaNES), School of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia (UFU), Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, 38400902, Brazil
| | - Heitor O Santos
- Laboratory of Nutrition, Exercise and Health (LaNES), School of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia (UFU), Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, 38400902, Brazil
| | - Jaqueline L Pereira
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo - SP, Brazil
| | - Fábio L Orsatti
- Exercise Biology Research Group (BioEx), Federal University of Triangulo Mineiro (UFTM), Uberaba, MG, Brazil
- Department of Sport Sciences, Federal University of Triangulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, Brazil
| | - Erick P de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Nutrition, Exercise and Health (LaNES), School of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia (UFU), Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, 38400902, Brazil.
- School of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia (UFU), Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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4
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Li H, Li N, Lu Q, Yang J, Zhao J, Zhu Q, Yi S, Fu W, Luo T, Tang J, Zhang Y, Yang G, Liu Z, Xu J, Chen W, Zhu J. Chronic alcohol-induced dysbiosis of the gut microbiota and gut metabolites impairs sperm quality in mice. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1042923. [PMID: 36532416 PMCID: PMC9751024 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1042923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 08/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies have indicated that the ethanol exposure impairs the gut microbiota, At the same time, high levels of alcohol exposure damage sperm in mice. However, whether the gut microbiota is involved in mediating the effects of alcohol on sperm quality remains unclear. This study aimed to assess the effect of chronic alcohol consumption on intestinal microbiota in mice and analyze the potential pathophysiological effect of altered intestinal microbiota on sperm quality. We established a mouse model of chronic alcohol consumption by allowing male C57 mice to freely ingest 10% ethanol for 10 weeks, and collected the fecal microbiota of the male mice in the chronic drinking group (alcohol) and the control group (control) and transplanted the specimens into the transplant groups (the alcohol-fecal microbiota transplantation [FMT] group and the control-FMT group). Sperm quality was significantly decreased in the alcohol-FMT group compared with the control-FMT group. Gut microbiota analysis revealed that the abundance of 11 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) was altered in the alcohol-FMT group. Nontargeted metabolomics identified 105 differentially altered metabolites, which were mainly annotated to amino acids, lipids, glycerophosphoethanolamine, organic oxygenic compounds, organic acids and their derivatives, steroids, and flavonoids. In particular, the oxidative phosphorylation pathway, which is the key to spermatogenesis, was significantly enriched in the alcohol-FMT group. Moreover, compared with the control-FMT group, the alcohol-FMT group presented significantly higher serum endotoxin and inflammatory cytokine levels, with more pronounced T cell and macrophage infiltration in the intestinal lamina propria and elevated levels of testicular inflammatory cytokines. In addition, RNA sequencing showed significant differences in the expression of testis-related genes between the alcohol-FMT group and the control-FMT group. In particular, the expression of genes involved in gamete meiosis, testicular mitochondrial function, and the cell division cycle was significantly reduced in alcohol-FMT mice. In conclusion, these findings indicated that intestinal dysbiosis induced by chronic alcohol consumption may be an important factor contributing to impaired sperm quality. Chronic alcohol consumption induces intestinal dysbiosis, which then leads to metabolic disorders, elevated serum endotoxin and inflammatory cytokine levels, testicular inflammation, abnormal expression of related genes, and ultimately, impaired sperm quality. These findings are potentially useful for the treatment of male infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Li
- Department of Ultrasound, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ningshan Li
- Department of Ultrasound, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qudong Lu
- Department of Urology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jun Yang
- Department of Ultrasound, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jiang Zhao
- Department of Urology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qiong Zhu
- Department of Ultrasound, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shanhong Yi
- Department of Urology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Weihua Fu
- Department of Urology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Tingting Luo
- Department of Ultrasound, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jiawei Tang
- Department of Ultrasound, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Ultrasound, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Guoliang Yang
- Department of Ultrasound, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zheng Liu
- Department of Ultrasound, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jie Xu
- Department of Urology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Urology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jingzhen Zhu
- Department of Urology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Sharp JL, Pearson T, Smith MA. Sex differences in opioid receptor mediated effects: Role of androgens. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 134:104522. [PMID: 34995646 PMCID: PMC8872632 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Revised: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
An abundance of data indicates there are sex differences in endogenous opioid peptides and opioid receptors, leading to functional differences in sensitivity to opioid receptor mediated behaviors between males and females. Many of these sex differences are mediated by the effects of gonadal hormones on the endogenous opioid system. Whereas much research has examined the role of ovarian hormones on opioid receptor mediated endpoints, comparatively less research has examined the role of androgens. This review describes what is currently known regarding the influence of androgens on opioid receptor mediated endpoints and how androgens may contribute to sex differences in these effects. The review also addresses the clinical implications of androgenic modulation of opioid receptor mediated behaviors and suggests future lines of research for preclinical and clinical investigators. We conclude that further investigation into androgenic modulation of opioid receptor mediated effects may lead to new options for addressing conditions such as chronic pain and substance use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Sharp
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Davidson College, United States
| | - Tallia Pearson
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Davidson College, United States
| | - Mark A Smith
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Davidson College, United States.
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6
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The Effect of Whole Egg Intake on Muscle Mass: Are the Yolk and Its Nutrients Important? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2021; 31:514-521. [PMID: 34504041 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Whole egg may have potential benefits for enhancing muscle mass, independent of its protein content. The yolk comprises ∼40% of the total protein in an egg, as well as containing several nonprotein nutrients that could possess anabolic properties (e.g., microRNAs, vitamins, minerals, lipids, phosphatidic acid and other phospholipids). Therefore, the purpose of this narrative review is to discuss the current evidence as to the possible effects of egg yolk compounds on skeletal muscle accretion beyond those of egg whites alone. The intake of whole egg seems to promote greater myofibrillar protein synthesis than egg white intake in young men. However, limited evidence shows no difference in muscle hypertrophy when comparing the consumption of whole egg versus an isonitrogenous quantity of egg white in young men performing resistance training. Although egg yolk intake seems to promote additional acute increases on myofibrillar protein synthesis, it does not seem to further enhance muscle mass when compared to egg whites when consumed as part of a high-protein dietary patterns, at least in young men. This conclusion is based on very limited evidence and more studies are needed to evaluate the effects of egg yolk (or whole eggs) intake on muscle mass not only in young men, but also in other populations such as women, older adults, and individuals with muscle wasting diseases.
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Knight EL, Sarkar A, Prasad S, Mehta PH. Beyond the challenge hypothesis: The emergence of the dual-hormone hypothesis and recommendations for future research. Horm Behav 2020; 123:104657. [PMID: 31863735 PMCID: PMC7311256 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The challenge hypothesis makes specific predictions about the association between testosterone and status-seeking behaviors, but the findings linking testosterone to these behaviors are often inconsistent. The dual-hormone hypothesis was developed to help explain these inconsistencies. Specifically, according to this hypothesis, testosterone's association with status-seeking behavior depends on levels of cortisol. Here, we (1) describe the dual-hormone hypothesis in relation to the challenge hypothesis; (2) review recent studies that tested the dual-hormone hypothesis as well as meta-scientific evidence of heterogeneous dual-hormone findings across studies; (3) discuss potential explanations for this heterogeneity, including methodological considerations, contextual factors, and individual differences; and (4) provide recommendations for new work aimed at testing and extending the dual-hormone hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik L Knight
- Center for Healthy Aging, Pennsylvania State University, United States of America; Department of Biobehavioral Health, Pennsylvania State University, United States of America.
| | - Amar Sarkar
- Trinity College, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom; Leverhulme Centre for Human Evolutionary Studies, Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Smrithi Prasad
- Marshall School of Business, University of Southern California, United States of America
| | - Pranjal H Mehta
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, United Kingdom
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8
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Woodcock EA, Zakiniaeiz Y, Morris ED, Cosgrove KP. Sex and the dopaminergic system: Insights from addiction studies. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2020; 175:141-165. [PMID: 33008522 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64123-6.00011-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences are present in psychiatric disorders associated with disrupted dopamine function, and thus, sex differences in dopamine neurobiology may underlie these clinical disparities. In this chapter, we review sex differences in the dopaminergic system with a focus on substance use disorders, especially tobacco smoking, as our exemplar disorder. This chapter is organized into five sections describing sex differences in the dopaminergic system: (1) neurobiology, (2) role of sex hormones, (3) genetic underpinnings, (4) cognitive function, and (5) influence on addiction. In each section, we provide an overview of the topic area, summarize sex differences identified to date, highlight addiction research, especially clinical neuroimaging studies, and suggest avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A Woodcock
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Yale Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Yasmin Zakiniaeiz
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Yale Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Evan D Morris
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States; Invicro, LLC, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Kelly P Cosgrove
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Yale Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.
