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Darveau CA. Insect Flight Energetics and the Evolution of Size, Form, and Function. Integr Comp Biol 2024; 64:586-597. [PMID: 38688867 PMCID: PMC11406158 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icae028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Flying insects vary greatly in body size and wing proportions, significantly impacting their flight energetics. Generally, the larger the insect, the slower its flight wingbeat frequency. However, variation in frequency is also explained by differences in wing proportions, where larger-winged insects tend to have lower frequencies. These associations affect the energy required for flight. The correlated evolution of flight form and function can be further defined using a lineage of closely related bee species varying in body mass. The decline in flight wingbeat frequency with increasing size is paralleled by the flight mass-specific metabolic rate. The specific scaling exponents observed can be predicted from the wing area allometry, where a greater increase (hyperallometry) leads to a more pronounced effect on flight energetics, and hypoallometry can lead to no change in frequency and metabolic rate across species. The metabolic properties of the flight muscles also vary with body mass and wing proportions, as observed from the activity of glycolytic enzymes and the phospholipid compositions of muscle tissue, connecting morphological differences with muscle metabolic properties. The evolutionary scaling observed across species is recapitulated within species. The static allometry observed within the bumblebee Bombus impatiens, where the wing area is proportional and isometric, affects wingbeat frequency and metabolic rate, which is predicted to decrease with an increase in size. Intraspecific variation in flight muscle tissue properties is also related to flight metabolic rate. The role of developmental processes and phenotypic plasticity in explaining intraspecific differences is central to our understanding of flight energetics. These studies provide a framework where static allometry observed within species gives rise to evolutionary allometry, connecting the evolution of size, form, and function associated with insect flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles-A Darveau
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
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2
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Brydegaard M, Pedales RD, Feng V, Yamoa ASD, Kouakou B, Månefjord H, Wührl L, Pylatiuk C, Amorim DDS, Meier R. Towards global insect biomonitoring with frugal methods. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230103. [PMID: 38705174 PMCID: PMC11070255 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
None of the global targets for protecting nature are currently met, although humanity is critically dependent on biodiversity. A significant issue is the lack of data for most biodiverse regions of the planet where the use of frugal methods for biomonitoring would be particularly important because the available funding for monitoring is insufficient, especially in low-income countries. We here discuss how three approaches to insect biomonitoring (computer vision, lidar, DNA sequences) could be made more frugal and urge that all biomonitoring techniques should be evaluated for global suitability before becoming the default in high-income countries. This requires that techniques popular in high-income countries should undergo a phase of 'innovation through simplification' before they are implemented more broadly. We predict that techniques that acquire raw data at low cost and are suitable for analysis with AI (e.g. images, lidar-signals) will be particularly suitable for global biomonitoring, while techniques that rely heavily on patented technologies may be less promising (e.g. DNA sequences). We conclude the opinion piece by pointing out that the widespread use of AI for data analysis will require a global strategy for providing the necessary computational resources and training. This article is part of the theme issue 'Towards a toolkit for global insect biodiversity monitoring'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikkel Brydegaard
- Dept. Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, 22362 Lund, Sweden
- Dept. Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 35, 22362 Lund, Sweden
- Norsk Elektro Optikk, Østensjøveien 34, 0667 Oslo, Norge
- FaunaPhotonics, Støberi Støberigade 14, 2450 København, Denmark
| | - Ronniel D. Pedales
- Institute of Biology, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines 1101
- Center for Integrative Biodiversity Discovery, Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Vivian Feng
- Center for Integrative Biodiversity Discovery, Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Assoumou saint-doria Yamoa
- Instrumentation, Imaging and Spectroscopy Laboratory, Felix Houphouet-Boigny Institute, BP1093 Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast
| | - Benoit Kouakou
- Instrumentation, Imaging and Spectroscopy Laboratory, Felix Houphouet-Boigny Institute, BP1093 Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast
| | - Hampus Månefjord
- Dept. Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, 22362 Lund, Sweden
| | - Lorenz Wührl
- Institute for Automation and Applied Informatics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Christian Pylatiuk
- Institute for Automation and Applied Informatics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Dalton de Souza Amorim
