Distinct roles of class IA PI3K isoforms in primary and immortalised macrophages

Hematopoietic PI3Kδ deficiency aggravates murine atherosclerosis through impairment of Tregs

Chronic activation of the adaptive immune system is a hallmark of atherosclerosis. As PI3Kδ is a key regulator of T and B cell differentiation and function, we hypothesized that alleviation of adaptive immunity by PI3Kδ inactivation may represent an attractive strategy counteracting atherogenesis. As expected, lack of hematopoietic PI3Kδ in atherosclerosis-prone Ldlr-/- mice resulted in lowered T and B cell numbers, CD4+ effector T cells, Th1 response, and immunoglobulin levels. However, despite markedly impaired peripheral pro-inflammatory Th1 cells and atheromatous CD4+ T cells, the unexpected net effect of hematopoietic PI3Kδ deficiency was aggravated vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis. Further analyses revealed that PI3Kδ deficiency impaired numbers, immunosuppressive functions, and stability of regulatory CD4+ T cells (Tregs), whereas macrophage biology remained largely unaffected. Adoptive transfer of wild-type Tregs fully restrained the atherosclerotic plaque burden in Ldlr-/- mice lacking hematopoietic PI3Kδ, whereas PI3Kδ-deficient Tregs failed to mitigate disease. Numbers of atheroprotective B-1 and pro-atherogenic B-2 cells as well as serum immunoglobulin levels remained unaffected by adoptively transferred wild-type Tregs. In conclusion, we demonstrate that hematopoietic PI3Kδ ablation promotes atherosclerosis. Mechanistically, we identified PI3Kδ signaling as a powerful driver of atheroprotective Treg responses, which outweigh PI3Kδ-driven pro-atherogenic effects of adaptive immune cells like Th1 cells.

The role of macrophage migratory behavior in development, homeostasis and tumor invasion

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) recapitulate the developmental and homeostatic behaviors of tissue resident macrophages (TRMs) to promote tumor growth, invasion and metastasis. TRMs arise in the embryo and colonize developing tissues, initially to guide tissue morphogenesis and then to form complex networks in adult tissues to constantly search for threats to homeostasis. The macrophage growth factor, colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), which is essential for TRM survival and differentiation, is also responsible for the development of the unique motility machinery of mature macrophages that underpins their ramified morphologies, migratory capacity and ability to degrade matrix. Two CSF-1-activated kinases, hematopoietic cell kinase and the p110δ catalytic isoform of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, regulate this machinery and selective inhibitors of these proteins completely block macrophage invasion. Considering tumors co-opt the invasive capacity of TAMs to promote their own invasion, these proteins are attractive targets for drug development to inhibit tumor progression to invasion and metastasis.

PI3K signaling promotes formation of lipid-laden foamy macrophages at the spinal cord injury site

After spinal cord injury (SCI), infiltrating macrophages undergo excessive phagocytosis of myelin and cellular debris, forming lipid-laden foamy macrophages. To understand their role in the cellular pathology of SCI, investigation of the foamy macrophage phenotype in vitro revealed a pro-inflammatory profile, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Bioinformatic analysis identified PI3K as a regulator of inflammation in foamy macrophages, and inhibition of this pathway decreased their lipid content, inflammatory cytokines, and ROS production. Macrophage-specific inhibition of PI3K using liposomes significantly decreased foamy macrophages at the injury site after a mid-thoracic contusive SCI in mice. RNA sequencing and in vitro analysis of foamy macrophages revealed increased autophagy and decreased phagocytosis after PI3K inhibition as potential mechanisms for reduced lipid accumulation. Together, our data suggest that the formation of pro-inflammatory foamy macrophages after SCI is due to the activation of PI3K signaling, which increases phagocytosis and decreases autophagy.

Inhibition of Vps34 and p110δ PI3K Impairs Migration, Invasion and Three-Dimensional Spheroid Growth in Breast Cancer Cells

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease that represents the most common cancer around the world; it comprises 12% of new cases according to the World Health Organization. Despite new approaches in early diagnosis and current treatment, breast cancer is still the leading cause of death for cancer mortality. New targeted therapies against key signalling transduction molecules are required. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) regulates multiple biological functions such as proliferation, survival, migration, and growth. It is well established that PI3K isoform-selective inhibitors show fewer toxic side effects compared to broad spectrum inhibition of PI3K (pan-PI3K inhibitors). Therefore, we tested the PI3K p110δ-selective inhibitor, IC87114, and Vps34-selective inhibitor, Vps34-IN1, on the breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, representing hormone-responsive and triple-negative breast cancer cells, respectively. Our data show that both inhibitors decreased migration of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells, and Vps34 also significantly impacted MCF-7 cell proliferation. Three-dimensional (3D) in vitro culture models show that IC87114 and Vps34-IN1 treatment reduced the growth of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells in 3D tumour spheroid cultures. This study identifies IC87114 and Vps34-IN1 as potential therapeutic approaches in breast cancer.

A Case for Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase-Targeted Therapy for Infectious Disease

PI3Ks activate critical signaling cascades and have multifaceted regulatory functions in the immune system. Loss-of-function and gain-of-function mutations in the PI3Kδ isoform have revealed that this enzyme can substantially impact immune responses to infectious agents and their products. Moreover, reports garnered from decades of infectious disease studies indicate that pharmacologic inhibition of the PI3K pathway could potentially be effective in limiting the growth of certain microbes via modulation of the immune system. In this review, we briefly highlight the development and applications of PI3K inhibitors and summarize data supporting the concept that PI3Kδ inhibitors initially developed for oncology have immune regulatory potential that could be exploited to improve the control of some infectious diseases. This repurposing of existing kinase inhibitors could lay the foundation for alternative infectious disease therapy using available therapeutic agents.

Human Cytomegalovirus Glycoprotein-Initiated Signaling Mediates the Aberrant Activation of Akt

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among immunocompromised and immunonaive individuals. HCMV-induced signaling initiated during viral entry stimulates a rapid noncanonical activation of Akt to drive the differentiation of short-lived monocytes into long-lived macrophages, which is essential for viral dissemination and persistence. We found that HCMV glycoproteins gB and gH directly bind and activate cellular epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and integrin β1, respectively, to reshape canonical Akt signaling within monocytes. The remodeling of the Akt signaling network was due to the recruitment of nontraditional Akt activators to either the gB- or gH-generated receptor signaling complexes. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) comprised of the p110β catalytic subunit was recruited to the gB/EGFR complex despite p110δ being the primary PI3K isoform found within monocytes. Concomitantly, SH2 domain-containing inositol 5-phosphatase 1 (SHIP1) was recruited to the gH/integrin β1 complex, which is critical to aberrant Akt activation, as SHIP1 diverts PI3K signaling toward a noncanonical pathway. Although integrin β1 was required for SHIP1 recruitment, gB-activated EGFR mediated SHIP1 activation, underscoring the importance of the interplay between gB- and gH-mediated signaling to the unique activation of Akt during HCMV infection. Indeed, SHIP1 activation mediated the increased expression of Mcl-1 and HSP27, two Akt-dependent antiapoptotic proteins specifically upregulated during HCMV infection but not during growth factor treatment. Overall, our data indicate that HCMV glycoproteins gB and gH work in concert to initiate an HCMV-specific signalosome responsible for the atypical activation of Akt required for infected monocyte survival and ultimately viral persistence.IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is endemic throughout the world regardless of socioeconomic conditions and geographic locations with a seroprevalence reaching up to 100% in some developing countries. Although asymptomatic in healthy individuals, HCMV can cause severe multiorgan disease in immunocompromised or immunonaive patients. HCMV disease is a direct consequence of monocyte-mediated systematic spread of the virus following infection. Because monocytes are short-lived cells, HCMV must subvert the natural short life-span of these blood cells by inducing a distinct activation of Akt, a serine/theonine protein kinase. In this work, we demonstrate that HCMV glycoproteins gB and gH work in tandem to reroute classical host cellular receptor signaling to aberrantly activate Akt and drive survival of infected monocytes. Deciphering how HCMV modulates the cellular pathway to induce monocyte survival is important to develop a new class of anti-HCMV drugs that could target and prevent spread of the virus by eliminating infected monocytes.