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Tobiansky DJ, Wallin-Miller KG, Floresco SB, Wood RI, Soma KK. Androgen Regulation of the Mesocorticolimbic System and Executive Function. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:279. [PMID: 29922228 PMCID: PMC5996102 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple lines of evidence indicate that androgens, such as testosterone, modulate the mesocorticolimbic system and executive function. This review integrates neuroanatomical, molecular biological, neurochemical, and behavioral studies to highlight how endogenous and exogenous androgens alter behaviors, such as behavioral flexibility, decision making, and risk taking. First, we briefly review the neuroanatomy of the mesocorticolimbic system, which mediates executive function, with a focus on the ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens (NAc), medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). Second, we present evidence that androgen receptors (AR) and other steroid receptors are expressed in the mesocorticolimbic system. Using sensitive immunohistochemistry and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) techniques, ARs are detected in the VTA, NAc, mPFC, and OFC. Third, we describe recent evidence for local androgens ("neuroandrogens") in the mesocorticolimbic system. Steroidogenic enzymes are expressed in mesocorticolimbic regions. Furthermore, following long-term gonadectomy, testosterone is nondetectable in the blood but detectable in the mesocorticolimbic system, using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. However, the physiological relevance of neuroandrogens remains unknown. Fourth, we review how anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) influence the mesocorticolimbic system. Fifth, we describe how androgens modulate the neurochemistry and structure of the mesocorticolimbic system, particularly with regard to dopaminergic signaling. Finally, we discuss evidence that androgens influence executive functions, including the effects of androgen deprivation therapy and AAS. Taken together, the evidence indicates that androgens are critical modulators of executive function. Similar to dopamine signaling, there might be optimal levels of androgen signaling within the mesocorticolimbic system for executive functioning. Future studies should examine the regulation and functions of neurosteroids in the mesocorticolimbic system, as well as the potential deleterious and enduring effects of AAS use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J. Tobiansky
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- *Correspondence: Daniel J. Tobiansky,
| | - Kathryn G. Wallin-Miller
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Stan B. Floresco
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Ruth I. Wood
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Kiran K. Soma
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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10
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Grönbladh A, Nylander E, Hallberg M. The neurobiology and addiction potential of anabolic androgenic steroids and the effects of growth hormone. Brain Res Bull 2016; 126:127-137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Wallin-Miller K, Li G, Kelishani D, Wood RI. Anabolic-androgenic steroids decrease dendritic spine density in the nucleus accumbens of male rats. Neuroscience 2016; 330:72-8. [PMID: 27238893 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.05.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Revised: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) modify cognitive processes such as decision making and behavioral flexibility. However, the neural mechanisms underlying these AAS-induced cognitive changes remain poorly understood. The mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) system, particularly the nucleus accumbens (Acb), is important for reward, motivated behavior, and higher cognitive processes such as decision making. Therefore, AAS-induced plasticity in the DA system is a potential structural substrate for the observed cognitive alterations. High doses of testosterone (the most commonly-used AAS) increase dendritic spine density in limbic regions including the amygdala and hippocampus. However, effects on Acb are unknown. This was the focus of the present study. Adolescent male Long-Evans rats were treated chronically for 8weeks with high-dose testosterone (7.5mg/kg in water with 13% cyclodextrin) or vehicle sc. Brains were stained by Golgi-Cox to analyze neuronal morphology in medium spiny neurons of the shell region of Acb (AcbSh). Eightweeks of testosterone treatment significantly decreased spine density in AcbSh compared to brains of vehicle-treated rats (F1,14=5.455, p<0.05). Testosterone did not significantly affect total spine number, dendritic length, or arborization measured by Sholl analysis. These results show that AAS alter neuronal morphology in AcbSh by decreasing spine density throughout the dendritic tree, and provides a potential mechanism for AAS to modify cognition and decision-making behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Wallin-Miller
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
| | - Grace Li
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
| | - Diana Kelishani
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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12
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Mad men, women and steroid cocktails: a review of the impact of sex and other factors on anabolic androgenic steroids effects on affective behaviors. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:549-69. [PMID: 26758282 PMCID: PMC4751878 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4193-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE For several decades, elite athletes and a growing number of recreational consumers have used anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) as performance enhancing drugs. Despite mounting evidence that illicit use of these synthetic steroids has detrimental effects on affective states, information available on sex-specific actions of these drugs is lacking. OBJECTIVES The focus of this review is to assess information to date on the importance of sex and its interaction with other environmental factors on affective behaviors, with an emphasis on data derived from non-human studies. METHODS The PubMed database was searched for relevant studies in both sexes. RESULTS Studies examining AAS use in females are limited, reflecting the lower prevalence of use in this sex. Data, however, indicate significant sex-specific differences in AAS effects on anxiety-like and aggressive behaviors, interactions with other drugs of abuse, and the interplay of AAS with other environmental factors such as diet and exercise. CONCLUSIONS Current methods for assessing AAS use have limitations that suggest biases of both under- and over-reporting, which may be amplified for females who are poorly represented in self-report studies of human subjects and are rarely used in animal studies. Data from animal literature suggest that there are significant sex-specific differences in the impact of AAS on aggression, anxiety, and concomitant use of other abused substances. These results have relevance for human females who take these drugs as performance-enhancing substances and for transgender XX individuals who may illicitly self-administer AAS as they transition to a male gender identity.