- Departamento de Biologia, FFCLRP, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-901, Brazil
| | - Rudolf Meier
- Center for Integrative Biodiversity Discovery, Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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3
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Eshghi S, Rajabi H, Shafaghi S, Nabati F, Nazerian S, Darvizeh A, Gorb SN. Allometric Scaling Reveals Evolutionary Constraint on Odonata Wing Cellularity via Critical Crack Length. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2400844. [PMID: 38613834 PMCID: PMC11187826 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202400844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
Scaling in insect wings is a complex phenomenon that seems pivotal in maintaining wing functionality. In this study, the relationship between wing size and the size, location, and shape of wing cells in dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata) is investigated, aiming to address the question of how these factors are interconnected. To this end, WingGram, the recently developed computer-vision-based software, is used to extract the geometric features of wing cells of 389 dragonflies and damselfly wings from 197 species and 16 families. It has been found that the cell length of the wings does not depend on the wing size. Despite the wide variation in wing length (8.42 to 56.5 mm) and cell length (0.1 to 8.5 mm), over 80% of the cells had a length ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 mm, which was previously identified as the critical crack length of the membrane of locust wings. An isometric scaling of cells is also observed with maximum size in each wing, which increased as the size increased. Smaller cells tended to be more circular than larger cells. The results have implications for bio-mimetics, inspiring new materials and designs for artificial wings with potential applications in aerospace engineering and robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahab Eshghi
- Department of Functional Morphology and BiomechanicsZoological InstituteKiel University24118KielGermany
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Division of Mechanical Engineering and DesignSchool of EngineeringLondon South Bank UniversityLondonSE1 0AAUK
- Mechanical Intelligence Research GroupSouth Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER)School of EngineeringLondon South Bank UniversityLondonSE1 0AAUK
| | - Shaghayegh Shafaghi
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringAhrar Institute of Technology and Higher EducationRasht4193163591Iran
| | - Fatemeh Nabati
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringAhrar Institute of Technology and Higher EducationRasht4193163591Iran
| | - Sana Nazerian
- Department Artificial Intelligence in Biomedical EngineeringFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐NürnbergHenkestraße 9191052ErlangenGermany
| | - Abolfazl Darvizeh
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringAhrar Institute of Technology and Higher EducationRasht4193163591Iran
- Faculty of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of GuilanRasht4199613776Iran
| | - Stanislav N. Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and BiomechanicsZoological InstituteKiel University24118KielGermany
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4
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Fan L, Guan G, Zhao J, Li D, Yu X, Shentu X. Comparative analysis of the diversity of symbionts in fat body of long- and short-winged brown planthoppers. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 115:e22096. [PMID: 38500448 DOI: 10.1002/arch.22096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
The microbial community structure plays an important role in the internal environment of brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Hemiptera: Delphacidae), which is an indispensable part to reflect the internal environment of BPH. Wing dimorphism is a strategy for balancing flight and reproduction of insects. Here, quantitative fluorescence PCR was used to analyse the number and changes of the symbionts in the fat body of long- and short-winged BPHs at different developmental stages. A metagenomic library was constructed based on the 16 S rRNA sequence and internal transcribed spacer sequence for high-throughput sequencing, to analyze the community structure and population number of the symbionts of long- and short-winged BPHs, and to make functional prediction. This study enriches the connotation of BPH symbionts, and laid a theoretical foundation for the subsequent study of BPH-symbionts interaction and the function of symbionts in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Fan
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guangxiang Guan
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jingjing Zhao
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Danting Li
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoping Yu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xuping Shentu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
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5