p110δ PI3K as a therapeutic target of solid tumours

From the time of first characterization of PI3K as a heterodimer made up of a p110 catalytic subunit and a regulatory subunit, a wealth of evidence have placed the class IA PI3Ks at the forefront of drug development for the treatment of various diseases including cancer. The p110α isoform was quickly brought at the centre of attention in the field of cancer research by the discovery of cancer-specific gain-of-function mutations in PIK3CA gene in a range of human solid tumours. In contrast, p110δ PI3K was placed into the spotlight of immunity, inflammation and haematologic malignancies because of the preferential expression of this isoform in leucocytes and the rare mutations in PIK3CD gene. The last decade, however, several studies have provided evidence showing that the correlation between the PIK3CA mutations and the response to PI3K inhibition is less clear than originally considered, whereas concurrently an unexpected role of p110δ PI3K in solid tumours has being emerging. While PIK3CD is mostly non-mutated in cancer, the expression levels of p110δ protein seem to act as an intrinsic cancer-causing driver in various solid tumours including breast, prostate, colorectal and liver cancer, Merkel-Cell carcinoma, glioblastoma and neurobalstoma. Furthermore, p110δ selective inhibitors are being studied as potential single agent treatments or as combination partners in attempt to improve cancer immunotherapy, with both strategies to shown great promise for the treatment of several solid tumours. In this review, we discuss the evidence implicating the p110δ PI3K in human solid tumours, their impact on the current state of the field and the potential of using p110δ-selective inhibitors as monotherapy or combined therapy in different cancer contexts.

Human Cytomegalovirus Mediates Unique Monocyte-to-Macrophage Differentiation through the PI3K/SHIP1/Akt Signaling Network

Blood monocytes mediate the hematogenous dissemination of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in the host. However, monocytes have a short 48-hour (h) lifespan and are not permissive for viral replication. We previously established that HCMV infection drives differentiation of monocytes into long-lived macrophages to mediate viral dissemination, though the mechanism was unclear. Here, we found that HCMV infection promoted monocyte polarization into distinct macrophages by inducing select M1 and M2 differentiation markers and that Akt played a central role in driving differentiation. Akt's upstream positive regulators, PI3K and SHIP1, facilitated the expression of the M1/M2 differentiation markers with p110δ being the predominant PI3K isoform inducing differentiation. Downstream of Akt, M1/M2 differentiation was mediated by caspase 3, whose activity was tightly regulated by Akt in a temporal manner. Overall, this study highlights that HCMV employs the PI3K/SHIP1/Akt pathway to regulate caspase 3 activity and drive monocyte differentiation into unique macrophages, which is critical for viral dissemination.

PI3K isoforms in cell signalling and vesicle trafficking

PI3Ks are a family of lipid kinases that phosphorylate intracellular inositol lipids to regulate signalling and intracellular vesicular traffic. Mammals have eight isoforms of PI3K, divided into three classes. The class I PI3Ks generate 3-phosphoinositide lipids, which directly activate signal transduction pathways. In addition to being frequently genetically activated in cancer, similar mutations in class I PI3Ks have now also been found in a human non-malignant overgrowth syndrome and a primary immune disorder that predisposes to lymphoma. The class II and class III PI3Ks are regulators of membrane traffic along the endocytic route, in endosomal recycling and autophagy, with an often indirect effect on cell signalling. Here, we summarize current knowledge of the different PI3K classes and isoforms, focusing on recently uncovered biological functions and the mechanisms by which these kinases are activated. Deeper insight into the PI3K isoforms will undoubtedly continue to contribute to a better understanding of fundamental cell biological processes and, ultimately, of human disease.

Idelalisib inhibits osteoclast differentiation and pre-osteoclast migration by blocking the PI3Kδ-Akt-c-Fos/NFATc1 signaling cascade

Since increased number of osteoclasts could lead to impaired bone structure and low bone mass, which are common characteristics of bone disorders including osteoporosis, the pharmacological inhibition of osteoclast differentiation is one of therapeutic strategies for preventing and/or treating bone disorders and related facture. However, little data are available regarding the functional relevance of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) isoforms in the osteoclast differentiation process. To elucidate the functional involvement of PI3Kδ in osteoclastogenesis, here we investigated how osteoclast differentiation was influenced by idelalisib (also called CAL-101), which is p110δ-selective inhibitor approved for the treatment of specific human B cell malignancies. Here, we found that receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL) induced PI3Kδ protein expression, and idelalisib inhibited RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation. Next, the inhibitory effect of idelalisib on RANKL-induced activation of the Akt-c-Fos/NFATc1 signaling cascade was confirmed by western blot analysis and real-time PCR. Finally, idelalisib inhibited pre-osteoclast migration in the last stage of osteoclast differentiation through down-regulation of the Akt-c-Fos/NFATc1 signaling cascade. It may be possible to expand the clinical use of idelalisib for controlling osteoclast differentiation. Together, the present results contribute to our understanding of the clinical value of PI3Kδ as a druggable target and the efficacy of related therapeutics including osteoclastogenesis.

HCMV modulation of cellular PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling: New opportunities for therapeutic intervention?

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) remains a major public health burden domestically and abroad. Current approved therapies, including ganciclovir, are only moderately efficacious, with many transplant patients suffering from a variety of side effects. A major impediment to the efficacy of current anti-HCMV drugs is their antiviral effects are restricted to the lytic stage of viral replication. Consequently, the non-lytic stages of the viral lifecycle remain major sources of HCMV infection associated with transplant recipients and ultimately the cause of morbidity and mortality. While work continues on new antivirals that block lytic replication, the dormant stages of HCMV's unique lifecycle need to be concurrently assessed for new therapeutic interventions. In this review, we will examine the role that the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling axis plays during the different stages of HCMV's lifecycle, and describe the advantages of targeting this cellular pathway as an antiviral strategy. In particular, we focus on the potential of exploiting the unique modifications HCMV imparts on the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway during quiescent infection of monocytes, which serve an essential role in the dissemination strategy of the virus.

Targeting phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC)

The landscape of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) has been changing rapidly due to growing proportion of HPV-related disease and development of new therapeutic agents. At the same time, there has been a constant need for individually tailored treatment based on genetic biomarkers in order to optimize patient survival and alleviate treatment-related toxicities. In this regard, aberrations of PI3K pathway have important clinical implications in the treatment of HNSCC. They frequently constitute ‘gain of function’ mutations which trigger oncogenesis, and PI3K mutations can also lead to emergence of drug resistance after treatment with EGFR inhibitors. In this article, we review PI3K pathway as a target of treatment for HNSCC and summarize PI3K/mTOR inhibitors that are currently under clinical trials. In light of recent advancement of immune checkpoint inhibitors, consideration of PI3K inhibitors as potential immune modulators is also suggested.