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13
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Gauvin DV, Zimmermann ZJ, Baird TJ. Preclinical assessment of abuse liability of biologics: In defense of current regulatory control policies. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 73:43-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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14
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Mhillaj E, Morgese MG, Tucci P, Bove M, Schiavone S, Trabace L. Effects of anabolic-androgens on brain reward function. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:295. [PMID: 26379484 PMCID: PMC4549565 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgens are mainly prescribed to treat several diseases caused by testosterone deficiency. However, athletes try to promote muscle growth by manipulating testosterone levels or assuming androgen anabolic steroids (AAS). These substances were originally synthesized to obtain anabolic effects greater than testosterone. Although AAS are rarely prescribed compared to testosterone, their off-label utilization is very wide. Furthermore, combinations of different steroids and doses generally higher than those used in therapy are common. Symptoms of the chronic use of supra-therapeutic doses of AAS include anxiety, depression, aggression, paranoia, distractibility, confusion, amnesia. Interestingly, some studies have shown that AAS elicited electroencephalographic changes similar to those observed with amphetamine abuse. The frequency of side effects is higher among AAS abusers, with psychiatric complications such as labile mood, lack of impulse control and high violence. On the other hand, AAS addiction studies are complex because data collection is very difficult due to the subjects' reticence and can be biased by many variables, including physical exercise, that alter the reward system. Moreover, it has been reported that AAS may imbalance neurotransmitter systems involved in the reward process, leading to increased sensitivity toward opioid narcotics and central stimulants. The goal of this article is to review the literature on steroid abuse and changes to the reward system in preclinical and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Mhillaj
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome Rome, Italy
| | - Maria G Morgese
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia Foggia, Italy
| | - Paolo Tucci
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia Foggia, Italy
| | - Maria Bove
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome Rome, Italy
| | - Stefania Schiavone
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia Foggia, Italy
| | - Luigia Trabace
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia Foggia, Italy
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15
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Zhao X, Marler CA. Pair bonding prevents reinforcing effects of testosterone in male California mice in an unfamiliar environment. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 281:20140985. [PMID: 24943373 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.0985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Testosterone (T) can be released by stimuli such as social interactions, and thereby influence future social behaviours. Because the reinforcing effects of T can induce preferences for specific environmental locations, T has the potential to alter behaviour through space use. In a monogamous species, this T pulse may contribute differently to space use in sexually naive (SN) and pair-bonded (PB) males: SN males may be more likely to explore new areas to set up a territory than PB males, which are more likely to defend an existing, established territory. In this study, we test for variation in T-driven space use by examining variation in the formation of conditioned place preferences (CPPs) in SN and PB male California mice. In the three-chambered CPP apparatus, subcutaneous administrations of physiological levels of T were used to repeatedly condition SN and PB males to a side chamber, which is an unfamiliar/neutral environment. The final tests revealed that T-induced CPPs in the side chamber are developed in SN, but not PB males. This study fills a gap in our knowledge about plasticity in the rewarding nature of T pulses, based on past social experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhao
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Catherine A Marler
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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16
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Hildebrandt T, Shope S, Varangis E, Klein D, Pfaff DW, Yehuda R. Exercise reinforcement, stress, and β-endorphins: an initial examination of exercise in anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 139:86-92. [PMID: 24690349 PMCID: PMC4039319 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Revised: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are abused primarily in the context of intense exercise and for the purposes of increasing muscle mass as opposed to drug-induced euphoria. AASs also modulate the HPA axis and may increase the reinforcing value of exercise through changes to stress hormone and endorphin release. To test this hypothesis, 26 adult males drawn from a larger study on AAS use completed a progressive ratio task designed to examine the reinforcing value of exercise relative to financial reinforcer. METHOD Sixteen experienced and current users (8 on-cycle, 8 off-cycle) and 10 controls matched on quantity×frequency of exercise, age, and education abstained from exercise for 24 h prior to testing and provided 24-h cortisol, plasma cortisol, ACTH, β-endorphin samples, and measures of mood, compulsive exercise, and body image. RESULTS Between group differences indicated that on-cycle AAS users had the highest β-endorphin levels, lowest cortisol levels, higher ACTH levels than controls. Conversely, off-cycle AAS users had the highest cortisol and ACTH levels, but the lowest β-endorphin levels. Exercise value was positively correlated with β-endorphin and symptoms of AAS dependence. CONCLUSION The HPA response to AASs may explain why AASs are reinforcing in humans and exercise may play a key role in the development of AAS dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Hildebrandt
- Department of Psychiatry, Ichan School of School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Sydney Shope
- Department of Psychiatry, Ichan School of School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - Eleanna Varangis
- Department of Psychiatry, Ichan School of School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - Diane Klein
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University, New York, NY
| | | | - Rachel Yehuda
- Department of Psychiatry, Ichan School of School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY,James J. Peters Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bronx, New York
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17
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Wood RI, Armstrong A, Fridkin V, Shah V, Najafi A, Jakowec M. 'Roid rage in rats? Testosterone effects on aggressive motivation, impulsivity and tyrosine hydroxylase. Physiol Behav 2013; 110-111:6-12. [PMID: 23266798 PMCID: PMC3615053 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2012] [Revised: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 12/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In humans and animals, anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) increase aggression, but the underlying behavioral mechanisms are unclear. AAS may increase the motivation to fight. Alternatively, AAS may increase impulsive behavior, consistent with the popular image of 'roid rage. To test this, adolescent male rats were treated chronically with testosterone (7.5mg/kg) or vehicle and tested for aggressive motivation and impulsivity. Rats were trained to respond on a nose-poke on a 10 min fixed-interval schedule for the opportunity to fight in their home cage with an unfamiliar rat. Although testosterone increased aggression (6.3±1.3 fights/5 min vs 2.4±0.8 for controls, p<0.05), there was no difference in operant responding (28.4±1.6 nose-pokes/10 min for testosterone, 32.4±7.0 for vehicle). This suggests that testosterone does not enhance motivation for aggression. To test for impulsivity, rats were trained to respond for food in a delay-discounting procedure. In an operant chamber, one lever delivered one food pellet immediately, the other lever gave 4 pellets after a delay (0, 15, 30 or 45 s). In testosterone- and vehicle-treated rats, body weights and food intake did not differ. However, testosterone-treated rats chose the larger, delayed reward more often (4.5±0.7 times in 10 trials with 45 s delay) than vehicle controls (2.5±0.5 times, p<0.05), consistent with a reduction in impulsive choice. Thus, although chronic high-dose testosterone enhances aggression, this does not include an increase in impulsive behavior or motivation to fight. This is further supported by measurement of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) by Western immunoblot analysis in brain regions important for motivation (nucleus accumbens, Acb) and executive function (medial prefrontal cortex, PFC). There were no differences in TH between testosterone- and vehicle-treated rats in Acb or PFC. However, testosterone significantly reduced TH (to 76.9±3.1% of controls, p<0.05) in the caudate-putamen, a brain area important for behavioral inhibition, motor control and habit learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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18
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Testosterone dynamics during encounter: role of emotional factors. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2012; 198:485-94. [DOI: 10.1007/s00359-012-0726-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2012] [Revised: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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19
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20
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Wood RI, Vertelkina NV, Antzoulatos E. Testosterone as a discriminative stimulus in male rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 100:185-90. [PMID: 21893083 PMCID: PMC3183107 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Revised: 08/12/2011] [Accepted: 08/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Testosterone and other anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are reinforcing in animals, as determined by conditioned place preference or self-administration. Most drugs of abuse produce subjective effects on mood and perception that initiate and maintain drug taking. Whether AAS have similar effects is not known. Food-restricted male Sprague-Dawley rats (n=9) were tested for their ability to discriminate an injection of testosterone from the β-cyclodextrin vehicle using a standard two-lever operant paradigm. In drug discrimination, animals use the subjective effects of drug or vehicle to select the appropriate lever to obtain food pellets under an FR10 schedule of reinforcement. All rats demonstrated vigorous responding for food (1415.1±76.1 responses/20 min) with 94.9% of responses on the active lever. For the first 30 days, rats received 1mg/kg testosterone sc 30 min before testing. On Day 14, one rat achieved the discrimination criteria of 9/10 consecutive days with >90% responses on the active lever and ≤5 responses on the inactive lever before the first reinforcement. Subsequently, rats were tested with testosterone at different doses (2, 7.5, 15 mg/kg at 30 min before testing) and times (2mg/kg at 30 or 60 min before testing), each for 20 days. One additional rat demonstrated successful discrimination at Day 54 with 2mg/kg testosterone 60 min before testing. The remaining 7 rats failed to discriminate testosterone within 110 days. When analyzed according to less-stringent standards, 4 additional rats met criteria for testosterone discrimination. However, continued performance was not stable. Thus, testosterone was unable to consistently support drug discrimination. We conclude that testosterone does not produce rapid interoceptive effects (NIH DA12843 to RIW).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell & Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo St. BMT 408, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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21
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Mello NK, Knudson IM, Kelly M, Fivel PA, Mendelson JH. Effects of progesterone and testosterone on cocaine self-administration and cocaine discrimination by female rhesus monkeys. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011; 36:2187-99. [PMID: 21796112 PMCID: PMC3176575 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2011] [Revised: 05/25/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The neuroactive steroid hormone progesterone attenuates cocaine's abuse-related effects in women and in rodents under some conditions, but the effects of testosterone are unknown. We compared the acute effects of progesterone (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mg/kg, intramuscularly (i.m.)), testosterone (0.001, 0.003, and 0.01 mg/kg, i.m.), and placebo on cocaine self-administration and cocaine discrimination dose-effect curves in female rhesus monkeys. Cocaine self-administration (0.03 mg/kg per inj.) was maintained on a fixed ratio 30 schedule of reinforcement, and monkeys had unlimited access to cocaine for 2 h each day. Cocaine doses were administered in an irregular order during each dose-effect curve determination, and the same dose order was used in each subject in all treatment conditions. Blood samples for hormone analysis were collected at the end of each test session. Banana-flavored food pellets (1 g) were also available in three 1-h daily sessions. In drug discrimination studies, the effects of pretreatment with progesterone (0.032-0.32 mg/kg, i.m.) and testosterone (0.001-0.01 mg/kg, i.m.) on the discriminative stimulus effects of cocaine (0.18 mg/kg, i.m.) were examined. Progesterone and testosterone did not alter cocaine discrimination, and did not substitute for cocaine. In contrast, progesterone and testosterone each significantly decreased cocaine self-administration, and produced a downward and rightward shift in the cocaine self-administration dose-effect curve. These findings are concordant with clinical reports that progesterone administration may decrease ratings of positive subjective effects of cocaine in women, and suggest the possible value of neuroactive steroid hormones for the treatment of cocaine abuse and reduction of risk for relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy K Mello
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA 02478, USA.