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Weber AI, Babaei M, Mamo A, Brunton BW, Daniel TL, Bergbreiter S. Nonuniform structural properties of wings confer sensing advantages. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20220765. [PMID: 36946090 PMCID: PMC10031407 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Sensory feedback is essential to both animals and robotic systems for achieving coordinated, precise movements. Mechanosensory feedback, which provides information about body deformation, depends not only on the properties of sensors but also on the structure in which they are embedded. In insects, wing structure plays a particularly important role in flapping flight: in addition to generating aerodynamic forces, wings provide mechanosensory feedback necessary for guiding flight while undergoing dramatic deformations during each wingbeat. However, the role that wing structure plays in determining mechanosensory information is relatively unexplored. Insect wings exhibit characteristic stiffness gradients and are subject to both aerodynamic and structural damping. Here we examine how both of these properties impact sensory performance, using finite element analysis combined with sensor placement optimization approaches. We show that wings with nonuniform stiffness exhibit several advantages over uniform stiffness wings, resulting in higher accuracy of rotation detection and lower sensitivity to the placement of sensors on the wing. Moreover, we show that higher damping generally improves the accuracy with which body rotations can be detected. These results contribute to our understanding of the evolution of the nonuniform stiffness patterns in insect wings, as well as suggest design principles for robotic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison I. Weber
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mahnoush Babaei
- Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Amanuel Mamo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Thomas L. Daniel
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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6
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Classifying fossil Darwin wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) with geometric morphometrics of fore wings. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0275570. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Linking fossil species to the extant diversity is often a difficult task, and the correct interpretation of character evidence is crucial for assessing their taxonomic placement. Here, we make use of geometric morphometrics of fore wings to help classify five fossil Darwin wasps from the Early Eocene Fur Formation in Denmark into subfamilies and often tribes. We compile a reference dataset with 342 fore wings of nine extant subfamilies and nine relevant fossil species. Since geometric morphometrics was mostly ignored in the past in Darwin wasp classification, the dataset is first used to examine differences and similarities in wing venation among subfamilies. In a next step, we used the reference dataset to inform the classification of the fossil species, which resulted in the description of one new genus and five new species, Crusopimpla weltii sp. nov., Ebriosa flava gen. et sp. nov., Entypoma? duergari sp. nov., Lathrolestes? zlatorog sp. nov., and Triclistus bibori sp. nov., in four different subfamilies. Carefully assessing data quality, we show that the fore wing venation of fossil Darwin wasps is surprisingly suitable to assign them to a subfamily or even lower taxonomic level, especially when used in conjunction with characters from other parts of the body to narrow down a candidate set of potential subfamilies and tribes. Our results not only demonstrate a fast and useful approach to inform fossil classification but provide a basis for future investigations into evolutionary changes in fore wings of ichneumonids. The high informativeness of wing venation for classification furthermore could be harvested for phylogenetic analyses, which are otherwise often hampered by homoplasy in this parasitoid wasp family.
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7
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Gao H, Lynch J, Gravish N. Soft Molds with Micro-Machined Internal Skeletons Improve Robustness of Flapping-Wing Robots. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:1489. [PMID: 36144112 PMCID: PMC9502397 DOI: 10.3390/mi13091489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Mobile millimeter and centimeter scale robots often use smart composite manufacturing (SCM) for the construction of body components and mechanisms. The fabrication of SCM mechanisms requires laser machining and laminating flexible, adhesive, and structural materials into small-scale hinges, transmissions, and, ultimately, wings or legs. However, a fundamental limitation of SCM components is the plastic deformation and failure of flexures. In this work, we demonstrate that encasing SCM components in a soft silicone mold dramatically improves the durability of SCM flexure hinges and provides robustness to SCM components. We demonstrate this advance in the design of a flapping-wing robot that uses an underactuated compliant transmission fabricated with an inner SCM skeleton and exterior silicone mold. The transmission design is optimized to achieve desired wingstroke requirements and to allow for independent motion of each wing. We validate these design choices in bench-top tests, measuring transmission compliance, kinematics, and fatigue. We integrate the transmission with laminate wings and two types of actuation, demonstrating elastic energy exchange and limited lift-off capabilities. Lastly, we tested collision mitigation through flapping-wing experiments that obstructed the motion of a wing. These experiments demonstrate that an underactuated compliant transmission can provide resilience and robustness to flapping-wing robots.
