Lack of a type-2 glycosyltransferase in the fish pathogen Flavobacterium psychrophilum determines pleiotropic changes and loss of virulence

Recent progress and major gaps in the vaccine development for African swine fever

The swine industry across the globe is recently facing a devastating situation imparted by a highly contagious and deadly viral disease, African swine fever. The disease is caused by a DNA virus, the African swine fever virus (ASFV) of the genus Asfivirus. ASFV affects both wild boars and domestic pigs resulting in an acute form of hemorrhagic fever. Since the first report in 1921, the disease remains endemic in some of the African countries. However, the recent occurrence of ASF outbreaks in Asia led to a fresh and formidable challenge to the global swine production industry. Culling of the infected animals along with the implementation of strict sanitary measures remains the only options to control this devastating disease. Efforts to develop an effective and safe vaccine against ASF began as early as in the mid-1960s. Different approaches have been employed for the development of effective ASF vaccines including inactivated vaccines, subunit vaccines, DNA vaccines, virus-vectored vaccines, and live attenuated vaccines (LAVs). Inactivated vaccines are a non-feasible strategy against ASF due to their inability to generate a complete cellular immune response. However genetically engineered vaccines, such as subunit vaccines, DNA vaccines, and virus vector vaccines, represent tailored approaches with minimal adverse effects and enhanced safety profiles. As per the available data, gene deleted LAVs appear to be the most potential vaccine candidates. Currently, a gene deleted LAV (ASFV-G-∆I177L), developed in Vietnam, stands as the sole commercially available vaccine against ASF. The major barrier to the goal of developing an effective vaccine is the critical gaps in the knowledge of ASFV biology and the immune response induced by ASFV infection. The precise contribution of various hosts, vectors, and environmental factors in the virus transmission must also be investigated in depth to unravel the disease epidemiology. In this review, we mainly focus on the recent progress in vaccine development against ASF and the major gaps associated with it.

Changes in m6A RNA methylation of goat lung following PPRV infection

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute, highly contagious viral disease of goats and sheep, caused by the Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV). Earlier studies suggest the involvement of diverse regulatory mechanisms in PPRV infection. Methylation at N6 of Adenosine called m6A is a type RNA modification that influences various physiological and pathological phenomena. As the lung tissue represents the primary target organ of PPRV, the present study explored the m6A changes and their functional significance in PPRV disease pathogenesis. m6A-seq analysis revealed 1289 m6A peaks to be significantly altered in PPRV infected lung in comparison to normal lung, out of which 975 m6A peaks were hypomethylated and 314 peaks were hypermethylated. Importantly, hypomethylated genes were enriched in Interleukin-4 and Interleukin-13 signaling and various processes associated with extracellular matrix organization. Further, of the 843 differentially m6A-containing cellular transcripts, 282 transcripts were also found to be differentially expressed. Functional analysis revealed that these 282 transcripts are significantly enriched in signaling by Interleukins, extracellular matrix organization, cytokine signaling in the immune system, signaling by receptor tyrosine kinases, and Toll-like Receptor Cascades. We also found m6A reader HNRNPC and the core component of methyltransferase complex METTL14 to be highly upregulated than the m6A readers - HNRNPA2B1 and YTHDF1 at the transcriptome level. These findings suggest that alteration in the m6A landscape following PPRV is implicated in diverse processes including Interleukin signaling.

LC-MS/MS based characterisation and differential expression of proteins in Himalayan snow trout, Schizothorax labiatus using LFQ technique

Molecular characterization of fish muscle proteins are nowadays considered as a key component to understand the role of specific proteins involved in various physiological and metabolic processes including their up and down regulation in the organisms. Coldwater fish specimens including snow trouts hold different types of proteins which help them to survive in highly diversified temperatures fluctuating from 0 to 20 °C. So, in current study, the liquid chromatography mass spectrometry using label free quantification technique has been used to investigate the muscle proteome profile of Schizothorax labiatus. For proteomic study, two weight groups of S. labiatus were taken from river Sindh. The proteomic analysis of group 1 revealed that a total of 235 proteins in male and 238 in female fish were recorded. However, when male and female S. labiatus were compared with each other on the basis of spectral count and abundance of peptides by ProteinLynx Global Server software, a total of 14 down-regulated and 22 up-regulated proteins were noted in this group. The highly down-regulated ones included homeodomain protein HoxA2b, retinol-binding protein 4, MHC class II beta chain and proopiomelanocortin while as the highly expressed up-regulated proteins comprised of gonadotropin I beta subunit, NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4, manganese superoxide dismutase, recombinase-activating protein 2, glycosyltransferase, chymotrypsin and cytochrome b. On the other hand, the proteomic characterisation of group 2 of S. labiatus revealed that a total of 227 proteins in male and 194 in female fish were recorded. When male and female S. labiatus were compared with each other by label free quantification, a total of 20 down-regulated and 18 up-regulated proteins were recorded. The down-regulated protein expression of group 2 comprised hepatic lipase, allograft inflammatory factor-1, NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 and myostatin 1 while the highly expressed up-regulated proteins included glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta variant 2, glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta variant 5, cholecystokinin, glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta variant 3 and cytochrome b. Significant (P < 0.05) difference in the expression of down-regulated and up-regulated proteins was also noted between the two sexes of S. labiatus in each group. According to MS analysis, the proteins primarily concerned with the growth, skeletal muscle development and metabolism were down-regulated in river Sindh, which indicates that growth of fish during the season of collection i.e., winter was slow owing to less food availability, gonad development and low metabolic activity. While, the proteins related to immune response of fish were also noted to be down-regulated thereby signifying that the ecosystem has less pollution loads, microbial, pathogenic and anthropogenic activities. It was also found that the proteins involved in glycogen metabolism, reproductive and metabolic processes, particularly lipid metabolism were up-regulated in S. labiatus. The significant expression of these proteins may be connected to pre-spawning, gonad development and use of stored food as source of energy. The information generated in this study can be applied to future research aimed at enhancing food traceability, food safety, risk management and authenticity analysis.