Elastomeric sensor surfaces for high-throughput single-cell force cytometry

As cells with aberrant force-generating phenotypes can directly lead to disease, cellular force-generation mechanisms are high-value targets for new therapies. Here, we show that single-cell force sensors embedded in elastomers enable single-cell force measurements with ~100-fold improvement in throughput than was previously possible. The microtechnology is scalable and seamlessly integrates with the multi-well plate format, enabling highly parallelized time-course studies. In this regard, we show that airway smooth muscle cells isolated from fatally asthmatic patients have innately greater and faster force-generation capacity in response to stimulation than healthy control cells. By simultaneously tracing agonist-induced calcium flux and contractility in the same cell, we show that the calcium level is ultimately a poor quantitative predictor of cellular force generation. Finally, by quantifying phagocytic forces in thousands of individual human macrophages, we show that force initiation is a digital response (rather than a proportional one) to the proper immunogen. By combining mechanobiology at the single-cell level with high-throughput capabilities, this microtechnology can support drug-discovery efforts for clinical conditions associated with aberrant cellular force generation.

Inhibition of p110δ PI3K prevents inflammatory response and restenosis after artery injury

Inflammatory cells play key roles in restenosis upon vascular surgical procedures such as bypass grafts, angioplasty and stent deployment but the molecular mechanisms by which these cells affect restenosis remain unclear. The p110δ isoform of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) is mainly expressed in white blood cells. Here, we have investigated whether p110δ PI3K is involved in the pathogenesis of restenosis in a mouse model of carotid injury, which mimics the damage following arterial grafts. We used mice in which p110δ kinase activity has been disabled by a knockin (KI) point mutation in its ATP-binding site (p110δD910A/D910A PI3K mice). Wild-type (WT) and p110δD910A/D910A mice were subjected to longitudinal carotid injury. At 14 and 30 days after carotid injury, mice with inactive p110δ showed strongly decreased infiltration of inflammatory cells (including T lymphocytes and macrophages) and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), compared with WT mice. Likewise, PI-3065, a p110δ-selective PI3K inhibitor, almost completely prevented restenosis after artery injury. Our data showed that p110δ PI3K plays a main role in promoting neointimal thickening and inflammatory processes during vascular stenosis, with its inhibition providing significant reduction in restenosis following carotid injury. p110δ-selective inhibitors, recently approved for the treatment of human B-cell malignancies, therefore, present a new therapeutic opportunity to prevent the restenosis upon artery injury.

Molecular Mechanisms of Phagosome Formation

Phagocytosis refers to the active process that allows cells to take up large particulate material upon binding to surface receptors. The discovery of phagocytosis in 1883 by Elie Metchnikoff, leading to the concept that specialized cells are implicated in the defense against microbes, was one of the starting points of the field of immunology. After more than a century of research, phagocytosis is now appreciated to be a widely used process that enables the cellular uptake of a remarkable variety of particles, including bacteria, fungi, parasites, viruses, dead cells, and assorted debris and solid materials. Uptake of foreign particles is performed almost exclusively by specialized myeloid cells, commonly termed "professional phagocytes": neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Phagocytosis of microbes not only stops or at least restricts the spread of infection but also plays an important role in regulating the innate and adaptive immune responses. Activation of the myeloid cells upon phagocytosis leads to the secretion of cytokines and chemokines that convey signals to a variety of immune cells. Moreover, foreign antigens generated by the degradation of microbes following phagocytosis are loaded onto the major histocompatibility complex for presentation to specific T lymphocytes. However, phagocytosis is not restricted to professional myeloid phagocytes; an expanding diversity of cell types appear capable of engulfing apoptotic bodies and debris, playing a critical role in tissue remodeling and in the clearance of billions of effete cells every day.

Promotion of Tumor Invasion by Tumor-Associated Macrophages: The Role of CSF-1-Activated Phosphatidylinositol 3 Kinase and Src Family Kinase Motility Signaling

Macrophages interact with cells in every organ to facilitate tissue development, function and repair. However, the close interaction between macrophages and parenchymal cells can be subverted in disease, particularly cancer. Motility is an essential capacity for macrophages to be able to carry out their various roles. In cancers, the macrophage's interstitial migratory ability is frequently co-opted by tumor cells to enable escape from the primary tumor and metastatic spread. Macrophage accumulation within and movement through a tumor is often stimulated by tumor cell production of the mononuclear phagocytic growth factor, colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1). CSF-1 also regulates macrophage survival, proliferation and differentiation, and its many effects are transduced by its receptor, the CSF-1R, via phosphotyrosine motif-activated signals. Mutational analysis of CSF-1R signaling indicates that the major mediators of CSF-1-induced motility are phosphatidyl-inositol-3 kinase (PI3K) and one or more Src family kinase (SFK), which activate signals to adhesion, actin polymerization, polarization and, ultimately, migration and invasion in macrophages. The macrophage transcriptome, including that of the motility machinery, is very complex and highly responsive to the environment, with selective expression of proteins and splice variants rarely found in other cell types. Thus, their unique motility machinery can be specifically targeted to block macrophage migration, and thereby, inhibit tumor invasion and metastasis.

Review of Rosai-Dorfman Disease: New Insights into the Pathogenesis of This Rare Disorder

Rosai-Dorfman disease (RDD) is a rare histiocytosis typically with bilateral painless cervical lymphadenopathy. Laboratory data are nonspecific, and the presence of emperipolesis in large foamy S-100+ CD1a- histiocytes is the prominent histologic feature. The pathogenesis of RDD still remains elusive. According to published studies, we propose that RDD cells might represent intermediate recruiting monocytes with differentiation blockade. Both disturbance of homoeostasis and inherent genomic alterations could contribute to initiation of the disorder through signal transduction. Several inflammatory molecules such as macrophage colony-stimulating factor, IL-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α also play a pivotal role in the development of this rare entity. Additional studies are needed to further elucidate the essence of the disease.

Different phosphoinositide 3-kinase isoforms mediate carrageenan nociception and inflammation

PI3K-α, -δ, and -γ all participate in inflammation induction. Antagonism of only PI3K-γ blocks nociception, which is indicative of a role for this isoform within the afferent.

Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) participate in signal transduction cascades that can directly activate and sensitize nociceptors and enhance pain transmission. They also play essential roles in chemotaxis and immune cell infiltration leading to inflammation. We wished to determine which PI3K isoforms were involved in each of these processes. Lightly anesthetized rats (isoflurane) were injected subcutaneously with carrageenan in their hind paws. This was preceded by a local injection of 1% DMSO vehicle or an isoform-specific antagonist to PI3K-α (compound 15-e), -β (TGX221), -δ (Cal-101), or -γ (AS252424). We measured changes in the mechanical pain threshold and spinal c-Fos expression (4 hours after injection) as indices of nociception. Paw volume, plasma extravasation (Evans blue, 0.3 hours after injection), and neutrophil (myeloperoxidase; 1 hour after injection) and macrophage (CD11b+; 4 hour after injection) infiltration into paw tissue were the measured inflammation endpoints. Only PI3K-γ antagonist before treatment reduced the carrageenan-induced pain behavior and spinal expression of c-Fos (P ≤ 0.01). In contrast, pretreatment with PI3K-α, -δ, and-γ antagonists reduced early indices of inflammation. Plasma extravasation PI3K-α (P ≤ 0.05), -δ (P ≤ 0.05), and -γ (P ≤ 0.01), early (0-2 hour) edema -α (P ≤ 0.05), -δ (P ≤ 0.001), and -γ (P ≤ 0.05), and neutrophil infiltration (all P ≤ 0.001) were all reduced compared to vehicle pretreatment. Later (2-4 hour), edema and macrophage infiltration (P ≤ 0.05) were reduced by only the PI3K-δ and -γ isoform antagonists, with the PI3K-δ antagonist having a greater effect on edema. PI3K-β antagonism was ineffective in all paradigms. These data indicate that pain and clinical inflammation are pharmacologically separable and may help to explain clinical conditions in which inflammation naturally wanes or goes into remission, but pain continues unabated.

p110α and p110β isoforms of PI3K signaling: are they two sides of the same coin?