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8
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An image based application in Matlab for automated modelling and morphological analysis of insect wings. Sci Rep 2022; 12:13917. [PMID: 35977980 PMCID: PMC9386019 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-17859-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite extensive research on the biomechanics of insect wings over the past years, direct mechanical measurements on sensitive wing specimens remain very challenging. This is especially true for examining delicate museum specimens. This has made the finite element method popular in studies of wing biomechanics. Considering the complexities of insect wings, developing a wing model is usually error-prone and time-consuming. Hence, numerical studies in this area have often accompanied oversimplified models. Here we address this challenge by developing a new tool for fast, precise modelling of insect wings. This application, called WingGram, uses computer vision to detect the boundaries of wings and wing cells from a 2D image. The app can be used to develop wing models that include complex venations, corrugations and camber. WingGram can extract geometric features of the wings, including dimensions of the wing domain and subdomains and the location of vein junctions. Allowing researchers to simply model wings with a variety of forms, shapes and sizes, our application can facilitate studies of insect wing morphology and biomechanics. Being an open-access resource, WingGram has a unique application to expand how scientists, educators, and industry professionals analyse insect wings and similar shell structures in other fields, such as aerospace.
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9
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Li M, Seinsche C, Jansson S, Hernandez J, Rota J, Warrant E, Brydegaard M. Potential for identification of wild night-flying moths by remote infrared microscopy. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20220256. [PMID: 35730175 PMCID: PMC9214284 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
There are hundreds of thousands of moth species with crucial ecological roles that are often obscured by their nocturnal lifestyles. The pigmentation and appearance of moths are dominated by cryptic diffuse shades of brown. In this study, 82 specimens representing 26 moth species were analysed using infrared polarimetric hyperspectral imaging in the range of 0.95–2.5 µm. Contrary to previous studies, we demonstrate that since infrared light does not resolve the surface roughness, wings appear glossy and specular at longer wavelengths. Such properties provide unique reflectance spectra between species. The reflectance of the majority of our species could be explained by comprehensive models, and a complete parametrization of the spectral, polarimetric and angular optical properties was reduced to just 11 parameters with physical units. These parameters are complementary and, compared with the within-species variation, were significantly distinct between species. Counterintuitively to the aperture-limited resolution criterion, we could deduce microscopic features along the surface from their infrared properties. These features were confirmed by electron microscopy. Finally, we show how our findings could greatly enhance opportunities for remote identification of free-flying moth species, and we hypothesize that such flat specular wing targets could be expected to be sensed over considerable distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Li
- Department of Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, 22363 Lund, Sweden
| | - Clara Seinsche
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 35, 22362 Lund, Sweden.,Department of Biology, University of Cologne, Zuelpicher Straße 47b, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Samuel Jansson
- Department of Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, 22363 Lund, Sweden.,Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 35, 22362 Lund, Sweden.,FaunaPhotonics, Støberigade 14, 2450 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Julio Hernandez
- Norsk Elektro Optikk A/S, Østensjøveien 34, 0667 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jadranka Rota
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 35, 22362 Lund, Sweden.,Biological Museum, Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, 22362 Lund, Sweden
| | - Eric Warrant
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 35, 22362 Lund, Sweden
| | - Mikkel Brydegaard
- Department of Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, 22363 Lund, Sweden.,Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 35, 22362 Lund, Sweden.,FaunaPhotonics, Støberigade 14, 2450 Copenhagen, Denmark.,Norsk Elektro Optikk A/S, Østensjøveien 34, 0667 Oslo, Norway
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10
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MacLeod N, Price B, Stevens Z. What you sample is what you get: ecomorphological variation in Trithemis (Odonata, Libellulidae) dragonfly wings reconsidered. BMC Ecol Evol 2022; 22:43. [PMID: 35410171 PMCID: PMC8996507 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-022-01978-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The phylogenetic ecology of the Afro-Asian dragonfly genus Trithemis has been investigated previously by Damm et al. (in Mol Phylogenet Evol 54:870-882, 2010) and wing ecomorphology by Outomuro et al. (in J Evol Biol 26:1866-1874, 2013). However, the latter investigation employed a somewhat coarse sampling of forewing and hindwing outlines and reported results that were at odds in some ways with expectations given the mapping of landscape and water-body preference over the Trithemis cladogram produced by Damm et al. (in Mol Phylogenet Evol 54:870-882, 2010). To further explore the link between species-specific wing shape variation and habitat we studied a new sample of 27 Trithemis species employing a more robust statistical test for phylogenetic covariation, more comprehensive representations of Trithemis wing morphology and a wider range of morphometric data-analysis procedures. RESULTS Contrary to the Outomuro et al. (in J Evol Biol 26:1866-1874, 