Transposon mutagenesis and genome sequencing identify two novel, tandem genes involved in the colony spreading of Flavobacterium collinsii, isolated from an ayu fish, Plecoglossus altivelis

Bacteria of the family Flavobacteriaceae (flavobacteria) primarily comprise nonpathogenic bacteria that inhabit soil and water (both marine and freshwater). However, some bacterial species in the family, including Flavobacterium psychrophilum and Flavobacterium columnare, are known to be pathogenic to fish. Flavobacteria, including the abovementioned pathogenic bacteria, belong to the phylum Bacteroidota and possess two phylum-specific features, gliding motility and a protein secretion system, which are energized by a common motor complex. Herein, we focused on Flavobacterium collinsii (GiFuPREF103) isolated from a diseased fish (Plecoglossus altivelis). Genomic analysis of F. collinsii GiFuPREF103 revealed the presence of a type IX secretion system and additional genes associated with gliding motility and spreading. Using transposon mutagenesis, we isolated two mutants with altered colony morphology and colony spreading ability; these mutants had transposon insertions in pep25 and lbp26. The glycosylation material profiles revealed that these mutants lacked the high-molecular-weight glycosylated materials present in the wild-type strain. In addition, the wild-type strains exhibited fast cell population movement at the edge of the spreading colony, whereas reduced cell population behavior was observed in the pep25- and lbp26-mutant strains. In the aqueous environment, the surface layers of these mutant strains were more hydrophobic, and they formed biofilms with enhanced microcolony growth compared to those with the wild-type. In Flavobacterium johnsoniae, the Fjoh_0352 and Fjoh_0353 mutant strains were generated, which were based on the ortholog genes of pep25 and lbp26. In these F. johnsoniae mutants, as in F. collinsii GiFuPREF103, colonies with diminished spreading capacity were formed. Furthermore, cell population migration was observed at the edge of the colony in wild-type F. johnsoniae, whereas individual cells, and not cell populations, migrated in these mutant strains. The findings of the present study indicate that pep25 and lbp26 contribute to the colony spreading of F. collinsii.

Genome-wide characterization of Salmonella Typhimurium genes required for the fitness under iron restriction

Background

Iron is a crucial element for bacterial survival and virulence. During Salmonella infection, the host utilizes a variety of mechanisms to starve the pathogen from iron. However, Salmonella activates distinctive defense mechanisms to acquire iron and survive in iron-restricted host environments. Yet, the comprehensive set of the conditionally essential genes that underpin Salmonella survival under iron-restricted niches has not been fully explored.

Results

Here, we employed transposon sequencing (Tn-seq) method for high-resolution elucidation of the genes in Salmonella Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) 14028S strain required for the growth under the in vitro conditions with four different levels of iron restriction achieved by iron chelator 2,2′-dipyridyl (Dip): mild (100 and 150 μM), moderate (250 μM) and severe iron restriction (400 μM). We found that the fitness of the mutants reduced significantly for 28 genes, suggesting the importance of these genes for the growth under iron restriction. These genes include sufABCDSE, iron transport fepD, siderophore tonB, sigma factor E ropE, phosphate transport pstAB, and zinc exporter zntA. The siderophore gene tonB was required in mild and moderate iron-restricted conditions, but it became dispensable in severe iron-restricted conditions. Remarkably, rpoE was required in moderate and severe iron restrictions, leading to complete attenuation of the mutant under these conditions. We also identified 30 genes for which the deletion of the genes resulted in increased fitness under iron-restricted conditions.

Conclusions

The findings broaden our knowledge of how S. Typhimurium survives in iron-deficient environments, which could be utilized for the development of new therapeutic strategies targeting the pathways vital for iron metabolism, trafficking, and scavenging.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12863-022-01069-3.

