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Ostfeld RS, Adish S, Mowry S, Bremer W, Duerr S, Evans AS, Fischhoff IR, Keating F, Pendleton J, Pfister A, Teator M, Keesing F. Effects of residential acaricide treatments on patterns of pathogen coinfection in blacklegged ticks. Parasitology 2024:1-7. [PMID: 38494476 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182024000349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
Medically important ixodid ticks often carry multiple pathogens, with individual ticks frequently coinfected and capable of transmitting multiple infections to hosts, including humans. Acquisition of multiple zoonotic pathogens by immature blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) is facilitated when they feed on small mammals, which are the most competent reservoir hosts for Anaplasma phagocytophilum (which causes anaplasmosis in humans), Babesia microti (babesiosis) and Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease). Here, we used data from a large-scale, long-term experiment to ask whether patterns of single and multiple infections in questing nymphal I. scapularis ticks from residential neighbourhoods differed from those predicted by independent assortment of pathogens, and whether patterns of coinfection were affected by residential application of commercial acaricidal products. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used for pathogen detection in multiplex reactions. In control neighbourhoods and those treated with a fungus-based biopesticide deployed against host-seeking ticks (Met52), ticks having only single infections of either B. microti or B. burgdorferi were significantly less common than expected, whereas coinfections with these 2 pathogens were significantly more common. However, use of tick control system bait boxes, which kill ticks attempting to feed on small mammals, eliminated the bias towards coinfection. Although aimed at reducing the abundance of host-seeking ticks, control methods directed at ticks attached to small mammals may influence human exposure to coinfected ticks and the probability of exposure to multiple tick-borne infections.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sahar Adish
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 12545, USA
| | - Stacy Mowry
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 12545, USA
| | - William Bremer
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 12545, USA
| | - Shannon Duerr
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 12545, USA
| | - Andrew S Evans
- Department of Behavioral and Community Health, Dutchess County, NY 12601, USA
| | | | - Fiona Keating
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 12545, USA
| | | | - Ashley Pfister
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 12545, USA
| | - Marissa Teator
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 12545, USA
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Jasik KP, Kleczka A, Franielczyk A. Histopathological Aspects of the Influence of Babesia microti on the Placentas of Infected Female Rats. Vet Sci 2024; 11:18. [PMID: 38250924 PMCID: PMC10819886 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Babesiosis is perceived mainly an animal disease; however, awareness that Babesia spp. parasites that can cause diseases in humans is increasing significantly. Babesiosis is spread by the bite of an infected tick (Ixodes spp.), but it can also be transmitted by transfusion of infected blood and from an infected mother to her child during pregnancy or childbirth. The parasites multiply in the bloodstream and destroy red blood cells. This study aimed to assess the influence of Babesia microti on the histological structure of the placenta. Histopathological material collected from pregnant rats infected with Babesia microti was used in the experiment. Microscopic images of the placentas were assessed by Mallory staining and by using methylene blue-stained semi-thin sections. In addition, FISH was used to detect parasite DNA. The presence of piroplasms in both maternal and fetal vessels was demonstrated. Babesia microti infection caused vacuolization of syncytioblasts and cytotrophoblasts, accumulation of collagen fibers in placental villi, and increased adhesion of erythrocytes to the vascular walls. These results indicate that Babesia may influence the course of pregnancy and invite further research on the mechanism of piroplasm penetration into cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof P. Jasik
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Ostrogórska 30, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland;
| | - Anna Kleczka
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Ostrogórska 30, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland;
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3