2013) report, our results indicate that no statistically significant pattern of phylogenetic covariation exists in our Trithemis forewing and hindwing data and that both male and female wing datasets exhibit substantial shape differences between species that inhabit open and forested landscapes and species that hunt over temporary/standing or running water bodies. Among the morphometric analyses performed, landmark data and geometric morphometric data-analysis methods yielded the worst performance in identifying ecomorphometric shape distinctions between Trithemis habitat guilds. Direct analysis of wing images using an embedded convolution (deep learning) neural network delivered the best performance. Bootstrap and jackknife tests of group separations and discriminant-function stability confirm that our results are not artifacts of overtrained discriminant systems or the "curse of dimensionality" despite the modest size of our sample. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that Trithemis wing morphology reflects the environment's "push" to a much greater extent than phylogeny's "pull". In addition, they indicate that close attention should be paid to the manner in which morphologies are sampled for morphometric analysis and, if no prior information is available to guide sampling strategy, the sample that most comprehensively represents the morphologies of interest should be obtained. In many cases this will be digital images (2D) or scans (3D) of the entire morphology or morphological feature rather than sparse sets of landmark/semilandmark point locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norman MacLeod
- School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Benjamin Price
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Zackary Stevens
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University, Main Building, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
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11
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Aiello BR, Stanchak KE, Weber AI, Deora T, Sponberg S, Brunton BW. Spatial distribution of campaniform sensilla mechanosensors on wings: form, function, and phylogeny. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2021; 48:8-17. [PMID: 34175464 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2021.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Insect wings serve two crucial functions in flight: propulsion and sensing. During flapping flight, complex spatiotemporal patterns of strain on the wing reflect mechanics, kinematics, and external perturbations; sensing wing deformation provides feedback necessary for flight control. Campaniform sensilla distributed across the wing transduce local strain fluctuations into neural signals, so their placement on the wing determines sensory information available to the insect. Thus, understanding the significance of these sensor locations will also reveal how sensing and wing movement are coupled. Here, we identify trends in wing campaniform sensilla placement across flying insects from the literature. We then discuss how these patterns can influence sensory encoding by wing mechanosensors. Finally, we propose combining a comparative approach on model insect clades with computational modeling, leveraging the spectacular natural diversity in wings to uncover biological principles of mechanosensory feedback in flight control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett R Aiello
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta 30332, GA, USA; School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta 30332, GA, USA
| | | | - Alison I Weber
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle 98195, WA, USA
| | - Tanvi Deora
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle 98195, WA, USA
| | - Simon Sponberg
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta 30332, GA, USA; School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta 30332, GA, USA.
| | - Bingni W Brunton
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle 98195, WA, USA
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12
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Reis M, Siomava N, Wimmer EA, Posnien N. Conserved and Divergent Aspects of Plasticity and Sexual Dimorphism in Wing Size and Shape in Three Diptera. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.660546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of powered flight in insects facilitated their great evolutionary success allowing them to occupy various ecological niches. Beyond this primary task, wings are often involved in various premating behaviors, such as the generation of courtship songs and the initiation of mating in flight. These specific functions imply special adaptations of wing morphology, as well as sex-specific wing morphologies. Although wing morphology has been extensively studied in Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen, 1830), a comprehensive understanding of developmental plasticity and the impact of sex on wing size and shape plasticity is missing for other Diptera. Therefore, we raised flies of the three Diptera species Drosophila melanogaster, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann, 1824) and Musca domestica (Linnaeus, 1758) at different environmental conditions and applied geometric morphometrics to analyze wing shape. Our data showed extensive interspecific differences in wing shape, as well as a clear sexual wing shape dimorphism in all three species. We revealed an impact of different rearing temperatures on wing shape in all three species, which was mostly explained by plasticity in wing size in D. melanogaster. Rearing densities had significant effects on allometric wing shape in D. melanogaster, while no obvious effects were observed for the other two species. Additionally, we did not find evidence for sex-specific response to different rearing conditions in D. melanogaster and C. capitata, while a male-specific impact of different rearing conditions was observed on non-allometric wing shape in M. domestica. Overall, our data strongly suggests that many aspects of wing morphology underly species-specific adaptations and we discuss potential developmental and functional implications of our results.