Phage Resistance Reduced the Pathogenicity of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae on Rice

Plants grow together with microbes that have both negative and positive impacts on the host, while prokaryotes are in turn also hosts for viruses, co-evolving together in a complex interrelationship. Most research focuses on the interaction of either bacterial pathogens interacting with the plant host, or the impact on viruses on their pathogenic bacterial hosts. Few studies have investigated the co-evolution of bacterial pathogens with their host plants as well as with their bacterial viruses. In this work, we aimed to identify the genes that were associated with both phage sensitivity and host pathogenicity of the bacterium Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), which is the most important bacterial rice pathogen. Using the Tn5 transposon mutation technology, we created a library of Xoo strain C2 comprising 4524 mutants, which were subsequently tested for phage infectability. The phage infection tests showed that less than 1% of the mutants (n = 36) were resistant to phage infection, which was attributed to the Tn5 insertion in 19 genes. Interestingly, three out of 19 genes that conveyed resistance to the phage resulted in reduced pathogenicity to rice seedlings compared to the wild type. We identified three genes involved in both phage infection and bacterial virulence, which were studied by knockout mutants and complementation experiments. All of the three knockout mutants were resistant to infection by phage X2, while the complemented strains restored the susceptibility to the bacterial virus. Surprisingly, the genes are also essential for pathogenicity, which we confirmed by single knockout mutants corresponding to the Tn5 mutants. All three genes are involved in lipopolysaccharide synthesis, thus changing the cell envelope surface molecule composition. Our work shows a possible balance in terms of the connection between bacterial virulence and phage resistance, supporting the deployment of phages for the biocontrol of plant pathogens.

Sleeping With the Enemy? The Current Knowledge of Piscine Orthoreovirus (PRV) Immune Response Elicited to Counteract Infection

Piscine orthoreovirus (PRV) is a virus in the genus Orthoreovirus of the Reoviridae family, first described in 2010 associated with Heart and Skeletal Muscle Inflammation (HSMI) in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Three phases of PRV infection have been described, the early entry and dissemination, the acute dissemination phase, and the persistence phase. Depending on the PRV genotype and the host, infection can last for life. Mechanisms of immune response to PRV infection have been just beginning to be studied and the knowledge in this matter is here revised. PRV induces a classical antiviral immune response in experimental infection of salmonid erythrocytes, including transcriptional upregulation of ifn-α, rig-i, mx, and pkr. In addition, transcript upregulation of tcra, tcrb, cd2, il-2, cd4-1, ifn-γ, il-12, and il-18 has been observed in Atlantic salmon infected with PRV, indicating that PRV elicited a Th1 type response probably as a host defense strategy. The high expression levels of cd8a, cd8b, and granzyme-A in PRV-infected fish suggest a positive modulatory effect on the CTL-mediated immune response. This is consistent with PRV-dependent upregulation of the genes involved in antigen presentation, including MHC class I, transporters, and proteasome components. We also review the potential immune mechanisms associated with the persistence phenotype of PRV-infected fish and its consequence for the development of a secondary infection. In this scenario, the application of a vaccination strategy is an urgent and challenging task due to the emergence of this viral infection that threatens salmon farming.

Secretion Systems in Gram-Negative Bacterial Fish Pathogens

Bacterial fish pathogens are one of the key challenges in the aquaculture industry, one of the fast-growing industries worldwide. These pathogens rely on arsenal of virulence factors such as toxins, adhesins, effectors and enzymes to promote colonization and infection. Translocation of virulence factors across the membrane to either the extracellular environment or directly into the host cells is performed by single or multiple dedicated secretion systems. These secretion systems are often key to the infection process. They can range from simple single-protein systems to complex injection needles made from dozens of subunits. Here, we review the different types of secretion systems in Gram-negative bacterial fish pathogens and describe their putative roles in pathogenicity. We find that the available information is fragmented and often descriptive, and hope that our overview will help researchers to more systematically learn from the similarities and differences between the virulence factors and secretion systems of the fish-pathogenic species described here.

Monitoring newt communities in urban area using eDNA metabarcoding

Newts are amphibians commonly present in small ponds or garden pools in urban areas. They are protected in many countries and their presence is monitored through visual observation and/or trapping. However, newts are not easy to spot as they are small, elusive and often hidden at the bottom of water bodies. In recent years, environmental DNA (eDNA) has become a popular tool for detecting newts, with a focus on individual species using qPCR assays. Here, we assess the effectiveness of eDNA metabarcoding compared to conventional visual surveys of newt diversity in 45 ponds within urban areas of Geneva canton, Switzerland. We designed newt-specific mitochondrial 16S rRNA primers, which assign the majority of amplicons to newts, and were able to detect four species known to be present in the region, including the invasive subspecies Lissotriton vulgaris meridionalis, native to the Italian peninsula, that has been introduced in the Geneva area recently. The obtained eDNA results were congruent overall with conventional surveys, confirming the morphological observations in the majority of cases (67%). In 25% of cases, a species was only detected genetically, while in 8% of cases, the observations were not supported by eDNA metabarcoding. Our study confirms the usefulness of eDNA metabarcoding as a tool for the effective and non-invasive monitoring of newt community and suggests its broader use for the survey of newt diversity in urban area at larger scales.