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22
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Eisenegger C, Haushofer J, Fehr E. The role of testosterone in social interaction. Trends Cogn Sci 2011; 15:263-71. [PMID: 21616702 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Revised: 04/11/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Although animal researchers established the role of testosterone as a 'social hormone' decades ago, the investigation of its causal influence on human social behaviors has only recently begun. Here, we review and discuss recent studies showing the causal effects of testosterone on social interactions in animals and humans, and outline the basic neurobiological mechanisms that might underlie these effects. Based on these recent findings, we argue that the role of testosterone in human social behavior might be best understood in terms of the search for, and maintenance of, social status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Eisenegger
- Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Department of Experimental Psychology, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
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23
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Sato SM, Johansen JA, Jordan CL, Wood RI. Membrane androgen receptors may mediate androgen reinforcement. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2010; 35:1063-73. [PMID: 20137860 PMCID: PMC2891198 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2009] [Revised: 11/13/2009] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) abuse is widespread. Moreover, AAS are reinforcing, as shown by self-administration in rodents. However, the receptors that transduce the reinforcing effects of AAS are unclear. AAS may bind to classical nuclear androgen receptors (ARs) or membrane receptors. We used two approaches to examine the role of nuclear ARs in AAS self-administration. First, we tested androgen self-administration in rats with the testicular feminization mutation (Tfm), which interferes with androgen binding. If nuclear ARs are essential for AAS self-administration, Tfm males should not self-administer androgens. Tfm males and wild-type (WT) littermates self-administered the non-aromatizable androgen dihydrotestosterone (DHT) or vehicle intracerebroventricularly (ICV) at fixed-ratio (FR) schedules up to FR5. Both Tfm and WT rats acquired a preference for the active nose-poke during DHT self-administration (66.4+/-9.6 responses/4 h for Tfm and 79.2+/-11.5 for WT responses/4 h), and nose-pokes increased as the FR requirement increased. Preference scores were significantly lower in rats self-administering vehicle (42.3+/-5.3 responses/4 h for Tfm and 19.1+/-4.0 responses/4 h for WT). We also tested self-administration of DHT conjugated to bovine serum albumin (BSA) at C3 and C17, which is limited to actions at the cell surface. Hamsters were allowed to self-administer DHT, BSA and DHT-BSA conjugates for 15 days at FR1. The hamsters showed a significant preference for DHT (18.0+/-4.1 responses/4 h) or DHT-BSA conjugates (10.0+/-3.7 responses/4 h and 21.0+/-7.2 responses/4 h), but not for BSA (2.5+/-2.4 responses/4 h). Taken together, these data demonstrate that nuclear ARs are not required for androgen self-administration. Furthermore, androgen self-administration may be mediated by plasma membrane receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoru M. Sato
- Department of Cell & Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033
| | - Jamie A. Johansen
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Cynthia L. Jordan
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824,Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Ruth I. Wood
- Department of Cell & Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033
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24
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Effects of exogenous testosterone on the ventral striatal BOLD response during reward anticipation in healthy women. Neuroimage 2010; 52:277-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2010] [Revised: 04/02/2010] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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25
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Kanayama G, Brower KJ, Wood RI, Hudson JI, Pope HG. Treatment of anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence: Emerging evidence and its implications. Drug Alcohol Depend 2010; 109:6-13. [PMID: 20188494 PMCID: PMC2875348 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2009] [Revised: 01/05/2010] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Currently, few users of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) seek substance abuse treatment. But this picture may soon change substantially, because illicit AAS use did not become widespread until the 1980s, and consequently the older members of this AAS-using population - those who initiated AAS as youths in the 1980s - are only now reaching middle age. Members of this group, especially those who have developed AAS dependence, may therefore be entering the age of risk for cardiac and psychoneuroendocrine complications sufficient to motivate them for substance abuse treatment. We suggest that this treatment should address at least three etiologic mechanisms by which AAS dependence might develop. First, individuals with body image disorders such as "muscle dysmorphia" may become dependent on AAS for their anabolic effects; these body image disorders may respond to psychological therapies or pharmacological treatments. Second, AAS suppress the male hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis via their androgenic effects, potentially causing hypogonadism during AAS withdrawal. Men experiencing prolonged dysphoric effects or frank major depression from hypogonadism may desire to resume AAS, thus contributing to AAS dependence. AAS-induced hypogonadism may require treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin or clomiphene to reactivate neuroendocrine function, and may necessitate antidepressant treatments in cases of depression inadequately responsive to endocrine therapies alone. Third, human and animal evidence indicates that AAS also possess hedonic effects, which likely promote dependence via mechanisms shared with classical addictive drugs, especially opioids. Indeed, the opioid antagonist naltrexone blocks AAS dependence in animals. By inference, pharmacological and psychosocial treatments for human opioid dependence might also benefit AAS-dependent individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gen Kanayama
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States 02478 USA
| | - Kirk J. Brower
- University of Michigan Addiction Research Center, 4250 Plymouth Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-5740 USA
| | - Ruth I. Wood
- Department of Cell & Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA
| | - James I. Hudson
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States 02478 USA
| | - Harrison G. Pope
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States 02478 USA
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26
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Parrilla-Carrero J, Figueroa O, Lugo A, García-Sosa R, Brito-Vargas P, Cruz B, Rivera M, Barreto-Estrada JL. The anabolic steroids testosterone propionate and nandrolone, but not 17alpha-methyltestosterone, induce conditioned place preference in adult mice. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009; 100:122-7. [PMID: 19028026 PMCID: PMC2671726 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2008] [Revised: 08/17/2008] [Accepted: 09/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are often misused by adolescents and athletes. Their effects vary according to chemical structure and metabolism, route of administration, and AAS regimen. In this study, adult C57Bl/6 male mice were systemically exposed to testosterone propionate (TP), nandrolone or 17alpha-methyltestosterone (17alpha-meT), type I, type II and type III AAS, respectively, in order to determine the hedonic or aversive properties of each drug. For this purpose, the conditioned place preference (CPP) test was employed at three different AAS doses (0.075, 0.75 and 7.5 mg/kg). Other behavioral domains monitored were light-dark transitions (side changes) and general activity. TP shifted place preference at all doses tested, and nandrolone shifted place preference at 0.75 and 7.5 mg/kg, but not at 0.075 mg/kg, the lower dose tested. Conversely, mice receiving 17alpha-meT did not show alteration in the preference score. The lower dose of nandrolone did modify exploratory-based anxiety showing a decrease in light-dark transitions if compared to vehicle-treated animals, while mice treated with TP or 17alpha-meT were not affected. Our data suggest that when studying hedonic and rewarding properties of synthetic androgens, distinction has to be made based on type of AAS and metabolism.