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Jasik K, Kleczka A, Filipowska S. Histopathological Analysis of Selected Organs of Rats with Congenital Babesiosis Caused by Babesia microti. Vet Sci 2023; 10:vetsci10040291. [PMID: 37104446 PMCID: PMC10141988 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci10040291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Babesiosis is a tick-borne disease with an increasing number of cases each year. Due to the non-specific symptoms of babesiosis, insightful analyses of the pathogenesis of babesiosis are still very important. Transmission of the disease occurs in a few ways, which makes laboratory diagnosis of piroplasmosis important. Complications associated with the infection can be tragic, especially in patients with immunological disorders. The aim of this study was the histopathological analysis of the spleen and kidney of young Wistar rats infected transplacentally with Babesia microti. Female rats were infected with a reference strain of B. microti (ATCC 30221), and then, birth 3-week-old males were euthanized with isoflurane. Subsequently, the material was collected at autopsy for microscopic and ultrastructural examination. Microscopic and ultrastructural analysis of the spleen and kidney showed degenerative changes within the organ parenchyma and the capsules surrounding the organ. Regenerative and reparative changes through mitotic divisions of parenchymal cells were also evident. Merozoites of B. microti were visible in the section of erythrocytes and the cells building the organ stroma. The results presented in this study proved the negative effects of B. microti on cells and tissues in rats with congenital babesiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Jasik
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Ostrogórska 30, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
| | - Anna Kleczka
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Ostrogórska 30, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
| | - Sandra Filipowska
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Ostrogórska 30, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
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4
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Whitlow AM, Cumbie AN, Eastwood G. Pathogen prevalence in Amblyomma americanum and Ixodes scapularis ticks from central Appalachian Virginia, U.S.A. JOURNAL OF VECTOR ECOLOGY : JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR VECTOR ECOLOGY 2022; 47:51-60. [PMID: 35366679 DOI: 10.52707/1081-1710-47.1.51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Ticks are known vectors of several viral, bacterial, and protozoal pathogens that cause disease in both humans and animals. While pathogen prevalence has been studied extensively in other portions of the United States, pathogen surveillance studies within tick populations in the central Appalachian region of Virginia is almost nonexistent. Two prominent species in this region are Ixodes scapularis (the blacklegged tick) and Amblyomma americanum (the lone star tick). In this study, we collected ticks biweekly from three habitat types (forest, urban, and pasture) across eight counties in southwest Virginia from June, 2019-November, 2020. Ixodes scapularis and A. americanum captures were screened for evidence of associated tick-borne pathogens. In this region, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (15.3% in nymphs and 37.6% in adults), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (1.9% in nymphs and 12.2% in adults), and Borrelia miyamotoi (2.97% in nymphs and 2.33% in adults) were detected in I. scapularis ticks. Aside from two previously reported Powassan-positive I. scapularis ticks from Floyd County, VA, no additional Powassan-positive ticks are reported here. No evidence of Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Heartland virus (HRTV), or Bourbon virus (BRBV) was detected in collected A. americanum. Detection and confirmation of multiple emerging tick-borne pathogens in this region raises an increased concern for public health risk, calling for heightened awareness of tick-borne pathogen transmission and increased tick surveillance in understudied areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M Whitlow
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg,VA 24061, U.S.A
| | - Alexandra N Cumbie
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg,VA 24061, U.S.A
- Center for Zoonotic & Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, U.S.A
| | - Gillian Eastwood
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg,VA 24061, U.S.A.,
- Center for Zoonotic & Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, U.S.A
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Karshima SN, Karshima MN, Ahmed MI. Global meta-analysis on Babesia infections in human population: prevalence, distribution and species diversity. Pathog Glob Health 2021; 116:220-235. [PMID: 34788196 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2021.1989185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human babesiosis is an emerging tick-borne protozoan zoonosis caused by parasites of the genus Babesia and transmitted by ixodid ticks. It was thought to be a public health problem mainly for the immunocompromised, however the increasing numbers of documented cases among immunocompetent individuals is a call for concern. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we reported from 22 countries and 69 studies, an overall pooled estimate (PE) of 2.23% (95% CI: 1.46-3.39) for Babesia infections in humans. PEs for all sub-groups varied significantly (p < 0.05) with a continental range of 1.54% (95% CI: 0.89-2.65) in North America to 4.17% (95% CI: 2.11-8.06) in Europe. PEs for country income levels, methods of diagnosis, study period, sample sizes, Babesia species and targeted population ranged between 0.43% (95% CI: 0.41-0.44) and 7.41% (95% CI: 0.53-54.48). Babesia microti recorded the widest geographic distribution and was the predominant specie reported in North America while B. divergens was predominantly reported in Europe. Eight Babesia species; B. bigemina, B. bovis, B. crassa-like, B. divergens, B. duncani, B. microti, B. odocoilei and B. venatorum were reported in humans from different parts of the world with the highest prevalence in Europe, lower middle income countries and among individuals