Class-1 phosphatidylinositol-3-kinases (PI3Ks) are activated by a variety of extracellular stimuli and have been implicated in a wide range of cellular processes. p110α and p110β are the two most studied isoforms of the class-1A PI3K signaling pathway. Although these two isoforms are ubiquitously expressed and play multiple redundant roles, they also have distinct functions within the cell. More recently, p110α and p110β isoforms have been shown to translocate into the nucleus and play a role in DNA replication and repair, and in cell cycle progression. In the following Review article, we discuss the overlapping and unique roles of p110α and p110β isoforms with a particular focus on their structure, expression analysis, subcellular localization, and signaling contributions in various cell types and model organisms.

Coincident signals from GPCRs and receptor tyrosine kinases are uniquely transduced by PI3Kβ in myeloid cells

Class I phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) catalyze production of the lipid messenger phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3), which plays a central role in a complex signaling network regulating cell growth, survival, and movement. This network is overactivated in cancer and inflammation, and there is interest in determining the PI3K catalytic subunit (p110α, p110β, p110γ, or p110δ) that should be targeted in different therapeutic contexts. Previous studies have defined unique regulatory inputs for p110β, including direct interaction with Gβγ subunits, Rac, and Rab5. We generated mice with knock-in mutations of p110β that selectively blocked the interaction with Gβγ and investigated its contribution to the PI3K isoform dependency of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) and G protein (heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding protein)-coupled receptor (GPCR) responses in primary macrophages and neutrophils. We discovered a unique role for p110β in supporting synergistic PIP3 formation in response to the coactivation of macrophages by macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and the complement protein C5a. In contrast, we found partially redundant roles for p110α, p110β, and p110δ downstream of M-CSF alone and a nonredundant role for p110γ downstream of C5a alone. This role for p110β completely depended on direct interaction with Gβγ, suggesting that p110β transduces GPCR signals in the context of coincident activation by an RTK. The p110β-Gβγ interaction was also required for neutrophils to generate reactive oxygen species in response to the Fcγ receptor-dependent recognition of immune complexes and for their β2 integrin-mediated adhesion to fibrinogen or poly-RGD+, directly implicating heterotrimeric G proteins in these two responses.

Human Cytomegalovirus Induces an Atypical Activation of Akt To Stimulate the Survival of Short-Lived Monocytes

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a pervasive herpesvirus responsible for significant morbidity and mortality among immunodeficient/naive hosts. Following a primary HCMV infection, circulating blood monocytes mediate the systemic spread of the virus. Extending the short 48-h life span of monocytes is critical to the viral dissemination process, as these blood-borne cells are nonpermissive for virus replication until they are fully differentiated into macrophages. Here, we show that HCMV glycoprotein gB binding to cellular epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) during HCMV entry initiated a rapid (within 15 min) activation of the apoptosis suppressor Akt, which was maintained through 72 h. The virus-induced activation of Akt was more robust than that with the normal myeloid growth factor macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and was essential for infected monocytes to bypass the 48-h viability checkpoint. Activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) following EGFR engagement by HCMV mediated the phosphorylation of Akt. Moreover, HCMV entry drove a switch away from the PI3K p110δ isoform, which was required for the viability of uninfected monocytes, to the p110β isoform in order to facilitate the Akt-dependent prosurvival state within infected cells. Simultaneously, in contrast to M-CSF, HCMV promoted a rapid increase in SH2 domain-containing inositol 5-phosphatase 1 (SHIP1) expression, leading to signaling through a noncanonical Akt activation pathway. To ensure maximum Akt activity, HCMV also induced an early phosphorylation-dependent inactivation of the negative regulator phosphatase and tensin homolog. Overall, our data indicate that HCMV hijacks the upstream Akt signaling network to induce a nontraditional activation of Akt and subsequently a prosurvival decision at the 48-h cell fate checkpoint, a vital step for HCMV's dissemination and persistence strategy.

IMPORTANCE

HCMV is found throughout the world with a prevalence of 55 to 100% within the human population. HCMV infection is generally asymptomatic in immunocompetent or naive individuals but is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality among the immunocompromised. Widespread organ inflammation is associated with symptomatic infections, which is a direct consequence of the viral dissemination strategy. Inflammatory peripheral blood monocytes facilitate the spread of HCMV. However, HCMV must subvert the naturally short life span of monocytes. In this work, we demonstrate that HCMV induces the activation of Akt, an antiapoptotic protein, in a manner distinct from that of normal myeloid growth factors. Moreover, we decipher how HCMV dysregulates the upstream Akt signaling network during viral entry to promote an Akt-dependent prosurvival state following infection. Delineation of the virus-specific mechanisms that regulate cellular prosurvival pathways in order to drive the survival of HCMV-infected monocytes is important to identifying new anti-HCMV therapeutic targets.

Translating PI3K-Delta Inhibitors to the Clinic in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: The Story of CAL-101 (GS1101)

Targeted therapy with imatinib has transformed the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Unlike CML, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) lacks a common genetic aberration but does demonstrate constitutive activation of PI3-kinase (PI3K) as compared to normal B cells. This constitutively active PI3K in CLL likely relates to tonic B-cell receptor signaling that is present across a wide variety of B-cell malignancies. Although PI3K is quite proximal and represents an ideal target to pharmacologically modulate, the complexity of this pathway on which many normal functions are dependent had for many years been problematic. The p110 delta isoform of PI3K is relatively specific to hematopoietic cells, and elegant mouse studies where p110 delta was genetically inactivated demonstrated only a selective B-cell defect. Subsequent development of a potent, selective p110 delta inhibitor prompted translation into the clinic for the treatment of CLL and low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). From the first patient treated where a dramatic early nodal response was noted, considerable excitement has developed for this class of drugs in CLL and NHL. We will summarize the development process of CAL-101 (now GS1101) in the treatment of chronic lymphoid malignancies such as CLL.

Disrupted PI3K p110δ Signaling Dysregulates Maternal Immune Cells and Increases Fetal Mortality In Mice

Maternal immune cells are an integral part of reproduction, but how they might cause pregnancy complications remains elusive. Macrophages and their dual function in inflammation and tissue repair are thought to play key yet undefined roles. Altered perinatal growth underpins adult morbidity, and natural killer (NK) cells may sustain fetal growth by establishing the placental blood supply. Using a mouse model of genetic inactivation of PI3K p110δ, a key intracellular signaling molecule in leukocytes, we show that p110δ regulates macrophage dynamics and NK-cell-mediated arterial remodeling. The uterus of dams with inactive p110δ had decreased IFN-γ and MHC class II^low macrophages but enhanced IL-6. Poor vascular remodeling and a pro-inflammatory uterine milieu resulted in fetal death or growth retardation. Our results provide one mechanism that explains how imbalanced adaptations of maternal innate immune cells to gestation affect offspring well-being with consequence perinatally and possibly into adulthood.

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Genetic inactivation of p110δ in pregnant mice perturbs maternal immune cells

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Uterine NK cells produce less cytokines, resulting in fetal growth restriction

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Inflammatory macrophages are overrepresented, resulting in increased fetal loss

INPP4B is an oncogenic regulator in human colon cancer

Inositol polyphosphate 4-phosphatase type II (INPP4B) negatively regulates phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling and is a tumor suppressor in some types of cancers. However, we have found that it is frequently upregulated in human colon cancer cells. Here we show that silencing of INPP4B blocks activation of Akt and serum- and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 3 (SGK3), inhibits colon cancer cell proliferation and retards colon cancer xenograft growth. Conversely, overexpression of INPP4B increases proliferation and triggers anchorage-independent growth of normal colon epithelial cells. Moreover, we demonstrate that the effect of INPP4B on Akt and SGK3 is associated with inactivation of phosphate and tensin homolog through its protein phosphatase activity and that the increase in INPP4B is due to Ets-1-mediated transcriptional upregulation in colon cancer cells. Collectively, these results suggest that INPP4B may function as an oncogenic driver in colon cancer, with potential implications for targeting INPP4B as a novel approach to treat this disease.