Bioclimatic and anthropogenic variables shape the occurrence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis over a large latitudinal gradient

Amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has caused the greatest known loss of biodiversity due to an infectious disease. We used Bd infection data from quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays of amphibian skin swabs collected across Chile during 2008-2018 to model Bd occurrence with the aim to determine bioclimatic and anthropogenic variables associated with Bd infection. Also, we used Bd presence/absence records to identify geographical Bd high-risk areas and compare Bd prevalence and infection loads between amphibian families, ecoregions, and host ecology. Data comprised 4155 Bd-specific qPCR assays from 162 locations across a latitudinal gradient of 3700 km (18º to 51ºS). Results showed a significant clustering of Bd associated with urban centres and anthropogenically highly disturbed ecosystems in central-south Chile. Both Bd prevalence and Bd infection loads were higher in aquatic than terrestrial amphibian species. Our model indicated positive associations of Bd prevalence with altitude, temperature, precipitation and human-modified landscapes. Also, we found that macroscale drivers, such as land use change and climate, shape the occurrence of Bd at the landscape level. Our study provides with new evidence that can improve the effectiveness of strategies to mitigate biodiversity loss due to amphibian chytridiomycosis.

Comparative Genomic Analyses of Flavobacterium psychrophilum Isolates Reveals New Putative Genetic Determinants of Virulence Traits

The fish pathogen Flavobacterium psychrophilum is currently one of the main pathogenic bacteria hampering the productivity of salmonid farming worldwide. Although putative virulence determinants have been identified, the genetic basis for variation in virulence of F. psychrophilum is not fully understood. In this study, we analyzed whole-genome sequences of a collection of 25 F. psychrophilum isolates from Baltic Sea countries and compared genomic information with a previous determination of their virulence in juvenile rainbow trout. The results revealed a conserved population of F. psychrophilum that were consistently present across the Baltic Sea countries, with no clear association between genomic repertoire, phylogenomic, or gene distribution and virulence traits. However, analysis of the entire genome of four F. psychrophilum isolates by hybrid assembly provided an unprecedented resolution for discriminating even highly related isolates. The results showed that isolates with different virulence phenotypes harbored genetic variances on a number of consecutive leucine-rich repeat (LRR) proteins, repetitive motifs in gliding motility-associated protein, and the insertion of transposable elements into intergenic and genic regions. Thus, these findings provide novel insights into the genetic variation of these elements and their putative role in the modulation of F. psychrophilum virulence.

Exposure to Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis affects chemical defences in two anuran amphibians, Rana dalmatina and Bufo bufo

Background

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is the causative agent of chytridiomycosis, one of the major causes of worldwide amphibian biodiversity loss. Many amphibians exhibit skin-based chemical defences, which may play an important role against invading pathogens, but whether the synthesis of these chemical compounds is enhanced or suppressed in the presence of pathogens is largely unknown. Here we investigated direct and indirect effects of larval exposure to the globally distributed and highly virulent Bd-GPL strain on skin secreted chemical defences and life history traits during early ontogeny of agile frogs (Rana dalmatina) and common toads (Bufo bufo).

Results

Exposure to Bd during the larval stage did not result in enhanced synthesis of the antimicrobial peptide Brevinin-1 Da in R. dalmatina tadpoles or in increased production of bufadienolides in B. bufo tadpoles. However, exposure to Bd during the larval stage had a carry-over effect reaching beyond metamorphosis: both R. dalmatina and B. bufo froglets contained smaller quantities of defensive chemicals than their Bd-naïve conspecifics in the control treatment. Prevalence of Bd and infection intensities were very low in both larvae and metamorphs of R. dalmatina, while in B. bufo we observed high Bd prevalence and infection intensities, especially in metamorphs. At the same time, we did not find a significant effect of Bd-exposure on body mass or development rate in larvae or metamorphs in either species.

Conclusions

The lack of detrimental effect of Bd-exposure on life history traits, even parallel with high infection intensities in the case of B. bufo individuals, is surprising and suggests high tolerance of local populations of these two species against Bd. However, the lowered quantity of defensive chemicals may compromise antimicrobial and antipredatory defences of froglets, which may ultimately contribute to population declines also in the absence of conspicuous mass-mortality events.

Comparison Study of Synthesized Red (or Blood) Orange Peels and Juice Extract-Nanoflowers and Their Antimicrobial Properties on Fish Pathogen (Yersinia ruckeri)

Abstract

In this work, we synthesized blood orange peel extract-copper (II) (Cu²⁺) ions nanoflower (NFs) and blood orange juice extract-copper (II) (Cu²⁺) ions nanoflower examine their antimicrobial properties on the fish pathogen (Yersinia ruckeri). The main compounds of the blood orange peel extract and the blood orange juice extract were organic components, and the copper (II) (Cu^{2 +}) ions were inorganic components. BOPE-Cu^{2 +} nanoflowers are quite compact, porous, and uniform as compared to BOJE-Cu²⁺ nanoflowers. Scanning Electron Microscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometry, and Energy-Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were used to observe the structures of the NFs. The findings of FT-IR show Cu-O and Cu-N bonds in NF, which may be an indicator of the development of NFs. Although the antimicrobial actions of BOPE-hNFs and BOJE-hNFs against Yersinia ruckeri (NCTC 12,268) have been confirmed.