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13
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Weber AI, Daniel TL, Brunton BW. Wing structure and neural encoding jointly determine sensing strategies in insect flight. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1009195. [PMID: 34379622 PMCID: PMC8382179 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals rely on sensory feedback to generate accurate, reliable movements. In many flying insects, strain-sensitive neurons on the wings provide rapid feedback that is critical for stable flight control. While the impacts of wing structure on aerodynamic performance have been widely studied, the impacts of wing structure on sensing are largely unexplored. In this paper, we show how the structural properties of the wing and encoding by mechanosensory neurons interact to jointly determine optimal sensing strategies and performance. Specifically, we examine how neural sensors can be placed effectively on a flapping wing to detect body rotation about different axes, using a computational wing model with varying flexural stiffness. A small set of mechanosensors, conveying strain information at key locations with a single action potential per wingbeat, enable accurate detection of body rotation. Optimal sensor locations are concentrated at either the wing base or the wing tip, and they transition sharply as a function of both wing stiffness and neural threshold. Moreover, the sensing strategy and performance is robust to both external disturbances and sensor loss. Typically, only five sensors are needed to achieve near-peak accuracy, with a single sensor often providing accuracy well above chance. Our results show that small-amplitude, dynamic signals can be extracted efficiently with spatially and temporally sparse sensors in the context of flight. The demonstrated interaction of wing structure and neural encoding properties points to the importance of understanding each in the context of their joint evolution. In addition to generating forces for flight, insect wings also serve an important role as sensory structures, providing rapid feedback about wing bending that is used to stabilize flight. While much is known about how wing structure affects aerodynamic performance, the effects of wing structure on sensing remain unexplored. Using a computational model of a flapping wing, we examine how sensing strategies depend on wing stiffness and sensor properties. We show that body rotations can be accurately detected with a small number of sensors on the wing across a wide range of conditions. Optimal sensor locations are clustered at either the wing base or wing tip, depending on a combination of wing stiffness and sensor properties. Moreover, sensing performance is robust to multiple kinds of perturbations. Our work provides a basis for understanding how wing structure impacts incoming sensory information during flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison I. Weber
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Thomas L. Daniel
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Bingni W. Brunton
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
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Lürig MD, Donoughe S, Svensson EI, Porto A, Tsuboi M. Computer Vision, Machine Learning, and the Promise of Phenomics in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.642774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
For centuries, ecologists and evolutionary biologists have used images such as drawings, paintings and photographs to record and quantify the shapes and patterns of life. With the advent of digital imaging, biologists continue to collect image data at an ever-increasing rate. This immense body of data provides insight into a wide range of biological phenomena, including phenotypic diversity, population dynamics, mechanisms of divergence and adaptation, and evolutionary change. However, the rate of image acquisition frequently outpaces our capacity to manually extract meaningful information from images. Moreover, manual image analysis is low-throughput, difficult to reproduce, and typically measures only a few traits at a time. This has proven to be an impediment to the growing field of phenomics – the study of many phenotypic dimensions together. Computer vision (CV), the automated extraction and processing of information from digital images, provides the opportunity to alleviate this longstanding analytical bottleneck. In this review, we illustrate the capabilities of CV as an efficient and comprehensive method to collect phenomic data in ecological and evolutionary research. First, we briefly review phenomics, arguing that ecologists and evolutionary biologists can effectively capture phenomic-level data by taking pictures and analyzing them using CV. Next we describe the primary types of image-based data, review CV approaches for extracting them (including techniques that entail machine learning and others that do not), and identify the most common hurdles and pitfalls. Finally, we highlight recent successful implementations and promising future applications of CV in the study of phenotypes. In anticipation that CV will become a basic component of the biologist’s toolkit, our review is intended as an entry point for ecologists and evolutionary biologists that are interested in extracting phenotypic information from digital images.