Focal adhesion kinase phosphorylates the phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 under the control of p110δ phosphoinositide-3 kinase

The phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) tumor suppressor protein is regulated by various mechanisms that are not fully understood. This includes regulation by Tyr phosphorylation by a mechanism that remains elusive. Here, we show that focal adhesion kinase (FAK) phosphorylates PTEN in vitro, in cell-free systems and in cells. Furthermore, by mass spectrometry, we identified Tyr336 on PTEN as being phosphorylated by FAK. Tyr336 phosphorylation increased phosphatase activity, protein-lipid interaction, and protein stability of PTEN. In cells, including primary mouse macrophages and human cancer cell lines, FAK was found to be negatively regulated by p110δ phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K), whereas the activation of FAK was positively regulated by RhoA-associated kinase (ROCK). Indeed, the phosphorylation of FAK was unexpectedly increased in macrophages derived from mice expressing kinase-dead p110δ. Pharmacologic inactivation of RhoA/ROCK reduced the phosphorylation of FAK to normal levels in cells with genetically inactivated p110δ. Likewise, pharmacologic inactivation of FAK reduced the phosphorylation of PTEN in cells expressing kinase-dead p110δ and restored the functional defects of p110δ inactivation, including Akt phosphorylation and cell proliferation. This work identifies FAK as a target of p110δ PI3K that links RhoA with PTEN and establishes for the first time that PTEN is a substrate of FAK-mediated Tyr phosphorylation.

PI3K inhibitors in inflammation, autoimmunity and cancer

The healthy immune system protects against infection and malignant transformation without causing significant damage to host tissues. Immune dysregulation results in diverse pathologies including autoimmune disease, chronic inflammatory disorders, allergies as well as immune deficiencies and cancer. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signalling has been shown to be a key pathway in the regulation of the immune response and continues to be the focus of intense research. In recent years we have gained detailed understanding of PI3K signalling, and saw the development of potent and highly selective small molecule inhibitors, of which several are currently in clinical trials for the treatment of immune-related disorders and cancer. The role of PI3K signalling in the immune response has been the subject of detailed reviews; here we focus on relevant recent progress in pre-clinical and clinical development of PI3K inhibitors.

Targeting neoplastic B cells and harnessing microenvironment: the "double face" of ibrutinib and idelalisib

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) targeting signaling molecules downstream B cell receptor (BCR) are powerfully spreading in the therapeutic landscape of B cell lymphoproliferative disease, due to a manageable toxicity profile and encouraging clinical effectiveness. In particular, ibrutinib, previously called PCI-32765, is a potent inhibitor of Bruton tyrosine kinase (Btk), recently approved for the treatment of relapsed mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Moreover, idelalisib (formerly GS-1101 and CAL-101) is a selective reversible inhibitor of the p110δ isoform of phosphoinositol 3 kinase (PI3K) approved for the treatment of patients with relapsed follicular lymphoma (FL) and CLL. These agents directly affect the neoplastic clone, disrupting the supportive platform provided by BCR signaling cascade and by other microenvironmental mutualistic interactions, and also interfering with chemokine gradients and adhesive properties of neoplastic B cells. In the present review, we describe the clinical efficacy of ibrutinib and idelalisib in CLL and B cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL), then focusing on the mode of action (MOA) of these TKIs towards the neoplastic B cell compartment. At last, the review would further expand the view on potential additional targets of ibrutinib and idelalisib belonging to other microenvironmental cellular elements.

BCR/ABL oncogene-induced PI3K signaling pathway leads to chronic myeloid leukemia pathogenesis by impairing immuno-modulatory function of hemangioblasts

An increasing number of studies indicate that during development, endothelial and hematopoietic cells derive from common progenitors named hemangioblasts that have important roles in the pathogenesis. This is particularly true in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Here, we isolated fetal liver kinase-1-positive (Flk1(+)) cells from CML patients and found they expressed BCR/ABL-specific CML oncogene. We examined their biological characteristics as well as immunological functions and further detected the possible molecular mechanism involved in the leukemia genesis. We showed that CML patient-derived Flk1(+)CD31(-)CD34(-) mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) had normal morphology, phenotype and karyotype but appeared impaired immuno-modulatory function. The capacity of Flk1(+)CD31(-)CD34(-) MSCs from CML patients to inhibit T lymphocyte activation and proliferation was impaired in vitro. CML patient-derived MSCs have dampening immuno-modulatory functions, suggesting that the dysregulation of hematopoiesis and immune response might originate from MSCs rather than hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). These Ph(+) putative CML hemangioblast upregulated TGF-β1 and resultantly activated matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) to enhance s-KitL and s-ICAM-1 secretion, which activated c-kit(+) HSCs from the quiescent state to the proliferative state. Further studies showed that phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt/nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling pathway was involved in CML pathogenesis. Flk1(+)CD31(-)CD34(-) MSCs that express BCR/ABL leukemia oncogene are hemangioblasts and they have a critical role in the progression of CML through PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Macrophage motility is driven by frontal-towing with a force magnitude dependent on substrate stiffness

The ability of macrophages to properly migrate is crucial to their success as early responders during the innate immune response. Furthermore, improper regulation of macrophage migration is known to contribute to several pathologies. The signaling mechanisms underlying macrophage migration have been previously studied but to date the mechanical mechanism of macrophage migration has not been determined. In this study, we have created the first traction maps of motile primary human macrophages by observing their migration on compliant polyacrylamide gels. We find that the force generated by migrating macrophages is concentrated in the leading edge of the cell - so-called frontal towing - and that the magnitude of this force is dependent on the stiffness of the underlying matrix. With the aid of chemical inhibitors, we show that signaling through the RhoA kinase ROCK, myosin II, and PI3K is essential for proper macrophage force generation. Finally, we show that Rac activation by its GEF Vav1 is crucial for macrophage force generation while activation through its GEF Tiam1 is unnecessary.

PI3K at the crossroads of tumor angiogenesis signaling pathways

Tumors need blood vessels for their growth, thus providing the rationale for antiangiogenic therapy in cancer treatment. However, intrinsic and acquired resistance and low response rates have turned out to be major limitations of antiangiogenic therapy. This emphasizes the need to further understand how the vasculature in cancer can be targeted. Although endothelial cells (ECs) rely on multiple growth factors and cytokines to grow, antiangiogenic therapies have mainly centered on targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) form a family of 8 isoenzymes with non-redundant functions in normal biology and cancer. The subgroup of class I PI3Ks are situated at the crossroad of a plethora of proangiogenic signals and control cell growth, survival, motility, and metabolism. These isoenzymes have pleiotropic roles in the tumor microenvironment, including cell-autonomous functions in ECs, underscoring the complexity of targeting this pathway in cancer. Here, we describe how the PI3K axis influences angiogenesis in different cell compartments and summarize the diversity of vascular responses to PI3K inhibition. Targeting PI3K signaling by isoform-selective inhibitors, together with readjusting the current doses below the maximum tolerated dose, may improve clinical responses to class I PI3K anticancer agents.

PI3K in cancer: divergent roles of isoforms, modes of activation and therapeutic targeting

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3Ks) are crucial coordinators of intracellular signalling in response to extracellular stimuli. Hyperactivation of PI3K signalling cascades is one of the most common events in human cancers. In this Review, we discuss recent advances in our knowledge of the roles of specific PI3K isoforms in normal and oncogenic signalling, the different ways in which PI3K can be upregulated, and the current state and future potential of targeting this pathway in the clinic.