with history of tick bite and other tick-borne diseases. To control the increasing trend of this emerging public health threat, tick control in human settlements, the use of protective clothing by occupationally exposed people and the screening of transfusion blood in endemic countries are recommended.Abbreviations AJOL: African Journals OnLine, CI: Confidence interval, CIL: Country income level, df: Degree of freedom, HIC: Higher-income countries, HQ: High quality, I2: Inverse variance index, IFAT: Indirect fluorescent antibody test, ITBTBD: Individuals with tick-bite and tick-borne diseases, JBI: Joanna Briggs Institute, LIC: Lower-income countries, LMIC: Lower middle-income countries, MQ: Medium quality, NA: Not applicable, N/America: North America, OEI: Occupational exposed individuals, OR: Odds ratio, PE: Pooled estimates, PCR: Polymerase chain reaction, Prev: Prevalence, PRISMA: Preferred Reporting System for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses, Q: Cochran's heterogeneity statistic, QA: Quality assessment, Q-p: Cochran's p-value, qPCR: Quantitative polymerase chain reaction, S/America: South America, Seq: Sequencing, UMIC: Upper middle-income countries, USA: United States of America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solomon Ngutor Karshima
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria
| | | | - Musa Isiyaku Ahmed
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, Federal University of Agriculture, Zuru, Nigeria
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Florin-Christensen M, Wieser SN, Suarez CE, Schnittger L. In Silico Survey and Characterization of Babesia microti Functional and Non-Functional Proteases. Pathogens 2021; 10:1457. [PMID: 34832610 PMCID: PMC8621943 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10111457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Human babesiosis caused by the intraerythrocytic apicomplexan Babesia microti is an expanding tick-borne zoonotic disease that may cause severe symptoms and death in elderly or immunocompromised individuals. In light of an increasing resistance of B. microti to drugs, there is a lack of therapeutic alternatives. Species-specific proteases are essential for parasite survival and possible chemotherapeutic targets. However, the repertoire of proteases in B. microti remains poorly investigated. Herein, we employed several combined bioinformatics tools and strategies to organize and identify genes encoding for the full repertoire of proteases in the B. microti genome. We identified 64 active proteases and 25 nonactive protease homologs. These proteases can be classified into cysteine (n = 28), serine (n = 21), threonine (n = 14), asparagine (n = 7), and metallopeptidases (n = 19), which, in turn, are assigned to a total of 38 peptidase families. Comparative studies between the repertoire of B. bovis and B. microti proteases revealed differences among sensu stricto and sensu lato Babesia parasites that reflect their distinct evolutionary history. Overall, this data may help direct future research towards our understanding of the biology and pathogenicity of Babesia parasites and to explore proteases as targets for developing novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Florin-Christensen
- Instituto de Patobiologia Veterinaria (IPVET), Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronomicas, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham C1033AAE, Argentina; (S.N.W.); (L.S.)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1033AAJ, Argentina
| | - Sarah N. Wieser
- Instituto de Patobiologia Veterinaria (IPVET), Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronomicas, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham C1033AAE, Argentina; (S.N.W.); (L.S.)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1033AAJ, Argentina
| | - Carlos E. Suarez
- Animal Disease Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA 99163, USA;
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99163, USA
| | - Leonhard Schnittger
- Instituto de Patobiologia Veterinaria (IPVET), Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronomicas, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham C1033AAE, Argentina; (S.N.W.); (L.S.)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1033AAJ, Argentina
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7
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Ticks, Human Babesiosis and Climate Change. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10111430. [PMID: 34832586 PMCID: PMC8625897 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10111430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of current and future global warming on the distribution and activity of the primary ixodid vectors of human babesiosis (caused by Babesia divergens, B. venatorum and B. microti) are discussed. There is clear evidence that the distributions of both Ixodes ricinus, the vector in Europe, and I. scapularis in North America have been impacted by the changing climate, with increasing temperatures resulting in the northwards expansion of tick populations and the occurrence of I. ricinus at higher altitudes. Ixodes persulcatus, which replaces I. ricinus in Eurasia and temperate Asia, is presumed to be the babesiosis vector in China and Japan, but this tick species has not yet been confirmed as the vector of either human or animal babesiosis. There is no definite evidence, as yet, of global warming having an effect on the occurrence of human babesiosis, but models suggest that it is only a matter of time before cases occur further north than they do at present.