Graphic Abstract

Bacterial pathogens: threat or treat (a review on bioactive natural products from bacterial pathogens)

Covering: up to the second quarter of 2020 Threat or treat? While pathogenic bacteria pose significant threats, they also represent a huge reservoir of potential pharmaceuticals to treat various diseases. The alarming antimicrobial resistance crisis and the dwindling clinical pipeline urgently call for the discovery and development of new antibiotics. Pathogenic bacteria have an enormous potential for natural products drug discovery, yet they remained untapped and understudied. Herein, we review the specialised metabolites isolated from entomopathogenic, phytopathogenic, and human pathogenic bacteria with antibacterial and antifungal activities, highlighting those currently in pre-clinical trials or with potential for drug development. Selected unusual biosynthetic pathways, the key roles they play (where known) in various ecological niches are described. We also provide an overview of the mode of action (molecular target), activity, and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) towards bacteria and fungi. The exploitation of pathogenic bacteria as a rich source of antimicrobials, combined with the recent advances in genomics and natural products research methodology, could pave the way for a new golden age of antibiotic discovery. This review should serve as a compendium to communities of medicinal chemists, organic chemists, natural product chemists, biochemists, clinical researchers, and many others interested in the subject.

Salmonid Antibacterial Immunity: An Aquaculture Perspective

The aquaculture industry is continuously threatened by infectious diseases, including those of bacterial origin. Regardless of the disease burden, aquaculture is already the main method for producing fish protein, having displaced capture fisheries. One attractive sector within this industry is the culture of salmonids, which are (a) uniquely under pressure due to overfishing and (b) the most valuable finfish per unit of weight. There are still knowledge gaps in the understanding of fish immunity, leading to vaccines that are not as effective as in terrestrial species, thus a common method to combat bacterial disease outbreaks is the use of antibiotics. Though effective, this method increases both the prevalence and risk of generating antibiotic-resistant bacteria. To facilitate vaccine design and/or alternative treatment efforts, a deeper understanding of the teleost immune system is essential. This review highlights the current state of teleost antibacterial immunity in the context of salmonid aquaculture. Additionally, the success of current techniques/methods used to combat bacterial diseases in salmonid aquaculture will be addressed. Filling the immunology knowledge gaps highlighted here will assist in reducing aquaculture losses in the future.

Phenotypic and Genetic Predictors of Pathogenicity and Virulence in Flavobacterium psychrophilum

Flavobacterium psychrophilum causes bacterial cold-water disease (BCWD) in farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), with the multilocus sequence typing (MLST) clonal complex (CC) CC-ST10 accounting for the majority of outbreaks globally. The development of alternative strategies to antibiotic treatment of BCWD using bacteriophage-based control of F. psychrophilum, or virulence factors as targets for therapy, requires knowledge of the phage-sensitivity of outbreak strains and of universal traits contributing to their pathogenicity. To examine the association between virulence and both genetic (MLST sequence type (ST) and PCR-serotype) and phenotypic characteristics (adherence, antibiotic resistance, colony spreading motility, hemolytic and proteolytic activity), the median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of 26 geographically disparate F. psychrophilum isolates was determined in rainbow trout. Furthermore, the in vitro sensitivity of the isolates against five bacteriophages was determined by the efficiency of plating (EOP). The tested F. psychrophilum isolates were mainly represented by CC-ST10 genotypes (22 out of 26) and showed up to 3-log differences in LD₅₀ (8.9 × 10³ to 3.1 × 10⁶ CFU). No association between MLST ST and virulence was found because of a high variation in LD₅₀ within STs. All identified serotypes (0, 1, and 2) were pathogenic, but ten most virulent isolates belonged to serotype 1 or 2. Isolates of high (LD₅₀ < 10⁵ CFU), moderate (LD₅₀ = 10⁵–10⁶ CFU), and weak (LD₅₀ > 10⁶ CFU) virulence were similar in phenotypic characteristics in vitro. However, the only non-virulent CC-ST10 isolate was deficient in spreading motility and proteolytic activity, indicating that the characteristics are required for pathogenicity in F. psychrophilum. Univariate correlation studies found only non-significant associations between LD₅₀ and the measured phenotypic characteristics, and the multivariable analysis did neither reveal any significant predictors of virulence. The majority of isolates (16 out of 26) were sensitive to at least four bacteriophages, with up to a 6-log variation in the EOP. Most CC-ST10 isolates (16 out of 22) were sensitive to the examined phages, including 5 out of the 7 most virulent isolates represented by prevalent and antibiotic-resistant STs. Our findings suggest that control of BCWD using lytic phages or interventions targeting shared characteristics of pathogenic F. psychrophilum strains should be further explored.