Two-dimensional motility of a macrophage cell line on microcontact-printed fibronectin

The ability of macrophages to migrate to sites of infection and inflammation is critical for their role in the innate immune response. Macrophage cell lines have made it possible to study the roles of individual proteins responsible for migration using molecular biology, but it has not been possible to reliably elicit the motility of macrophage cell lines in two dimensions. In the past, measurements of the motility of macrophage cell lines have been largely limited to transwell assays which provide limited quantitative information on motility and limited ability to visualize cell morphology. We used microcontact printing to create polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) surfaces functionalized with fibronectin that otherwise support little macrophage adhesion. We used these surfaces to measure macrophage migration in two dimensions and found that these cells migrate efficiently in a uniform field of colony-stimulating factor-1, CSF-1. Knockdown of Cdc42 led to a nonstatistically significant reduction in motility, whereas chemical inhibition of PI3K activity led to a complete loss of motility. Inhibition of the RhoA kinase, ROCK, did not abolish the motility of these cells but caused a quantitative change in motility, reducing motility significantly on high concentrations of fibronectin but not on low concentrations. This study illustrates the importance of studying cell motility on well controlled materials to better understand the exact roles of specific proteins on cell migration. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

CSF-1 receptor signaling in myeloid cells

The CSF-1 receptor (CSF-1R) is activated by the homodimeric growth factors colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) and interleukin-34 (IL-34). It plays important roles in development and in innate immunity by regulating the development of most tissue macrophages and osteoclasts, of Langerhans cells of the skin, of Paneth cells of the small intestine, and of brain microglia. It also regulates the differentiation of neural progenitor cells and controls functions of oocytes and trophoblastic cells in the female reproductive tract. Owing to this broad tissue expression pattern, it plays a central role in neoplastic, inflammatory, and neurological diseases. In this review we summarize the evolution, structure, and regulation of expression of the CSF-1R gene. We discuss the structures of CSF-1, IL-34, and the CSF-1R and the mechanism of ligand binding to and activation of the receptor. We further describe the pathways regulating macrophage survival, proliferation, differentiation, and chemotaxis downstream from the CSF-1R.

Suppression of CD4+ T lymphocyte activation in vitro and experimental encephalomyelitis in vivo by the phosphatidyl inositol 3-kinase inhibitor PIK-75

Class IA phosphatidyl inositol-3 kinases (PI3-K) are important targets in cancer therapy and are essential to immune responses, particularly through costimulation by CD28 and ICOS. Thus, small PI3-K inhibitors are likely candidates to immune intervention. PIK-75 is an efficient inhibitor of the PI3-K p110alpha catalytic subunits that suppresses tumor growth, and its effects on immune and autoimmune responses should be studied. Here, we describe the effect of PIK-75 on different immune parameters in vitro and in vivo. PIK-75 at concentrations commonly used in vitro (≥0.1 μM) inhibited T and B cell activation by Concanavalin A and LPS, respectively, and survival of non-stimulated spleen cells. In naive CD4+ T lymphocytes, PIK-75 induced apoptosis of resting or activated cells that was prevented by caspase inhibitors. At low nanomolar concentrations (≤10 nM), PIK-75 inhibited naive CD4+ T cell proliferation, and IL-2 and IFN-gamma production induced by anti-CD3 plus anti-CD28. In activated CD4+ T blasts costimulated by ICOS, PIK-75 (less than 10 nM) inhibited IFN-gamma, IL-17A, or IL-21 secretion. Furthermore, PIK-75 (20 mg/kg p.o.) suppressed clinical symptoms in ongoing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and inhibited MOG-specific responses in vitro. Thus, PIK-75 is an efficient suppressor of EAE, modulating lymphocyte function and survival.

The transcription factor T-box 3 regulates colony-stimulating factor 1-dependent Jun dimerization protein 2 expression and plays an important role in osteoclastogenesis

Colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) is known to promote osteoclast progenitor survival, but its roles in osteoclast differentiation and mature osteoclast function are less well understood. In a microarray screen, Jun dimerization protein 2 (JDP2) was identified as significantly induced by CSF1. Recent reports indicate that JDP2 is required for normal osteoclastogenesis and skeletal metabolism. Because there are no reports on the transcriptional regulation of this gene, the DNA sequence from -2612 to +682 bp (relative to the transcription start site) of the JDP2 gene was cloned, and promoter activity was analyzed. The T box-binding element (TBE) between -191 and -141 bp was identified as the cis-element responsible for CSF1-dependent JDP2 expression. Using degenerate PCR, Tbx3 was identified as the major isoform binding the TBE. Overexpression of Tbx3 induced JDP2 promoter activity, whereas suppressing Tbx3 expression substantially attenuated CSF1-induced transcription. Suppressing Tbx3 in osteoclast precursors reduced JDP2 expression and significantly impaired RANKL/CSF1-induced osteoclastogenesis. A MEK1/2-specific inhibitor was found to block CSF1-induced JDP2 expression. Consistent with these data, JDP2(-/-) mice were found to have increased bone mass. In summary, CSF1 up-regulates JDP2 expression by inducing Tbx3 binding to the JDP2 promoter. The downstream signaling cascade from activated c-Fms involves the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway. Tbx3 plays an important role in osteoclastogenesis at least in part by regulating CSF1-dependent expression of JDP2.

Effects of isoform-selective phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors on osteoclasts: actions on cytoskeletal organization, survival, and resorption

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3K) participate in numerous signaling pathways, and control distinct biological functions. Studies using pan-PI3K inhibitors suggest roles for PI3K in osteoclasts, but little is known about specific PI3K isoforms in these cells. Our objective was to determine effects of isoform-selective PI3K inhibitors on osteoclasts. The following inhibitors were investigated (targets in parentheses): wortmannin and LY294002 (pan-p110), PIK75 (α), GDC0941 (α, δ), TGX221 (β), AS252424 (γ), and IC87114 (δ). In addition, we characterized a new potent and selective PI3Kδ inhibitor, GS-9820, and explored roles of PI3K isoforms in regulating osteoclast function. Osteoclasts were isolated from long bones of neonatal rats and rabbits. Wortmannin, LY294002, GDC0941, IC87114, and GS-9820 induced a dramatic retraction of osteoclasts within 15-20 min to 65-75% of the initial area. In contrast, there was no significant retraction in response to vehicle, PIK75, TGX221, or AS252424. Moreover, wortmannin and GS-9820, but not PIK75 or TGX221, disrupted actin belts. We examined effects of PI3K inhibitors on osteoclast survival. Whereas PIK75, TGX221, and GS-9820 had no significant effect on basal survival, all blocked RANKL-stimulated survival. When studied on resorbable substrates, osteoclastic resorption was suppressed by wortmannin and inhibitors of PI3Kβ and PI3Kδ, but not other isoforms. These data are consistent with a critical role for PI3Kδ in regulating osteoclast cytoskeleton and resorptive activity. In contrast, multiple PI3K isoforms contribute to the control of osteoclast survival. Thus, the PI3Kδ isoform, which is predominantly expressed in cells of hematopoietic origin, is an attractive target for anti-resorptive therapeutics.