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Larson RT, Bron GM, Lee X, Zembsch TE, Siy PN, Paskewitz SM. Peromyscus maniculatus
(Rodentia: Cricetidae): An overlooked reservoir of tick‐borne pathogens in the Midwest, USA? Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan T. Larson
- Department of Entomology College of Agricultural and Life Sciences University of Wisconsin – Madison 1630 Linden Drive Madison Wisconsin 53706 USA
- Lieutenant Commander Medical Service Corps United States Navy 7700 Arlington Blvd. Ste. 5113 Falls Church Virginia 22042‐5113 USA
- Naval Medical Leader & Professional Development Command (NML&PDC) 8955 Wood Road Bethesda Maryland 20889‐5611 USA
| | - Gebbiena M. Bron
- Department of Entomology College of Agricultural and Life Sciences University of Wisconsin – Madison 1630 Linden Drive Madison Wisconsin 53706 USA
| | - Xia Lee
- Department of Entomology College of Agricultural and Life Sciences University of Wisconsin – Madison 1630 Linden Drive Madison Wisconsin 53706 USA
| | - Tela E. Zembsch
- Department of Entomology College of Agricultural and Life Sciences University of Wisconsin – Madison 1630 Linden Drive Madison Wisconsin 53706 USA
| | - Patricia N. Siy
- Department of Entomology College of Agricultural and Life Sciences University of Wisconsin – Madison 1630 Linden Drive Madison Wisconsin 53706 USA
| | - Susan M. Paskewitz
- Department of Entomology College of Agricultural and Life Sciences University of Wisconsin – Madison 1630 Linden Drive Madison Wisconsin 53706 USA
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Rojas-Pirela M, Medina L, Rojas MV, Liempi AI, Castillo C, Pérez-Pérez E, Guerrero-Muñoz J, Araneda S, Kemmerling U. Congenital Transmission of Apicomplexan Parasites: A Review. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:751648. [PMID: 34659187 PMCID: PMC8519608 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.751648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexans are a group of pathogenic protists that cause various diseases in humans and animals that cause economic losses worldwide. These unicellular eukaryotes are characterized by having a complex life cycle and the ability to evade the immune system of their host organism. Infections caused by some of these parasites affect millions of pregnant women worldwide, leading to various adverse maternal and fetal/placental effects. Unfortunately, the exact pathogenesis of congenital apicomplexan diseases is far from being understood, including the mechanisms of how they cross the placental barrier. In this review, we highlight important aspects of the diseases caused by species of Plasmodium, Babesia, Toxoplasma, and Neospora, their infection during pregnancy, emphasizing the possible role played by the placenta in the host-pathogen interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maura Rojas-Pirela
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile.,Facultad de Farmacia y Bioanálisis, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida, Venezuela
| | - Lisvaneth Medina
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Maria Verónica Rojas
- Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Ana Isabel Liempi
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Christian Castillo
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Núcleo de Investigación Aplicada en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Agronomía, Universidad de Las Américas, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Jesús Guerrero-Muñoz
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Sebastian Araneda
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Salud y Odontología, Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ulrike Kemmerling
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Tsao JI, Hamer SA, Han S, Sidge JL, Hickling GJ. The Contribution of Wildlife Hosts to the Rise of Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases in North America. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2021; 58:1565-1587. [PMID: 33885784 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjab047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Wildlife vertebrate hosts are integral to enzootic cycles of tick-borne pathogens, and in some cases have played key roles in the recent rise of ticks and tick-borne diseases in North America. In this forum article, we highlight roles that wildlife hosts play in the maintenance and transmission of zoonotic, companion animal, livestock, and wildlife tick-borne pathogens. We begin by illustrating how wildlife contribute directly and indirectly to the increase and geographic expansion of ticks and their associated pathogens. Wildlife provide blood meals for tick growth and reproduction; serve as pathogen reservoirs; and can disperse ticks and pathogens-either through natural movement (e.g., avian migration) or through human-facilitated movement (e.g., wildlife translocations and trade). We then discuss opportunities to manage tick-borne disease through actions directed at wildlife hosts. To conclude, we highlight key gaps in our understanding of the ecology of tick-host interactions, emphasizing that wildlife host communities are themselves a very dynamic component of tick-pathogen-host systems and therefore complicate management of tick-borne diseases, and should be taken into account when considering host-targeted approaches. Effective management of wildlife to reduce tick-borne disease risk further requires consideration of the 'human dimensions' of wildlife management. This includes understanding the public's diverse views and values about wildlife and wildlife impacts-including the perceived role of wildlife in fostering tick-borne diseases. Public health agencies should capitalize on the expertise of wildlife agencies when developing strategies to reduce tick-borne disease risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean I Tsao
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Sarah A Hamer