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15
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Starkweather RM, Poroseva SV, Hanson DT. On the shape of cicada's wing leading-edge cross section. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7763. [PMID: 33833394 PMCID: PMC8032777 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87504-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
An important role that the leading-edge cross-section shape plays in the wing flight performance is well known in aeronautics. However, little is known about the shape of the leading-edge cross section of an insect’s wing and its contribution to remarkable qualities of insect flight. In this paper, we reveal, in the first time, the shape of the leading-edge cross section of a cicada’s wing and analyze its variability along the wing. We also identify and quantify similarities in characteristic dimensions of this shape in the wings of three different cicada species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M Starkweather
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Svetlana V Poroseva
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA.
| | - David T Hanson
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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16
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Fujiwara M, Goh T, Tsugawa S, Nakajima K, Fukaki H, Fujimoto K. Tissue growth constrains root organ outlines into an isometrically scalable shape. Development 2021; 148:148/4/dev196253. [PMID: 33637613 PMCID: PMC7929931 DOI: 10.1242/dev.196253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Organ morphologies are diverse but also conserved under shared developmental constraints among species. Any geometrical similarities in the shape behind diversity and the underlying developmental constraints remain unclear. Plant root tip outlines commonly exhibit a dome shape, which likely performs physiological functions, despite the diversity in size and cellular organization among distinct root classes and/or species. We carried out morphometric analysis of the primary roots of ten angiosperm species and of the lateral roots (LRs) of Arabidopsis, and found that each root outline was isometrically scaled onto a parameter-free catenary curve, a stable structure adopted for arch bridges. Using the physical model for bridges, we analogized that localized and spatially uniform occurrence of oriented cell division and expansion force the LR primordia (LRP) tip to form a catenary curve. These growth rules for the catenary curve were verified by tissue growth simulation of developing LRP development based on time-lapse imaging. Consistently, LRP outlines of mutants compromised in these rules were found to deviate from catenary curves. Our analyses demonstrate that physics-inspired growth rules constrain plant root tips to form isometrically scalable catenary curves. Highlighted Article: The dome-shaped outlines of plant root tips converge to a parameter-free catenary curve seen in arch bridges, owing to a constraint from anisotropic and localized tissue growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motohiro Fujiwara
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Tatsuaki Goh
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Takayama, Ikoma 630-0192, Japan
| | - Satoru Tsugawa
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Takayama, Ikoma 630-0192, Japan
| | - Keiji Nakajima
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Takayama, Ikoma 630-0192, Japan
| | - Hidehiro Fukaki
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Rokkodai, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Koichi Fujimoto
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka 560-0043, Japan
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17
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Waldrop LD, Rader JA. Melding Modeling and Morphology: A Call for Collaboration to Address Difficult Questions about the Evolution of Form and Function. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 60:1188-1192. [PMID: 33220060 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The nascent field of evolutionary biomechanics seeks to understand how form begets function, and researchers have taken two tacks toward this goal: inferring form based on function (comparative biomechanics) or inferring function based on form (functional morphology). Each tack has strengths and weaknesses, which the other could improve. The symposium, "Melding modeling and morphology-integrating approaches to understand the evolution of form and function" sought to highlight research stitching together the two tacks. In this introduction to the symposium's issue, we highlight these works, discuss the challenges of interdisciplinary collaborations, and suggest possible avenues available to create new collaborations to create a unifying framework for evolutionary biomechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay D Waldrop
- Schmid College of Science and Technology, Chapman University, Orange, CA 92866, USA
| | - Jonathan A Rader
- Department of Biology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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18
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Abstract