PI3K p110δ is expressed by gp38(-)CD31(+) and gp38(+)CD31(+) spleen stromal cells and regulates their CCL19, CCL21, and LTβR mRNA levels

The role of p110δ PI3K in lymphoid cells has been studied extensively, showing its importance in immune cell differentiation, activation and development. Altered T cell localization in p110δ-deficient mouse spleen suggested a role for p110δ in non-hematopoietic stromal cells, which maintain hematopoietic cell segregation. We tested this hypothesis using p110δ^WT/WT mouse bone marrow to reconstitute lethally irradiated p110δ^WT/WT or p110δ^D910A/D910A (which express catalytically inactive p110δ) recipients, and studied localization, number and percentage of hematopoietic cell subsets in spleen and lymph nodes, in homeostatic conditions and after antigen stimulation. These analyses showed diffuse T cell areas in p110δ^D910A/D910A and in reconstituted p110δ^D910A/D910A mice in homeostatic conditions. In these mice, spleen CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell numbers did not increase in response to antigen, suggesting that a p110δ^D910A/D910A stroma defect impedes correct T cell response. FACS analysis of spleen stromal cell populations showed a decrease in the percentage of gp38⁻CD31⁺ cells in p110δ^D910A/D910A mice. qRT-PCR studies detected p110δ mRNA expression in p110δ^WT/WT spleen gp38⁻CD31⁺ and gp38⁺CD31⁺ subsets, which was reduced in p110δ^D910A/D910A spleen. Lack of p110δ activity in these cell populations correlated with lower LTβR, CCL19 and CCL21 mRNA levels; these molecules participate in T cell localization to specific spleen areas. Our results could explain the lower T cell numbers and more diffuse T cell areas found in p110δ^D910A/D910A mouse spleen, as well as the lower T cell expansion after antigen stimulation in p110δ^D910A/D910A compared with p110δ^WT/WT mice.

Specific inhibition of PI3K p110δ inhibits CSF-1-induced macrophage spreading and invasive capacity

Colony stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) stimulates mononuclear phagocytic cell survival, growth and differentiation into macrophages through activation and autophosphorylation of the CSF-1 receptor (CSF-1R). We have previously demonstrated that CSF-1-induced phosphorylation of Y721 (pY721) in the receptor kinase insert triggers its association with the p85 regulatory subunit of phosphoinositide 3'-kinase (PI3K). Binding of p85 PI3K to the CSF-1R pY721 motif activates the associated p110 PI3K catalytic subunit and stimulates spreading and motility in macrophages and enhancement of tumor cell invasion. Here we show that pY721-based signaling is necessary for CSF-1-stimulated PtdIns(3,4,5)P production. While primary bone marrow-derived macrophages and the immortalized bone marrow-derived macrophage cell line M-/-.WT express all three class IA PI3K isoforms, p110δ predominates in the cell line. Treatment with p110δ-specific inhibitors demonstrates that the hematopoietically enriched isoform, p110δ, mediates CSF-1-regulated spreading and invasion in macrophages. Thus GS-1101, a potent and selective p110δ inhibitor, may have therapeutic potential by targeting the infiltrative capacity of tumor-associated macrophages that is critical for their enhancement of tumor invasion and metastasis.

Impaired immunomodulatory function of chronic myeloid leukemia cancer stem cells and the possible mechanism involved in it

BACKGROUND

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are proposed to persist in tumors as a distinct population and cause relapse and metastasis by giving rise to new tumors. Development of specific therapies targeted at CSCs holds hope for the improvement of survival and quality of life of cancer patients, especially for sufferers of metastatic disease. This is particularly true in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML).

METHODS

In this study, we isolated fetal liver kinase-1-positive (Flk1(+)) cells carrying the BCR/ABL fusion gene from the bone marrow of Philadelphia chromosome-positive (Ph(+)) patients with stem cells property. We examined their biological characteristics as well as immunological function and further detected the possible molecular mechanism involved in the leukemia genesis.

RESULTS

We showed that CML patient-derived Flk1(+)CD31(-)CD34(-) MSCs had normal morphology, phenotype and karyotype but appeared impaired immunomodulatory function. The capacity of Flk1(+)CD31(-)CD34(-) MSCs from CML patients to inhibit T lymphocyte activation and proliferation was impaired in vitro. CML patient-derived MSCs have dampening immunomodulatory functions, suggesting that the dysregulation of hematopoiesis and immune response might originate from MSCs rather than HSCs. These Ph(+) putative CML hemangioblast upregulated TGF-β1 and resultantly activated matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) to enhance s-KitL and s-ICAM-1 secretion, which activated c-kit(+) HSCs from the quiescent state to proliferative state. Further studies showed that phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt/nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling pathway was involved in CML pathogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Flk1(+)CD31(-)CD34(-) MSCs that express BCR/ABL leukemia oncogene are CSCs of CML and they play a critical role in the progression of CML through PI3K/Akt/NF-κB/MMP-9/s-ICAM-1/s-KitL signaling pathway beyond HSCs.

p110δ PI3 kinase pathway: emerging roles in cancer

Class IA PI3Ks consists of three isoforms of the p110 catalytic subunit designated p110α, p110β, and p110δ which are encoded by three separate genes. Gain-of-function mutations on PIK3CA gene encoding for p110α isoform have been detected in a wide variety of human cancers whereas no somatic mutations of genes encoding for p110β or p110δ have been reported. Unlike p110α and p110β which are ubiquitously expressed, p110δ is highly enriched in leukocytes and thus the p110δ PI3K pathway has attracted more attention for its involvement in immune disorders. However, findings have been accumulated showing that the p110δ PI3K plays a seminal role in the development and progression of some hematologic malignancies. A wealth of knowledge has come from studies showing the central role of p110δ PI3K in B-cell functions and B-cell malignancies. Further data have documented that wild-type p110δ becomes oncogenic when overexpressed in cell culture models and that p110δ is the predominant isoform expressed in some human solid tumor cells playing a prominent role in these cells. Genetic inactivation of p110δ in mice models and highly-selective inhibitors of p110δ have demonstrated an important role of this isoform in differentiation, growth, survival, motility, and morphology with the inositol phosphatase PTEN to play a critical role in p110δ signaling. In this review, we summarize our understanding of the p110δ PI3K signaling pathway in hematopoietic cells and malignancies, we highlight the evidence showing the oncogenic potential of p110δ in cells of non-hematopoietic origin and we discuss perspectives for potential novel roles of p110δ PI3K in cancer.

P110α-mediated constitutive PI3K signaling limits the efficacy of p110δ-selective inhibition in mantle cell lymphoma, particularly with multiple relapse

Phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K) pathway activation contributes to mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) pathogenesis, but early-phase studies of the PI3K p110δ inhibitor GS-1101 have reported inferior responses in MCL compared with other non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Because the relative importance of the class IA PI3K isoforms p110α, p110β, and p110δ in MCL is not clear, we studied expression of these isoforms and assessed their contribution to PI3K signaling in this disease. We found that although p110δ was highly expressed in MCL, p110α showed wide variation and expression increased significantly with relapse. Loss of phosphatase and tensin homolog expression was found in 16% (22/138) of cases, whereas PIK3CA and PIK3R1 mutations were absent. Although p110δ inhibition was sufficient to block B-cell receptor-mediated PI3K activation, combined p110α and p110δ inhibition was necessary to abolish constitutive PI3K activation. In addition, GDC-0941, a predominantly p110α/δ inhibitor, was significantly more active compared with GS-1101 against MCL cell lines and primary samples. We found that a high PIK3CA/PIK3CD ratio identified a subset of primary MCLs resistant to GS-1101 and this ratio increased significantly with relapse. These findings support the use of dual p110α/p110δ inhibitors in MCL and suggest a role for p110α in disease progression.