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, and Schubot Center for Avian Health, Department of Veterinary Pathology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Seungeun Han
- Department of Disease Control and Epidemiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jennifer L Sidge
- Michigan Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Graham J Hickling
- Center for Wildlife Health, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
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11
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Tołkacz K, Rodo A, Wdowiarska A, Bajer A, Bednarska M. Impact of Babesia microti infection on the initiation and course of pregnancy in BALB/c mice. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:132. [PMID: 33653384 PMCID: PMC7923482 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04638-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Protozoa in the genus Babesia are transmitted to humans through tick bites and cause babesiosis, a malaria-like illness. Vertical transmission of Babesia spp. has been reported in mammals; however, the exact timing and mechanisms involved are not currently known. The aims of this study were to evaluate the success of vertical transmission of B. microti in female mice infected before pregnancy (mated during the acute or chronic phases of Babesia infection) and that of pregnant mice infected during early and advanced pregnancy; to evaluate the possible influence of pregnancy on the course of parasite infections (parasitaemia); and to assess pathological changes induced by parasitic infection. Methods The first set of experiments involved two groups of female mice infected with B. microti before mating, and inseminated on the 7th day and after the 40th day post infection. A second set of experiments involved female mice infected with B. microti during pregnancy, on the 4th and 12th days of pregnancy. Blood smears and PCR targeting the 559 bp 18S rRNA gene fragment were used for the detection of B. microti. Pathology was assessed histologically. Results Successful development of pregnancy was recorded only in females mated during the chronic phase of infection. The success of vertical transmission of B. microti in this group was 63%. No evidence of pregnancy was found in females mated during the acute phase of infection or on the 4th day of pregnancy. In the group infected on the 12th day of pregnancy, numerous complications including loss of pregnancy and stillbirths were recorded. During the acute phase of infection, parasitaemia was lower in pregnant females in comparison to infected, non-pregnant control females. Conclusions Acute B. microti infection prevents the initiation of pregnancy and embryonic development if it occurs during the first trimester, and causes severe complications in foetal BALB/c mice in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. Chronic B. microti infection has no detrimental impact on the initiation and development of pregnancy, but results in congenital infection of the offspring. Further study is required to determine the extent to which maternal anti-babesial immune responses contribute to compromise pregnancy in the murine model of congenital Babesia infection.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Tołkacz
- Department of Eco-epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Institute of Developmental Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Str, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland. .,Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, 5A Pawińskiego Str, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Anna Rodo
- Department of Pathology and Veterinary Diagnostics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska Str, 02-776, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Anna Bajer
- Department of Eco-epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Institute of Developmental Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Str, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Bednarska
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Str, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
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12
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Tufts DM, Diuk-Wasser MA. Vertical Transmission: A Vector-Independent Transmission Pathway of Babesia microti in the Natural Reservoir Host Peromyscus leucopus. J Infect Dis 2020; 223:1787-1795. [PMID: 32959880 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Babesia microti, a malaria-like pathogen, is increasing in mammal and human populations in endemic areas and is unlikely to be the sole result of horizontal pathogen transmission. METHODS Peromyscus leucopus mice, natural reservoir hosts, were infected via Ixodes scapularis nymphs. Infected parental females (n = 6) produced F1 offspring (n = 36) that were screened for B. microti using quantitative PCR. Xenodiagnostic larvae were fed on infected offspring to determine horizontal transmission and pathogen viability. Fifty engorged larvae were screened; the rest were allowed to molt and then screened to determine transstadial transmission. Infected F1 generation offspring were placed in breeding groups, producing 34 F2 offspring and screened for B. microti infection. Chronic infection was monitored in parental females since time of initial vector infection. RESULTS Vertical transmission of B. microti was 74% efficient in offspring born in the first 6 months. Horizontal transmission occurred in larvae (61% prevalence) and molted nymphs (58% prevalence); these nymphs were able to infect susceptible hosts. F2 generation offspring infection prevalence was 38%. Chronic infection persisted for 1 year in some adults. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that vertical transmission is an important nonvector-mediated pathway of B. microti transmission in the natural reservoir host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle M Tufts
- Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology Department, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Maria A Diuk-Wasser
- Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology Department, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
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Milovic A, Bassam K, Shao H, Chatzistamou I, Tufts DM, Diuk-Wasser M, Barbour AG. Lactobacilli and other gastrointestinal microbiota of Peromyscus leucopus, reservoir host for agents of Lyme disease and other zoonoses in North America. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0231801. [PMID: 32817657 PMCID: PMC7446861 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0231801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The cricetine rodent Peromyscus leucopus is an important reservoir for several human zoonoses, including Lyme disease, in North America. Akin to hamsters, the white-footed deermouse has been unevenly characterized in comparison to the murid Mus musculus. To further understanding of P. leucopus’ total genomic content, we investigated gut microbiomes of an outbred colony of P. leucopus, inbred M. musculus, and a natural population of P. leucopus. Metagenome and whole genome sequencing were combined with microbiology and microscopy approaches. A focus was the genus Lactobacillus, four diverse species of which were isolated from forestomach and feces of colony P. leucopus. Three of the species—L. animalis, L. reuteri, and provisionally-named species “L. peromysci”—were identified in fecal metagenomes of wild P. leucopus but not discernibly in samples from M. musculus. L. johnsonii, the fourth species, was common in M. musculus but absent or sparse in wild P. leucopus. Also identified in both colony and natural populations were a Helicobacter sp. in feces but not stomach, and a Tritrichomonas sp. protozoan in cecum or feces. The gut metagenomes of colony P. leucopus were similar to those of colony M. musculus at the family or higher level and for major subsystems. But there were multiple differences between species and sexes within each species in their gut metagenomes at orthologous gene level. These findings provide a foundation for hypothesis-testing of functions of individual microbial species and for interventions, such as bait vaccines based on an autochthonous bacterium and targeting P. leucopus for transmission-blocking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Milovic
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Khalil Bassam
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Hanjuan Shao
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Ioulia Chatzistamou
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Danielle M. Tufts
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Maria Diuk-Wasser
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Alan G. Barbour
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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14
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Young KM, Corrin T, Wilhelm B, Uhland C, Greig J, Mascarenhas M, Waddell LA. Zoonotic Babesia: A scoping review of the global evidence. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0226781. [PMID: 31887120 PMCID: PMC6936817 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0226781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Babesiosis is a parasitic vector-borne disease of increasing public health importance. Since the first human case was reported in 1957, zoonotic species have been reported on nearly every continent. Zoonotic Babesia is vectored by Ixodes ticks and is commonly transmitted in North America by Ixodes scapularis, the tick species responsible for transmitting the pathogens that also cause Lyme disease, Powassan virus, and anaplasmosis in humans. Predicted climate change is expected to impact the spread of vectors, which is likely to affect the distribution of vector-borne diseases including human babesiosis. METHODS A scoping review has been executed to characterize the global evidence on zoonotic babesiosis. Articles were compiled through a comprehensive search of relevant bibliographic databases and targeted government websites. Two reviewers screened titles and abstracts for relevance and characterized full-text articles using a relevance screening and data characterization tool developed a priori. RESULTS This review included 1394 articles relevant to human babesiosis and/or zoonotic Babesia species. The main zoonotic species were B. microti, B. divergens, B. duncani and B. venatorum. Articles described a variety of study designs used to study babesiosis in humans and/or zoonotic Babesia species in vectors, animal hosts, and in vitro cell cultures. Topics of study included: pathogenesis (680 articles), epidemiology (480), parasite characterization (243), diagnostic test accuracy (98), mitigation (94), treatment (65), transmission (54), surveillance (29), economic analysis (7), and societal knowledge (1). No articles reported predictive models investigating the impact of climate change on Babesia species. CONCLUSION Knowledge gaps in the current evidence include research on the economic burden associated with babesiosis, societal knowledge studies, surveillance of Babesia species in vectors and animal hosts, and predictive models on the impact of climate change. The scoping review results describe the current knowledge and knowledge gaps on zoonotic Babesia which can be used to inform future policy and decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlin M. Young
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tricia Corrin
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Carl Uhland
- Independent Consultant, St-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
| | - Judy Greig
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mariola Mascarenhas
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lisa A. Waddell
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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15