Insect wings are living, flexible structures composed of tubular veins and thin wing membrane. Wing veins can contain hemolymph (insect blood), tracheae, and nerves. Continuous flow of hemolymph within insect wings ensures that sensory hairs, structural elements such as resilin, and other living tissue within the wings remain functional. While it is well known that hemolymph circulates through insect wings, the extent of wing circulation (e.g., whether flow is present in every vein, and whether it is confined to the veins alone) is not well understood, especially for wings with complex wing venation. Over the last 100 years, scientists have developed experimental methods including microscopy, fluorescence, and thermography to observe flow in the wings. Recognizing and evaluating the importance of hemolymph movement in insect wings is critical in evaluating how the wings function both as flight appendages, as active sensors, and as thermoregulatory organs. In this review, we discuss the history of circulation in wings, past and present experimental techniques for measuring hemolymph, and broad implications for the field of hemodynamics in insect wings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Salcedo
- Department of Biomedical and Mechanical Engineering Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - John J Socha
- Department of Biomedical and Mechanical Engineering Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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19
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Dong Y, Majda M, Šimura J, Horvath R, Srivastava AK, Łangowski Ł, Eldridge T, Stacey N, Slotte T, Sadanandom A, Ljung K, Smith RS, Østergaard L. HEARTBREAK Controls Post-translational Modification of INDEHISCENT to Regulate Fruit Morphology in Capsella. Curr Biol 2020; 30:3880-3888.e5. [PMID: 32795439 PMCID: PMC7544509 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.07.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Morphological variation is the basis of natural diversity and adaptation. For example, angiosperms (flowering plants) evolved during the Cretaceous period more than 100 mya and quickly colonized terrestrial habitats [1]. A major reason for their astonishing success was the formation of fruits, which exist in a myriad of different shapes and sizes [2]. Evolution of organ shape is fueled by variation in expression patterns of regulatory genes causing changes in anisotropic cell expansion and division patterns [3, 4, 5]. However, the molecular mechanisms that alter the polarity of growth to generate novel shapes are largely unknown. The heart-shaped fruits produced by members of the Capsella genus comprise an anatomical novelty, making it particularly well suited for studies on morphological diversification [6, 7, 8]. Here, we show that post-translational modification of regulatory proteins provides a critical step in organ-shape formation. Our data reveal that the SUMO protease, HEARTBREAK (HTB), from Capsella rubella controls the activity of the key regulator of fruit development, INDEHISCENT (CrIND in C. rubella), via de-SUMOylation. This post-translational modification initiates a transduction pathway required to ensure precisely localized auxin biosynthesis, thereby facilitating anisotropic cell expansion to ultimately form the heart-shaped Capsella fruit. Therefore, although variation in the expression of key regulatory genes is known to be a primary driver in morphological evolution, our work demonstrates how other processes—such as post-translational modification of one such regulator—affects organ morphology. HTB encodes a SUMO protease required for fruit shape in Capsella Anisotropic cell growth is suppressed in the fruit valves of the htb mutant HTB stabilizes CrIND through de-SUMOylation to facilitate local auxin biosynthesis
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Dong
- Crop Genetics Department, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Mateusz Majda
- Cell and Developmental Biology Department, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Jan Šimura
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Robert Horvath
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Science for Life Laboratory, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Łukasz Łangowski
- Crop Genetics Department, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Tilly Eldridge
- Crop Genetics Department, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Nicola Stacey
- Crop Genetics Department, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Tanja Slotte
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Science for Life Laboratory, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ari Sadanandom
- Department of Biosciences, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Karin Ljung
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Richard S Smith
- Cell and Developmental Biology Department, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Lars Østergaard
- Crop Genetics Department, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK.
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First person – Mary Salcedo. Biol Open 2019. [PMCID: PMC6826282 DOI: 10.1242/bio.048199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
First Person is a series of interviews with the first authors of a selection of papers published in Biology Opens, helping early-career researchers promote themselves alongside their papers. Mary Salcedo is first author on ‘Computational analysis of size, shape and structure of insect wings’, published in BiO. Mary conducted the research described in this article while a Graduate Student in L. Mahadevan's lab at Harvard University, Cambridge, USA. She is now a NSF Postdoctoral Researcher in Biology in the lab of Jake Socha at Virginia Tech, USA, investigating insect wing shapes, venation patterns and circulation within the wings.
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