Stress Tolerance-Related Genetic Traits of Fish Pathogen Flavobacterium psychrophilum in a Mature Biofilm

Flavobacterium psychrophilum is the causative agent of bacterial cold-water disease and rainbow trout fry syndrome, and hence this bacterium is placed among the most important salmonid pathogens in the freshwater aquaculture industry. Since bacteria in biofilms differ substantially from free-living counterparts, this study sought to find the main differences in gene expression between sessile and planktonic states of F. psychrophilum LM-02-Fp and NCMB1947^T, with focus on stress-related changes in gene expression occurring during biofilm formation. To this end, biofilm and planktonic samples were analyzed by RNA sequencing to detect differentially expressed candidate genes (DECGs) between the two growth states, and decreasing the effects of interstrain variation by considering only genes with log₂-fold changes ≤ −2 and ≥ 2 at Padj-values ≤ 0.001 as DECGs. Overall, 349 genes accounting for ~15% of total number of genes expressed in transcriptomes of F. psychrophilum LM-02-Fp and NCMB1947^T (n = 2327) were DECGs between biofilm and planktonic states. Approximately 83 and 81% of all up- and down-regulated candidate genes in mature biofilms, respectively, were assigned to at least one gene ontology term; these were primarily associated with the molecular function term “catalytic activity.” We detected a potential stress response in mature biofilms, characterized by a generalized down-regulation of DECGs with roles in the protein synthesis machinery (n = 63, primarily ribosomal proteins) and energy conservation (seven ATP synthase subunit genes), as well as an up-regulation of DECGs involved in DNA repair (ruvC, recO, phrB1, smf, and dnaQ) and oxidative stress response (cytochrome C peroxidase, probable peroxiredoxin, and a probable thioredoxin). These results support the idea of a strategic trade-off between growth-related processes and cell homeostasis to preserve biofilm structure and metabolic functioning. In addition, LDH-based cytotoxicity assays and an intraperitoneal challenge model for rainbow trout fry agreed with the transcriptomic evidence that the ability of F. psychrophilum to form biofilms could contribute to the virulence. Finally, the reported changes in gene expression, as induced by the plankton-to-biofilm transition, represent the first transcriptomic guideline to obtain insights into the F. psychrophilum biofilm lifestyle that could help understand the prevalence of this bacterium in aquaculture settings.

Lytic viral replication and immunopathology in a cytomegalovirus-induced mouse model of secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis

Background

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a rare immunological disorder caused by unbridled activation of T cells and macrophages, culminating in a life-threatening cytokine storm. A genetic and acquired subtype are distinguished, termed primary and secondary HLH, respectively. Clinical manifestations of both forms are frequently preceded by a viral infection, predominantly with herpesviruses. The exact role of the viral infection in the development of the hemophagocytic syndrome remains to be further elucidated.

Methods

We utilized a recently developed murine model of cytomegalovirus-associated secondary HLH and dissected the respective contributions of lytic viral replication and immunopathology in its pathogenesis.

Results

HLH-like disease only developed in cytomegalovirus-susceptible mouse strains unable to clear the virus, but the severity of symptoms was not correlated to the infectious viral titer. Lytic viral replication and sustained viremia played an essential part in the pathogenesis since abortive viral infection was insufficient to induce a full-blown HLH-like syndrome. Nonetheless, a limited set of symptoms, in particular anemia, thrombocytopenia and elevated levels of soluble CD25, appeared less dependent of the viral replication but rather mediated by the host’s immune response, as corroborated by immunosuppressive treatment of infected mice with dexamethasone.

Conclusion

Both virus-mediated pathology and immunopathology cooperate in the pathogenesis of full-blown virus-associated secondary HLH and are closely entangled. A certain level of viremia appears necessary to elicit the characteristic HLH-like symptoms in the model.

Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans and the Risk of a Second Amphibian Pandemic

Amphibians are experiencing devastating population declines globally. A major driver is chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease caused by the fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal). Bd was described in 1999 and has been linked with declines since the 1970s, while Bsal is a more recently discovered pathogen that was described in 2013. It is hypothesized that Bsal originated in Asia and spread via international trade to Europe, where it has been linked to salamander die-offs. Trade in live amphibians thus represents a significant threat to global biodiversity in amphibians. We review the current state of knowledge regarding Bsal and describe the risk of Bsal spread. We discuss regional responses to Bsal and barriers that impede a rapid, coordinated global effort. The discovery of a second deadly emerging chytrid fungal pathogen in amphibians poses an opportunity for scientists, conservationists, and governments to improve global biosecurity and further protect humans and wildlife from a growing number of emerging infectious diseases.