Inhibition of PI3K signaling spurs new therapeutic opportunities in inflammatory/autoimmune diseases and hematological malignancies

The phosphoinositide 3-kinase/mammalian target of rapamycin/protein kinase B (PI3K/mTOR/Akt) signaling pathway is central to a plethora of cellular mechanisms in a wide variety of cells including leukocytes. Perturbation of this signaling cascade is implicated in inflammatory and autoimmune disorders as well as hematological malignancies. Proteins within the PI3K/mTOR/Akt pathway therefore represent attractive targets for therapeutic intervention. There has been a remarkable evolution of PI3K inhibitors in the past 20 years from the early chemical tool compounds to drugs that are showing promise as anticancer agents in clinical trials. The use of animal models and pharmacological tools has expanded our knowledge about the contribution of individual class I PI3K isoforms to immune cell function. In addition, class II and III PI3K isoforms are emerging as nonredundant regulators of immune cell signaling revealing potentially novel targets for disease treatment. Further complexity is added to the PI3K/mTOR/Akt pathway by a number of novel signaling inputs and feedback mechanisms. These can present either caveats or opportunities for novel drug targets. Here, we consider recent advances in 1) our understanding of the contribution of individual PI3K isoforms to immune cell function and their relevance to inflammatory/autoimmune diseases as well as lymphoma and 2) development of small molecules with which to inhibit the PI3K pathway. We also consider whether manipulating other proximal elements of the PI3K signaling cascade (such as class II and III PI3Ks or lipid phosphatases) are likely to be successful in fighting off different immune diseases.

Loss of SNAIL regulated miR-128-2 on chromosome 3p22.3 targets multiple stem cell factors to promote transformation of mammary epithelial cells

A discontinuous pattern of LOH at chromosome 3p has been reported in 87% of primary breast cancers. Despite the identification of several tumor suppressor genes in this region, there has yet to be a detailed analysis of noncoding RNAs including miRNAs in this region. In this study, we identified 16 aberrant miRNAs in this region and determined several that are frequently lost or amplified in breast cancer. miR-128-2 was the most commonly deleted miRNA. Embedded in the intron of the ARPP21 gene at chromosome 3p22.3, miR-128-2 was frequently downregulated along with ARPP21 in breast cancer, where it was negatively associated with clinicopathologic characteristics and survival outcome. Forced expression of miR-128 impeded several oncogenic traits of mammary carcinoma cells, whereas depleting miR-128-2 expression was sufficient for oncogenic transformation and stem cell-like behaviors in immortalized nontumorigenic mammary epithelial cells, both in vitro and in vivo. miR-128-2 silencing enabled transforming capacity partly by derepressing a cohort of direct targets (BMI1, CSF1, KLF4, LIN28A, NANOG, and SNAIL), which together acted to stimulate the PI3K/AKT and STAT3 signaling pathways. We also found that miR-128-2 was directly downregulated by SNAIL and repressed by TGF-β signaling, adding 2 additional negative feedback loops to this network. In summary, we have identified a novel TGF-β/SNAIL/miR-128 axis that provides a new avenue to understand the basis for oncogenic transformation of mammary epithelial cells.

Functional redundancy of class I phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) isoforms in signaling growth factor-mediated human neutrophil survival

We have investigated the contribution of individual phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) Class I isoforms to the regulation of neutrophil survival using (i) a panel of commercially available small molecule isoform-selective PI3K Class I inhibitors, (ii) novel inhibitors, which target single or multiple Class I isoforms (PI3Kα, PI3Kβ, PI3Kδ, and PI3Kγ), and (iii) transgenic mice lacking functional PI3K isoforms (p110δ^KOγ^KO or p110γ^KO). Our data suggest that there is considerable functional redundancy amongst Class I PI3Ks (both Class IA and Class IB) with regard to GM-CSF-mediated suppression of neutrophil apoptosis. Hence pharmacological inhibition of any 3 or more PI3K isoforms was required to block the GM-CSF survival response in human neutrophils, with inhibition of individual or any two isoforms having little or no effect. Likewise, isolated blood neutrophils derived from double knockout PI3K p110δ^KOγ^KO mice underwent normal time-dependent constitutive apoptosis and displayed identical GM-CSF mediated survival to wild type cells, but were sensitized to pharmacological inhibition of the remaining PI3K isoforms. Surprisingly, the pro-survival neutrophil phenotype observed in patients with an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) was resilient to inactivation of the PI3K pathway.

Molecular pathways: targeting phosphoinositide 3-kinase p110-delta in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

The advent of targeted therapy, specifically to the B-cell receptor (BCR), has changed the convention for the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway, activated upstream by the BCR, receptor tyrosine kinases, and cytokine receptors, has been a potential target for a multitude of cancers, but until the recent introduction of isoform-specific inhibitors has not been widely used. In this review, we focus on describing the intricate upstream and downstream signaling, leading to cell survival mediated by PI3K in B cells with a specific focus on the impact and importance of the p110δ isoform (which is localized to hematopoietic cells and regulates distinct cellular functions in B cells). In addition, the clinical advances from targeting p110δ are described, with a focus on clinical outcome, toxicities, and rational combination therapies. The experiences with p110δ in CLL have led to a more fundamental understanding of CLL signaling defects and may be predictive of other BCR-directed therapeutics.

MT1-MMP regulates the PI3Kδ·Mi-2/NuRD-dependent control of macrophage immune function

Macrophages play critical roles in events ranging from host defense to obesity and cancer, where they infiltrate affected tissues and orchestrate immune responses in tandem with the remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Despite the dual roles played by macrophages in inflammation, the functions of macrophage-derived proteinases are typically relegated to tissue-invasive or -degradative events. Here we report that the membrane-tethered matrix metalloenzyme MT1-MMP not only serves as an ECM-directed proteinase, but unexpectedly controls inflammatory gene responses wherein MT1-MMP(-/-) macrophages mount exaggerated chemokine and cytokine responses to immune stimuli both in vitro and in vivo. MT1-MMP modulates inflammatory responses in a protease-independent fashion in tandem with its trafficking to the nuclear compartment, where it triggers the expression and activation of a phosphoinositide 3-kinase δ (PI3Kδ)/Akt/GSK3β signaling cascade. In turn, MT1-MMP-dependent PI3Kδ activation regulates the immunoregulatory Mi-2/NuRD nucleosome remodeling complex that is responsible for controlling macrophage immune response. These findings identify a novel role for nuclear MT1-MMP as a previously unsuspected transactivator of signaling networks central to macrophage immune responses.

Both p110α and p110β isoforms of PI3K can modulate the impact of loss-of-function of the PTEN tumour suppressor

The PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) pathway is commonly activated in cancer as a consequence of inactivation of the tumour suppressor PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10), a major negative regulator of PI3K signalling. In line with this important role of PTEN, mice that are heterozygous for a PTEN-null allele (PTEN+/− mice) spontaneously develop a variety of tumours in multiple organs. PTEN is a phosphatase with selectivity for PtdIns(3,4,5)P3, which is produced by the class I isoforms of PI3K (p110α, p110β, p110γ and p110δ). Previous studies indicated that PTEN-deficient cancer cell lines mainly depend on p110β, and that p110β, but not p110α, controls mouse prostate cancer development driven by PTEN loss. In the present study, we investigated whether the ubiquitously expressed p110α can also functionally interact with PTEN in cancer. Using genetic mouse models that mimic systemic administration of p110α- or p110β-selective inhibitors, we confirm that inactivation of p110β, but not p110α, inhibits prostate cancer development in PTEN+/− mice, but also find that p110α inactivation protects from glomerulonephritis, pheochromocytoma and thyroid cancer induced by PTEN loss. This indicates that p110α can modulate the impact of PTEN loss in disease and tumourigenesis. In primary and immortalized mouse fibroblast cell lines, both p110α and p110β controlled steady-state PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 levels and Akt signalling induced by heterozygous PTEN loss. In contrast, no correlation was found in primary mouse tissues between PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 levels, PI3K/PTEN genotype and cancer development. Taken together, our results from the present study show that inactivation of either p110α or p110β can counteract the impact of PTEN inactivation. The potential implications of these findings for PI3K-targeted therapy of cancer are discussed.