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Wood RI. Anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence? Insights from animals and humans. Front Neuroendocrinol 2008; 29:490-506. [PMID: 18275992 PMCID: PMC2585375 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2007.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2007] [Revised: 12/21/2007] [Accepted: 12/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are drugs of abuse. They are taken in large quantities by athletes and others to increase performance, with negative health consequences. As a result, in 1991 testosterone and related AAS were declared controlled substances. However, the relative abuse and dependence liability of AAS have not been fully characterized. In humans, it is difficult to separate the direct psychoactive effects of AAS from reinforcement due to their systemic anabolic effects. However, using conditioned place preference and self-administration, studies in animals have demonstrated that AAS are reinforcing in a context where athletic performance is irrelevant. Furthermore, AAS share brain sites of action and neurotransmitter systems in common with other drugs of abuse. In particular, recent evidence links AAS with opioids. In humans, AAS abuse is associated with prescription opioid use. In animals, AAS overdose produces symptoms resembling opioid overdose, and AAS modify the activity of the endogenous opioid system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell & Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo Street, BMT 401, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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28
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Coping with competition: neuroendocrine responses and cognitive variables. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008; 33:160-70. [PMID: 18845183 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2008] [Revised: 09/07/2008] [Accepted: 09/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Confronting another individual or group motivated by the same goal is a very frequent situation in human communities that occurs in many other species. Competitive interactions emerge as critical situations that shed light on the effects and consequences of social stress on health. But more important than the situation itself is the way it is interpreted by the subject. This "appraisal" involves cognitive processes that contribute to explaining the neuroendocrine response to these interactions, helping to understanding the vulnerability or resistance to their effects. In this review, we defend the need to study human competition within the social stress framework, while maintaining an evolutionary perspective, and taking advantage of the theoretical and methodological advances in psychology and psychophysiology in order to better understand the cognitive processes underlying the social stress response in humans.
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Macció DR, Fozzatti L, Ditamo Y, Masini-Repiso AM, Roth GA. Nitric oxide mediates the suppressive effect of testosterone on cell proliferative response to myelin basic protein. J Neuroimmunol 2008; 199:63-6. [PMID: 18579221 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2008.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2008] [Revised: 04/18/2008] [Accepted: 05/12/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study assessed whether the in vitro effect of testosterone on the proliferative response of mononuclear cells to myelin basic protein (MBP) could be mediated by nitric oxide (NO). Testosterone but not cholesterol supplementation specifically suppressed the proliferative response of rat mononuclear cells to MBP and in parallel increased the NO level. NG-monomethyl 1-l-arginine, an inhibitor of NO synthesis, reverted the suppression of the testosterone-induced proliferative response to MBP. These results indicate that changes in the production of NO by testosterone are able to alter the specific T cell proliferation induced by the encephalitogenic MBP and in this way; it could be one of the molecular mechanisms that modulate the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela R Macció
- Departamento de Química Biológica - Centro de Investigaciones en Química Biológica de Córdoba (CIQUIBIC-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
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30
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Sato SM, Schulz KM, Sisk CL, Wood RI. Adolescents and androgens, receptors and rewards. Horm Behav 2008; 53:647-58. [PMID: 18343381 PMCID: PMC2435368 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2007] [Revised: 01/24/2008] [Accepted: 01/25/2008] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Adolescence is associated with increases in pleasure-seeking behaviors, which, in turn, are shaped by the pubertal activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis. In animal models of naturally rewarding behaviors, such as sex, testicular androgens contribute to the development and expression of the behavior in males. To effect behavioral maturation, the brain undergoes significant remodeling during adolescence, and many of the changes are likewise sensitive to androgens, presumably acting through androgen receptors (AR). Given the delicate interaction of gonadal hormones and brain development, it is no surprise that disruption of hormone levels during this sensitive period significantly alters adolescent and adult behaviors. In male hamsters, exposure to testosterone during adolescence is required for normal expression of adult sexual behavior. Males deprived of androgens during puberty display sustained deficits in mating. Conversely, androgens alone are not sufficient to induce mating in prepubertal males, even though brain AR are present before puberty. In this context, wide-spread use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) during adolescence is a significant concern. AAS abuse has the potential to alter both the timing and the levels of androgens in adolescent males. In hamsters, adolescent AAS exposure increases aggression, and causes lasting changes in neurotransmitter systems. In addition, AAS are themselves reinforcing, as demonstrated by self-administration of testosterone and other AAS. However, recent evidence suggests that the reinforcing effects of androgens may not require classical AR. Therefore, further examination of interactions between androgens and rewarding behaviors in the adolescent brain is required for a better understanding of AAS abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoru M. Sato
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033
| | - Kalynn M. Schulz
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Cheryl L. Sisk
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Ruth I. Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033
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Nyby JG. Reflexive testosterone release: a model system for studying the nongenomic effects of testosterone upon male behavior. Front Neuroendocrinol 2008; 29:199-210. [PMID: 17976710 PMCID: PMC2443938 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2007.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2007] [Revised: 08/27/2007] [Accepted: 09/25/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Male mammals of many species exhibit reflexive testosterone release in mating situations. In house mice (Mus musculus), the dramatic robustness of such release, occurring primarily in response to a novel female, suggests some function. The resulting testosterone elevations typically peak during copulatory behavior and may serve to activate transitory motivational and physiological responses that facilitate reproduction. However, such a function requires that testosterone be working through either nongenomic, or very quick genomic, mechanisms. The first part of the review describes reflexive sex hormone release in house mice. The second part summarizes research implicating testosterone's fast actions in affecting anxiety, reward, learning, analgesia, and penile reflexes in rodents, all of which could optimize male mating success. The review concludes with a speculative model of how spontaneous and reflexive hormone release might interact to regulate reproductive behavior and why mice appear to be an ideal species for examining testosterone's quick effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- John G Nyby
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, 111 Research Drive, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA.