More Than Gliding: Involvement of GldD and GldG in the Virulence of Flavobacterium psychrophilum

A fascinating characteristic of most members of the genus Flavobacterium is their ability to move over surfaces by gliding motility. Flavobacterium psychrophilum, an important pathogen of farmed salmonids worldwide, contains in its genome the 19 gld and spr genes shown to be required for gliding or spreading in Flavobacterium johnsoniae; however, their relative role in its lifestyle remains unknown. In order to address this issue, two spreading deficient mutants were produced as part of a Tn4351 mutant library in F. psychrophilum strain THCO2-90. The transposons were inserted in gldD and gldG genes. While the wild-type strain is proficient in adhesion, biofilm formation and displays strong proteolytic activity, both mutants lost these characteristics. Extracellular proteome comparisons revealed important modifications for both mutants, with a significant reduction of the amounts of proteins likely transported through the outer membrane by the Type IX secretion system, indicating that GldD and GldG proteins are required for an effective activity of this system. In addition, a significant decrease in virulence was observed using rainbow trout bath and injection infection models. Our results reveal additional roles of gldD and gldG genes that are likely of importance for the F. psychrophilum lifestyle, including virulence.

The use of wastewater in livestock production and its socioeconomic and welfare implications

Although epidemiological studies have found a significant amount of toxins in surface water, a complex link between animals' access to wastewater and associated animal and human welfare losses needs to be explored. The scarcity of safe water has put stress on the utilization of wastewater for crops and livestock production. The access of animals to wastewater is related to the emergence of dangerous animal's diseases, hampering productivity, increasing economic losses, and risking human health along the food chain. This review explores use of wastewater for agriculture, epidemiological evidence of microbial contamination in wastewater, and animal and human welfare disruption due to the use of wastewater for crop and livestock production. More specifically, the review delves into animals exposure to wastewater for bathing, drinking, or grazing on a pasture irrigated with contaminated water and related animal and human welfare losses. We included some scientific articles and reviews published from 1970 to 2017 to support our rational discussions. The selected articles dealt exclusively with animals direct access to wastewater via bathing and indirect access via grazing on pasture irrigated with contaminated wastewater and their implication for animal and human welfare losses. The study also identified that some policy options such as wastewater treatments, constructing wastewater stabilization ponds, controlling animal access to wastewater, and dissemination of necessary information to ultimate consumers related to the source of agricultural produce and wastewater use in animal and crop production are required to protect the human and animal health and welfare.

Preliminary study of the UL55 gene based on infectious Chinese virulent duck enteritis virus bacterial artificial chromosome clone

Background

Lethal Duck Enteritis Virus (DEV) infection can cause high morbidity and mortality of many species of waterfowl within the order Anseriformes. However, little is known about the function of viral genes including the conserved UL55 gene among alpha herpes virus due to the obstacles in maintenance and manipulation of DEV genome in host cells.

Methods

In this paper, we constructed an infectious bacteria artificial chromosome (BAC) clone of the lethal clinical isolate duck enteritis virus Chinese virulent strain (DEV CHv) by inserting a transfer vector containing BAC mini-F sequence and selection marker EGFP into UL23 gene using homologous recombination. UL55 deletion and its revertant mutant were generated by two-step RED recombination in E. coli on basis of rescued recombinant virus. The function of UL55 gene in DEV replication and its effect on distribution of UL26.5 protein were carried out by growth characteristics and co-localization analysis.

Results

The complete genome of DEV CHv can be stably maintained in E. coli as a BAC clone and reconstituted again in DEF cells. The generated UL55 deletion mutant based on DEV CHv-BAC-G displayed similar growth curves, plaque morphology and virus titer of its parental virus in infected Duck Embryo Fibroblast (DEF) cells. Immunofluorescence assay indicated that the loss of UL55 gene do not affect the distribution of UL26.5 protein in intracellular. These data also suggest infectious BAC clone of DEV CHv will facilitate the gene function studies of DEV genome.

Conclusions

We have successfully developed an infectious BAC clone of lethal clinical isolate DEV CHv for the first time. The generated UL55 gene mutant based on that demonstrated this platform would be a very useful tool for functional study of DEV genes. We found the least known DEV UL55 is dispensable for virus replication and UL26.5 distribution, and it could be a very promise candidate locus for developing bivalent vaccine. Experiment are now in progress for testifying the possibility of UL55 gene locus as an exogenous gene insertion site for developing DEV vectored vaccine.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12985-017-0748-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Inferring biomarkers for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection and disease progression in cattle using experimental data

Available diagnostic assays for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) have poor sensitivities and cannot detect early stages of infection, therefore, there is need to find new diagnostic markers for early infection detection and disease stages. We analyzed longitudinal IFN-γ, ELISA-antibody and fecal shedding experimental sensitivity scores for MAP infection detection and disease progression. We used both statistical methods and dynamic mathematical models to (i) evaluate the empirical assays (ii) infer and explain biological mechanisms that affect the time evolution of the biomarkers, and (iii) predict disease stages of 57 animals that were naturally infected with MAP. This analysis confirms that the fecal test is the best marker for disease progression and illustrates that Th1/Th2 (IFN-γ/ELISA antibodies) assays are important for infection detection, but cannot reliably predict persistent infections. Our results show that the theoretical simulated macrophage-based assay is a potential good diagnostic marker for MAP persistent infections and predictor of disease specific stages. We therefore recommend specifically designed experiments to test the use of a based assay in the diagnosis of MAP infections.