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Parveen N, Bhanot P. Babesia microti- Borrelia Burgdorferi Coinfection. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8030117. [PMID: 31370180 PMCID: PMC6789475 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8030117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence and geographic distribution of human babesiosis is growing in the U.S. Its major causative agent is the protozoan parasite, Babesia microti. B. microti is transmitted to humans primarily through the bite of Ixodes scapularis ticks, which are vectors for a number of other pathogens. Other routes of B. microti transmission are blood transfusion and in rare cases of mother-to-foetus transmission, through the placenta. This review discusses the current literature on mammalian coinfection with B. microti and Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent Lyme disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhat Parveen
- Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
| | - Purnima Bhanot
- Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
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16
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Dwużnik D, Mierzejewska EJ, Drabik P, Kloch A, Alsarraf M, Behnke JM, Bajer A. The role of juvenile Dermacentor reticulatus ticks as vectors of microorganisms and the problem of 'meal contamination'. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2019; 78:181-202. [PMID: 31119415 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-019-00380-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Juvenile Dermacentor reticulatus ticks inhabit nests and burrows of their rodent hosts and cannot be collected from vegetation. To detect vertical transmission of Babesia canis in D. reticulatus, we studied larvae and nymphs collected from rodents. However, the molecular techniques used for detection of pathogen DNA are sensitive enough to detect not only pathogens vectored by ticks but also those taken up with current or previous blood meals ('meal contamination') or just present in the environment and on the tick or host surface ('environmental contaminations'). Thus, an additional aim of our study was to evaluate the extent of such contamination while studying feeding ticks collected from rodents. Juvenile D. reticulatus were collected from 140 rodents: 91 bank voles trapped in two forest sites in the Mazury Lake District and 49 rodents (Apodemus and Microtus spp.) from an open habitat near the town of Białobrzegi in Central Poland. Altogether 504 D. reticulatus ticks, comprising 266 individually evaluated nymphs and 238 larvae assigned to 50 larval pools, were studied for the presence of Babesia, Bartonella and Rickettsia spp. DNA. Statistical analyses were conducted to (1) evaluate the effect of rodent host factors (species, sex and age) on prevalence of infection in ticks, and (2) to compare the frequency of positive samples between groups of pathogen-positive and pathogen-negative rodent hosts. To complete the last aim, blood samples obtained from 49 rodents from Białobrzegi were studied for the presence of Babesia and Bartonella DNA. Infestation of rodent hosts with juvenile ticks ranged between 46 and 78%, with a mean abundance of 3.6 ticks/rodent for D. reticulatus and 4.8 ticks/rodent for Ixodes ricinus. The highest prevalence of PCR-positive D. reticulatus samples was obtained for Rickettsia spp. (28%) and R. raoultii was identified in 22 sequenced PCR products. Babesia DNA was detected in 20 (7.5%), including B. microti in 18 (6.8%) and B. canis in two (0.8%) of 266 D. reticulatus nymphs that were analyzed. Babesia microti DNA was also detected in four pools of D. reticulatus larvae (4/50 pools = 8%). The detection success of B. microti in D. reticulatus was associated with the species of the rodent hosts of the ticks (much higher for typical B. microti-host-species such as Microtus spp. than for Apodemus spp.) and host age (3 × higher in ticks collected from adult hosts in comparison to juvenile ones). Moreover, the DNA of B. microti was detected in 68% of D. reticulatus nymphs collected from B. microti-positive rodents in comparison to only 1.6% of nymphs collected from B. microti-negative rodents. Bartonella DNA was detected in 18% of D. reticulatus tick samples (38% of larval pools, 14% of nymphs). Again, host factors played important roles for 'tick positivity'-the highest prevalence of positive ticks was on Apodemus spp., which are regarded as Bartonella reservoirs. Bartonella DNA was detected in 42% of nymphs and 57% of larval pools collected from Bartonella-positive rodents in comparison to 28% of nymphs and 11% of larvae collected from Bartonella-negative rodents. Vertical transmission of B. canis in D. reticulatus ticks was confirmed in the field. Additionally, we demonstrated that 'meal contamination' generates a confounding signal in molecular detection of pathogen DNA extracted from ticks collected from infected hosts and must be taken into account in evaluating the competence of tick species as vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Dwużnik
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa J Mierzejewska
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Paulina Drabik
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Kloch
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Biological and Chemical Research Centre, University of Warsaw, ul. Żwirki i Wigury 101, 02-089, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Mohammed Alsarraf
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jerzy M Behnke
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Anna Bajer
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
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17