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Triemstra JL, Sato SM, Wood RI. Testosterone and nucleus accumbens dopamine in the male Syrian hamster. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008; 33:386-94. [PMID: 18249072 PMCID: PMC2275113 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2007] [Revised: 12/14/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Most drugs of abuse increase dopamine (DA) in nucleus accumbens (Acb). However, the effects of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) on Acb DA have not been examined. We determined the effects of subcutaneous (sc) testosterone (T) on Acb DA in male hamsters. The effects of sc amphetamine were also examined for comparison. In addition, Acb DA was evaluated during intracerebroventricular (ICV) T infusion, designed to mimic T intake during ICV T self-administration in drug-naïve and drug-preexposed animals. Acb DA was measured using in vivo microdialysis and HPLC-EC. T (7.5 or 37.5 mg/kg), amphetamine (1 or 5 mg/kg), or vehicle was injected sc and Acb DA monitored for 4h. In the ICV experiment, T (1 or 2 microg/infusion) or vehicle was infused ICV every 6 min for 4h and Acb DA monitored. ICV T preexposure was accomplished by repeating the same ICV T infusion (1 microg/infusion) daily for 14 days, and T infusion was accompanied by microdialysis on 15th day. Neither sc nor ICV T administration increased Acb DA. At high dose (2 microg/infusion), ICV T decreased Acb DA. Likewise, daily ICV infusion of T for 15 days did not alter Acb DA. In contrast, sc amphetamine significantly increased Acb DA at both doses. Therefore, unlike many drugs of abuse, AAS does not increase Acb DA levels. The reduction in DA at high T doses is likely due to autonomic depressant effects of AAS. We suggest that AAS act via mechanism distinct from those of stimulants, but may share neural substrates with other drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ruth I. Wood
- *Address all reprint requests and correspondence to: Ruth I. Wood, Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo St. BMT 401, Los Angeles, CA 90033, Telephone (323) 442-1980, Fax: (323) 442-3466, e-mail:
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Mello NK, Negus SS, Knudson IM, Kelly M, Mendelson JH. Effects of estradiol on cocaine self-administration and cocaine discrimination by female rhesus monkeys. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008; 33:783-95. [PMID: 17507915 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The ovarian steroid hormone, estradiol, enhances the reinforcing and locomotor activating effects of cocaine in rodents under some conditions. The present study evaluated the acute effects of estradiol benzoate (E(2)beta) on cocaine self-administration and cocaine discrimination in female rhesus monkeys. Cocaine self-administration (0.10 mg/kg/inj., i.v.) was maintained on a fixed-ratio (FR) 30 schedule of reinforcement, and monkeys had access to cocaine during one 2-h session each day. E(2)beta in a cyclodextrin vehicle (0.00001-0.01 mg/kg, i.m.) was administered 30 min before test sessions conducted twice each week. Cocaine doses were administered in an irregular order during each dose-effect curve determination (0.001-0.3 mg/kg/inj.). Blood samples were collected after test sessions to determine 17beta-estradiol levels. Banana-flavored food pellets were available on an FR 30 schedule in three 1-h sessions each day. Five monkeys were trained to discriminate cocaine (0.18 mg/kg, i.m.) from saline in a two-key food-reinforced procedure, and the effects of pretreatment with E(2)beta in cyclodextrin and in sesame oil were studied. Acute administration of E(2)beta did not consistently alter the cocaine self-administration or drug discrimination dose-effect curves in comparison to saline control treatment. Females also did not self-administer E(2)beta (0.00001-0.10 mg/kg, i.v.) above saline levels. Finally, E(2)beta (0.0001-0.01 mg/kg, i.m.) did not substitute for cocaine in monkeys trained to discriminate cocaine from saline. Taken together, these data suggest that over the dose range studied, estradiol administration does not consistently alter the abuse-related effects of cocaine in female rhesus monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy K Mello
- Department of Psychiatry, Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center, Harvard Medical School-McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA.
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Frye CA, Babson A, Walf AA. Self-administration of 3α-androstanediol increases locomotion and analgesia and decreases aggressive behavior of male hamsters. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 86:415-21. [PMID: 16828856 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2006] [Revised: 04/20/2006] [Accepted: 05/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Androgens, such as testosterone (T), can have reinforcing effect, which may be due in part to actions of T's metabolite, 3alpha-androstanediol (3alpha-diol). To investigate rewarding effects of 3alpha-diol, gonadally intact adult male hamsters were given a two-bottle choice test to determine the amount of 3alpha-diol that would be self-administered over 4 days of exposure. After 2 days of habituation and 4 days of monitoring of consumption, hamsters were tested in an activity monitor and the open field (locomotion/exploration), paw lick (analgesia) and resident-intruder (aggression) tasks. Hamsters consumed significantly more 3alpha-diol than vehicle in the two-bottle choice test. Hamsters that were allowed to self-administer 3alpha-diol made significantly more beam breaks and total entries in the open field had increased latencies to pawlick, and engaged in significantly fewer attacks, than did hamsters with access to vehicle alone. Hamsters that self-administered 3alpha-diol had higher levels of 3alpha-diol in serum, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, striatum and midbrain than did hamsters with access to vehicle alone. Together, these data suggest that 3alpha-diol may have rewarding effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl A Frye
- Department of Psychology, The University at Albany-SUNY, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222, USA.
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Frye CA. Some rewarding effects of androgens may be mediated by actions of its 5alpha-reduced metabolite 3alpha-androstanediol. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2006; 86:354-67. [PMID: 17112575 PMCID: PMC1857333 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2006] [Revised: 07/24/2006] [Accepted: 10/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The abuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AS) is a growing problem; however, the effects and mechanisms underlying their addictive effects are not well understood. Research findings regarding androgen abuse in people and hedonic effects of androgens in laboratory rats are reviewed. Androgens, like other steroids, can have traditional actions via cognate intracellular steroid receptors, as well as other substrates. Our recent results indicate that testosterone (T) metabolites may have actions in part via gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)(A)/benzodiazepine receptor complexes (GBRs) and/or dopaminergic neurons in the nucleus accumbens, to mediate T's positive hedonic states. This may provide the basis for positive reinforcing effects of androgen seeking and use behavior. Following a comprehensive review of the background literature, our findings are presented that have explored the extent to which metabolites of T mediate euphorogenic effects of androgens by acting in the nucleus accumbens. Then results regarding whether GBRs are necessary substrates for androgens' positive hedonic effects are discussed. Lastly, research that addresses if dopaminergic neurons in the nucleus accumbens are necessary for these effects of androgens are discussed. This review provides a comprehensive examination of the hedonic properties and abuse/addiction potential of androgens and the putative mechanisms underlying these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl A Frye
- Department of Psychology, Centers for Neuroscience and Life Sciences Research Building, Room 1058, The University at Albany-State University of New York, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222, USA.