Different Phenotypes of Mature Biofilm in Flavobacterium psychrophilum Share a Potential for Virulence That Differs from Planktonic State

Flavobacterium psychrophilum is the etiological agent of bacterial coldwater disease and the rainbow trout fry syndrome in salmonid aquaculture worldwide. However, there have been few studies into the capacity of F. psychrophilum to form biofilms and how these cellular accretions differ from planktonic cells or how they affect potential virulence. We evaluated the biofilm formation by three Chilean isolates of F. psychrophilum (LM-02-Fp, LM-06-Fp, and LM-13-Fp) and two non-Chilean strains (JIP02/86 and NCMB1947^T), and compared biofilm and planktonic states to obtain insights into expression differences of virulence- and biofilm-related genes (VBRGs). Our findings are based on scanning confocal laser microscopy (SCLM) and LIVE/DEAD staining, enzymatic reactions, reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) of genes encoding putative virulence factors, and transcriptomes (RNA-Seq). The LM-02-Fp and NCMB1947^T strains were the strongest and weakest biofilm producers, respectively. The strong-biofilm producer showed different physiological cell states distributed in different layers of mature biofilms, whereas the NCMB1947^T biofilms consisted of cells arranged in a monolayer. WGA-binding exopolysaccharides would be the main components of their corresponding extracellular matrices. Transcriptomes of F. psychrophilum NCMB1947^T and LM-02-Fp were clustered by state (biofilm vs. planktonic) rather than by strain, indicating important state-dependent differences in gene expression. Analysis of differentially expressed genes between states identified putative VBRGs involved in polysaccharide biosynthesis, lateral gene transfer, membrane transport (e.g., for drugs and Fe³⁺), sensory mechanisms, and adhesion, and indicated that about 60-100% of VBRGs involved in these processes was significantly upregulated in the biofilm state. Conversely, upregulated motility-related genes in the biofilm state were not identified, whereas a lower fraction of proteolysis-related genes (33%) was upregulated in biofilms. In summary, F. psychrophilum strains that produce different biofilm phenotypes show global transcriptional activity in the mature biofilm state that differs significantly from their planktonic counterparts. Also, different biofilm phenotypes share a genetic potential for virulence that is transcriptionally enhanced with respect to free-living cells. Our results suggest that the F. psychrophilum biofilm lifestyle acts as a reservoir for a given set of putative virulence factors, and recommend a deeper understanding of which could help prevent recurring infections in salmonid farms.

Complete Genome Sequence of Flavobacteriumpsychrophilum Strain OSU THCO2-90, Used for Functional Genetic Analysis

We report here the complete annotated genome sequence of Flavobacterium psychrophilum OSU THCO2-90, isolated from Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in Oregon. The genome consists of a circular chromosome with 2,343 predicted open reading frames. This strain has proved to be a valuable tool for functional genomics.

The fecal presence of enterotoxin and F4 genes as an indicator of efficacy of treatment with colistin sulfate in pigs

Background

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) strains producing multiple enterotoxins are important causes of post-weaning diarrhea (PWD) in pigs. The aim of the present study was to investigate the fecal presence of ETEC enterotoxin as well as F4 and F18 genes as an indicator of colistin sulfate (CS) efficacy for treatment of PWD in pigs. Forty-eight piglets were weaned at the age of 21 days, and were divided into four groups: challenged treated, challenged untreated, unchallenged treated, and unchallenged untreated. Challenge was performed using 10⁹ CFU of an ETEC: F4 strain, and treatment was conducted using oral CS at the dose of 50,000 IU/kg. The fecal presence of genes encoding for STa, STb, LT, F4 and F18 was detected using PCR.

Results

The PCR amplification of ETEC virulence genes showed that nearly 100% of pigs excreted genes encoding for STa and STb toxins in the feces before the challenge. These genes, in the absence of the gene encoding F4, were considered as a marker for F4-negative ETEC. One day after ETEC: F4 oral challenge pigs in the two challenged groups excreted the genes encoding LT and F4 in the feces. These genes were considered as a marker for F4-positive ETEC. However, the gene encoding F18 was not detected in any fecal samples of the 4 groups throughout the experiment. After only 3 days of successive oral treatment with CS, a significant reduction in both the F4-positive and negative ETEC populations was observed in the challenged treated group compared to the challenged untreated group (p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

Our study is among the first to report that under controlled farming conditions, oral CS treatment had a significant effect on both fecal F4-positive and F4-negative ETEC in pigs. However, CS clinical efficiency was correlated with non-detection of F4-positive ETEC in the feces. Furthermore the fecal presence of F4-negative ETEC was not associated with clinical symptoms of post-weaning diarrhea in pigs.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12866-016-0915-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.