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Garrett KB, Hernandez SM, Balsamo G, Barron H, Beasley JC, Brown JD, Cloherty E, Farid H, Gabriel M, Groves B, Hamer S, Hill J, Lewis M, McManners K, Nemeth N, Oesterle P, Ortiz S, Peshock L, Schnellbacher R, Schott R, Straif-Bourgeois S, Yabsley MJ. Prevalence, distribution, and diversity of cryptic piroplasm infections in raccoons from selected areas of the United States and Canada. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2019; 9:224-233. [PMID: 31198681 PMCID: PMC6555877 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2019.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The order Piroplasmida contains a diverse group of intracellular parasites, many of which can cause significant disease in humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. Two piroplasm species have been reported from raccoons (Procyon lotor), Babesia lotori (Babesia sensu stricto clade) and a species related to Babesia microti (called B. microti-like sp.). The goal of this study was to investigate prevalence, distribution, and diversity of Babesia in raccoons. We tested raccoons from selected regions in the United States and Canada for the presence of Babesia sensu stricto and Babesia microti-like sp. piroplasms. Infections of Babesia microti-like sp. were found in nearly all locations sampled, often with high prevalence, while Babesia sensu stricto infections had higher prevalence in the Southeastern United States (20–45% prevalence). Co-infections with both Babesia sp. were common. Sequencing of the partial 18S rRNA and cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) genes led to the discovery of two new Babesia species, both found in several locations in the eastern and western United States. One novel Babesia sensu stricto sp. was most similar to Babesia gibsoni while the other Babesia species was present in the ‘western piroplasm’ group and was related to Babesia conradae. Phylogenetic analysis of the cox1 sequences indicated possible eastern and western genetic variants for the three Babesia sensu stricto species. Additional analyses are needed to characterize these novel species; however, this study indicates there are now at least four species of piroplasms infecting raccoons in the United States and Canada (Babesia microti-like sp., Babesia lotori, a novel Babesia sensu stricto sp., a novel western Babesia sp.) and a possible fifth species (Babesia sensu stricto) in raccoons in Japan. Raccoons in all locations tested were infected with piroplasms. Babesia microti-like sp. was commonly found in raccoons throughout North America. Babesia sensu stricto spp. were less common throughout North America. Four, possibly five, distinct species of piroplasms in raccoons. Possible spatial genetic variation within the two raccoon piroplasm species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla B. Garrett
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 140 Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 DW Brooks Drive, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Corresponding author. 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
| | - Sonia M. Hernandez
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 140 Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 DW Brooks Drive, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Gary Balsamo
- Louisiana Department of Health, 628 N. 4th Street, Baton Rouge, LA, 70802, USA
| | - Heather Barron
- Clinic for the Rehabilitation of Wildlife (CROW), 3883 Sanibel Captiva Road, Sanibel Island, FL, 33957, USA
| | - James C. Beasley
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 140 Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, P.O. Drawer E., Aiken, SC, 29802, USA
| | - Justin D. Brown
- Pennsylvania Game Commission, 2001 Elmerton Ave, Harrisburg, PA, 17110, USA
| | - Erin Cloherty
- New Orleans Mosquito, Termite, and Rodent Control Board, 2100 Leon C Simon Dr., New Orleans, LA, 70122, USA
| | - Hossain Farid
- Department of Animal Science and Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Agricultural Campus, PO Box 550, Dalhousie University, Truro, Nova Scotia, B2N 5E3, Canada
| | - Mourad Gabriel
- Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Integral Ecology Research Center, 239 Railroad Ave, Blue Lake, CA, 95525, USA
| | | | - Sarah Hamer
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, TAMU 4458, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Julia Hill
- Clinic for the Rehabilitation of Wildlife (CROW), 3883 Sanibel Captiva Road, Sanibel Island, FL, 33957, USA
| | - Meghan Lewis
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 140 Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 DW Brooks Drive, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Young Scholars Program at the University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Katie McManners
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 140 Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Nicole Nemeth
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 140 Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road E., Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Paul Oesterle
- Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road E., Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Sebastian Ortiz
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 140 Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 DW Brooks Drive, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Lea Peshock
- Greenwood Wildlife Rehabilitation Center, 5761 Ute Hwy, Longmont, CO, 80503, USA
| | | | - Renee Schott
- Wildlife Rehabilitation Center of Minnesota, 2530 Dale St N, Roseville, MN, 55113, USA
| | - Susanne Straif-Bourgeois
- Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, School of Public Health, 2020 Gravier Street, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Michael J. Yabsley
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 140 Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 DW Brooks Drive, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
- Corresponding author. 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
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