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Anabolic Steroid Abuse. J Addict Dis 2006. [DOI: 10.1300/j069v25s01_04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Abstract
Physicians are not immune to the rising popularity of anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) abuse. We present three cases of physician-patients who recently required inpatient substance abuse treatment stemming from the abuse of AAS or related compounds. These individuals shared a number of clinical and psychological features that led to or resulted from their abuse of ergogenic substances. Each incurred severe professional, legal, domestic and/or health consequences as a result of their abuse. The common features identified in these patients suggest the presence of an overriding "risk behavior syndrome" that may predispose susceptible individuals to AAS abuse. The reinforcing properties of AAS and the potential for dependence remains an active area of research. Effective treatment of these individuals requires recognition of the causative factors as well as the high likelihood of other substance abuse that must also be addressed. With proper support and monitoring, these individuals can resume productive professional careers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark S McAllister
- Alcohol and Drug Recovery Center, Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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Peters KD, Wood RI. Androgen dependence in hamsters: overdose, tolerance, and potential opioidergic mechanisms. Neuroscience 2005; 130:971-81. [PMID: 15652994 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.09.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic steroids are drugs of abuse. However, the potential for steroid reward and addiction remains largely unexplored. This study used i.c.v. testosterone self-administration and controlled infusions of testosterone or vehicle in hamsters to explore central mechanisms of androgen overdose. Forty-two hamsters used nose-pokes to self-administer 1 microg/microl testosterone i.c.v. 4 h/day in an operant chamber. During 1-56 days of androgen self-administration, 10 (24%) hamsters died. Deaths correlated with peak daily intake of testosterone. Of the hamsters that self-administered a peak intake of <20 microg/day, there was 100% survival (10/10). Survival decreased to 86% (19/22) when daily testosterone intake peaked at 20-60 microg/day. Only 30% (three of 10) survived when daily testosterone intake exceeded 60 microg/day. Deaths are not due to volume or vehicle because i.c.v. infusions of 80 mul vehicle had no effect. Testosterone overdose resembles opiate intoxication. When male hamsters received infusions of 40 microg testosterone, locomotion (25.1+/-18.8 grid-crossings/10 min), respiration (72.7+/-5.4 breaths/min) and body temperature (33.5+/-0.4 degrees C) were significantly reduced, compared with males receiving vehicle infusions (186.1+/-8.1 crossings/10 min, 117.6+/-1.0 breaths/min, 35.9+/-0.1 degrees C, P<0.05). However, males developed tolerance to continued daily testosterone infusion. After 15 days, locomotion (170.2+/-6.3 crossings), respiration (118.4+/-1.3 breaths/min), and body temperature (35.3+/-0.3 degrees C) in testosterone-infused males were equivalent to that in vehicle controls (P>0.05). The depressive effects of testosterone infusion are blocked by the opioid antagonist, naltrexone. With naltrexone pre-treatment (10 mg/kg s.c.), locomotion (183.7+/-1.8 crossings/10 min), respiration (116.9+/-0.3 breaths/min), and body temperature (36.1+/-0.4 degrees C) during testosterone infusion were equivalent to vehicle controls. Likewise, naltrexone prevents the reinforcing effects of i.c.v. testosterone self-administration. These results indicate that testosterone at high doses causes central autonomic depression, which may be a factor in deaths during self-administration. As well, the depressive effects of large quantities of testosterone may be mediated, at least in part, by an opioidergic mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- K D Peters
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo Street, BMT 401, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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Macció DR, Calfa G, Roth GA. Oral testosterone in male rats and the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Neuroimmunomodulation 2005; 12:246-54. [PMID: 15990455 DOI: 10.1159/000085656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2004] [Accepted: 02/22/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Considering that sex steroids can influence the immune system, we studied the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a T-cell-mediated autoimmune disease of the central nervous system, and the concomitant cell-mediated immunity in gonadally intact and gonadectomized male Wistar rats given testosterone supplementation. METHODS/RESULTS Sham-operated rats and surgically castrated animals were orally self-administered with vehicle or testosterone added in the water bottle for 20 days before EAE induction. The androgenic effect of oral testosterone self-administration was evidenced by changes in body weight, and in the weights of androgen-dependent testes and seminal vesicles. Testosterone administration reduced the incidence of clinical signs of EAE in sham-operated animals and reversed the clinical symptoms of the disease associated with castrated EAE animals. The clinical signs observed in the different groups correlated with changes in delayed-type hypersensitivity and mononuclear cell-proliferative responses to the encephalitogenic myelin basic protein. Moreover, testosterone but not cholesterol supplementation in vitro suppressed the proliferative response of mononuclear cells to myelin basic protein suggesting that testosterone may affect specific immune functions through direct actions on immune cells. Finally, self-administration of testosterone induced also elevated corticosterone levels that in sham-operated rats correlated with the low incidence of the disease and in gonadectomized animals could be involved in the remission of clinical symptoms of EAE. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that orally self-administered testosterone can modulate specific cellular immune responses and serum corticosterone levels leading to changes in the development of EAE.
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MESH Headings
- Administration, Oral
- Animals
- Body Weight/drug effects
- Body Weight/immunology
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Cholesterol/immunology
- Cholesterol/pharmacology
- Corticosterone/blood
- Disease Models, Animal
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/physiopathology
- Immune Tolerance/drug effects
- Immune Tolerance/immunology
- Immunity, Cellular/drug effects
- Immunity, Cellular/immunology
- Immunosuppressive Agents/administration & dosage
- Immunosuppressive Agents/immunology
- Immunosuppressive Agents/pharmacology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/drug effects
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Lymphocyte Activation/drug effects
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Male
- Myelin Basic Protein/immunology
- Myelin Basic Protein/pharmacology
- Orchiectomy
- Organ Size/drug effects
- Organ Size/immunology
- Rats
- Rats, Wistar
- Self Administration
- T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Testis/drug effects
- Testis/immunology
- Testosterone/administration & dosage
- Testosterone/immunology
- Testosterone/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela R Macció
- Departamento de Química Biológica y Centro de Investigaciones en Química Biológica de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
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Ballard CL, Wood RI. Intracerebroventricular Self-Administration of Commonly Abused Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids in Male Hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus): Nandrolone, Drostanolone, Oxymetholone, and Stanozolol. Behav Neurosci 2005; 119:752-8. [PMID: 15998196 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.119.3.752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies by the authors have shown voluntary intracerebroventricular (icv) testosterone self-administration in hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus). Here, the authors compared icv self-administration of 4 anabolic steroids (drostanolone, nandrolone, oxymetholone, and stanozolol) at 0.1, 1.0, and 2.0 microg/microl, each for 8 days. Males (n=8/group) showed the highest levels of operant behavior for injectable steroids (drostanolone, nandrolone) compared with orally active androgens (oxymetholone, stanozolol). For nandrolone, responses on the active and inactive nose-pokes averaged 22.3 +/- 4.6/4 hr and 10.7 +/- 2.0/4 hr, respectively. Responding for drostanolone was similar. Males self-administering oxymetholone or stanozolol did not prefer the active nose-poke. These data demonstrate that injectable androgens are more reinforcing than oral steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cortney L Ballard
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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41
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Triemstra JL, Wood RI. Testosterone self-administration in female hamsters. Behav Brain Res 2004; 154:221-9. [PMID: 15302128 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2004.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2003] [Revised: 02/06/2004] [Accepted: 02/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) is a growing public health concern. In addition to their anabolic effects, steroids are also reinforcing as demonstrated by testosterone self-administration in male hamsters. However, steroid use in women lags behind that in men. Are androgens also rewarding in females? We determined if female hamsters voluntarily consume testosterone by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) self-administration in an operant chamber. Twelve ovary-intact female hamsters self-administering testosterone (1.0 microg/microl) i.c.v. for 19.1 +/- 2.3 days developed a significant preference (P < 0.05) for the active nose-poke (31.5 +/- 6.1 nose-pokes/4 h) over the inactive nose-poke (12.5 +/- 1.1 nose-pokes/4 h). Operant behavior in females was similar to that reported previously for male hamsters. Estrous cycles became irregular 9.6 +/- 2.3 days after the start of self-administration. Regular cycles resumed 13.7 +/- 2.6 days after testosterone was discontinued. To determine the effect of ovarian steroids on androgen self-administration, females were ovariectomized (OVX) and allowed to self-administer testosterone for 10.8 +/- 0.5 days. Afterwards, estrogen was replaced, and self-administration continued for an additional 9.7 +/- 0.6 days. OVX females maintained their preference for the active (23.9 +/- 7.0 nose-pokes/4 h) over the inactive nose-poke (12.6 +/- 3.4 nose-pokes/4 h, P < 0.05), and estrogen had no effect on responding for androgen (active: 25.8 +/- 6.5 nose-pokes; inactive: 8.2 +/- 2.0 nose-pokes/4 h, P < 0.05). Estrous female hamsters did not show a significant preference for stimulus males or females when mating was blocked, and testosterone self-administration did not alter partner preference. However, activity in the preference chamber predicted subsequent androgen intake (R(2) = 0.66, P < 0.05). These findings are consistent with the idea that anabolic steroids have inhibitory effects on female reproduction. Moreover, they suggest that sex differences in androgen reward do not underlie sex differences in AAS abuse in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Triemstra
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo Street, BMT 401, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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42
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Abstract
Are androgens reinforcing? Androgenic-anabolic steroids (AAS) are drugs of abuse. They are taken in large quantities by athletes and others to increase performance, often with negative long-term health consequences. As a result, in 1991, testosterone was declared a controlled substance. Recently, Brower [K.J. Brower, Anabolic steroid abuse and dependence. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 4 (2002) 377-387.] proposed a two-stage model of AAS dependence. Users initiate steroid use for their anabolic effects on muscle growth. With continued exposure, dependence on the psychoactive effects of AAS develops. However, it is difficult in humans to separate direct psychoactive effects of AAS from the user's psychological dependence on the anabolic effects of AAS. Thus, studies in laboratory animals are useful to explore androgen reinforcement. Testosterone induces a conditioned place preference in rats and mice, and is voluntarily consumed through oral, intravenous, and intracerebroventricular self-administration in hamsters. Active, gonad-intact male and female hamsters will deliver 1 microg/microl testosterone into the lateral ventricles. Indeed, some individuals self-administer testosterone intracerebroventricularly to the point of death. Male rats develop a conditioned place preference to testosterone injections into the nucleus accumbens, an effect blocked by dopamine receptor antagonists. These data suggest that androgen reinforcement is mediated by the brain. Moreover, testosterone appears to act through the mesolimbic dopamine system, a common substrate for drugs of abuse. Nonetheless, androgen reinforcement is not comparable to that of cocaine or heroin. Instead, testosterone resembles other mild reinforcers, such as caffeine, nicotine, or benzodiazepines. The potential for androgen addiction remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo Street, BMT 401, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Wood RI, Johnson LR, Chu L, Schad C, Self DW. Testosterone reinforcement: intravenous and intracerebroventricular self-administration in male rats and hamsters. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 171:298-305. [PMID: 14557917 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-003-1587-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2003] [Accepted: 06/27/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Anabolic steroids are drugs of abuse. However, the potential for addiction remains unclear. Testosterone induces conditioned place preference in rats and oral self-administration in hamsters. OBJECTIVES To determine if male rats and hamsters consume testosterone by intravenous (IV) or intracerebroventricular (ICV) self-administration. METHODS With each nose-poke in the active hole during daily 4-h tests in an operant conditioning chamber, gonad-intact adult rats and hamsters received 50 microg testosterone in an aqueous solution of beta-cyclodextrin via jugular cannula. The inactive nose-poke hole served as a control. Additional hamsters received vehicle infusions. RESULTS Rats ( n=7) expressed a significant preference for the active nose-poke hole (10.0+/-2.8 responses/4 h) over the inactive hole (4.7+/-1.2 responses/4 h). Similarly, during 16 days of testosterone self-administration IV, hamsters ( n=9) averaged 11.7+/-2.9 responses/4 h and 6.3+/-1.1 responses/4 h in the active and inactive nose-poke holes, respectively. By contrast, vehicle controls ( n=8) failed to develop a preference for the active nose-poke hole (6.5+/-0.5 and 6.4+/-0.3 responses/4 h). Hamsters ( n=8) also self-administered 1 microg testosterone ICV (active hole:39.8+/-6.0 nose-pokes/4 h; inactive hole: 22.6+/-7.1 nose-pokes/4 h). When testosterone was replaced with vehicle, nose-poking in the active hole declined from 31.1+/-7.6 to 11.9+/-3.2 responses/4 h within 6 days. Likewise, reversing active and inactive holes increased nose-poking in the previously inactive hole from 9.1+/-1.9 to 25.6+/-5.4 responses/4 h. However, reducing the testosterone dose from 1 microg to 0.2 microg per 1 microl injection did not change nose-poking. CONCLUSIONS Compared with other drugs of abuse, testosterone reinforcement is modest. Nonetheless, these data support the hypothesis that testosterone is reinforcing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90033, USA.
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Clark AS, Henderson LP. Behavioral and physiological responses to anabolic-androgenic steroids. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2003; 27:413-36. [PMID: 14505684 DOI: 10.1016/s0149-7634(03)00064-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are synthetic derivatives of testosterone originally designed for therapeutic uses to provide enhanced anabolic potency with negligible androgenic effects. Although AAS continue to be used clinically today, the medical benefits of low therapeutic doses of AAS stand in sharp contrast to the potential health risks associated with the excessive doses self-administered not only by elite athletes and body builders, but by a growing number of recreational users, including adolescent boys and girls. The deleterious effects of AAS on peripheral organs and the incidence of altered behaviors in AAS abusers have been well documented in a number of excellent current reviews for clinical populations. However, a comparable synthesis of nonclinical studies has not been made. Our purpose in this review is to summarize the literature for animal models of the effects of supraphysiological doses of AAS (e.g. those that mimic human abuse regimes) on behaviors and on the neural circuitry for these behaviors. In particular, we have focused on studies in rodents that have examined how AAS alter aggression, sexual behaviors, anxiety, reward, learning, and locomotion and how AAS alter the expression and function of neurotransmitter systems and other signaling molecules that underlie these behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann S Clark
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, 6207 Moore Hall, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
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Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are mainly used to treat androgen deficiency syndromes and, more recently, catabolic states such as AIDS-associated wasting. There is no evidence in the reviewed literature that AAS abuse or dependence develops from the therapeutic use of AAS. Conversely, 165 instances of AAS dependence have been reported among weightlifters and bodybuilders who, as part of their weight training regimens, chronically administered supraphysiologic doses, often including combinations of injected and oral AAS as well as other drugs of abuse. A new model is proposed in which both the "myoactive" and psychoactive effects of AAS contribute to the development of AAS dependence. The adverse consequences of AAS are reviewed, as well as their assessment by means of a history and physical, mental status examination, and laboratory testing. When patients with AAS use disorders are compared with patients with other substance use disorders, both similarities and differences become apparent and have implications for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirk J Brower
- Department of Psychiatry and Addiction Research Center, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48108, USA.
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46
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Wood RI. Oral testosterone self-administration in male hamsters: dose-response, voluntary exercise, and individual differences. Horm Behav 2002; 41:247-58. [PMID: 11971658 DOI: 10.1006/hbeh.2002.1769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Although testosterone was declared a controlled substance in 1990, the potential for steroid dependence is largely unexplored. The present study used food-induced drinking with oral testosterone self-administration in hamsters to determine (1) the dose-response for testosterone reward, (2) links between testosterone self-administration and voluntary exercise, and (3) factors predicting individual differences in androgen intake. Testosterone (1-4 mg/ml) was presented in aqueous solution 3 h/day for 35 days, with and without food. At 3 mg/ml, testosterone maintained fluid intake, even without food (3.0 +/- 0.2 ml/3h). At 4 mg/ml, fluid intake declined to 2.4 +/- 0.3 ml/3h in the presence of food. However, no dose-response relationship between testosterone self-administration and reward was observed. To test the interaction of testosterone and exercise, males drinking testosterone (RUN + T) or vehicle received a running wheel. Additional males self-administered testosterone without exercise. Testosterone intake correlated positively with exercise and negatively with body weight in RUN + T males. Experiment 3 determined the relationship between testosterone self-administration and mating or saccharin preference. There were no statistically significant correlations. However, testosterone self-administration increased mating behavior. These data demonstrate that testosterone is a mild reinforcer. Although preference for androgens is not predicted by mating or saccharin intake, testosterone intake is linked with voluntary exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90033, USA.
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