A nuclear-envelope bridge positions nuclei and moves chromosomes

SUN-domain proteins of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum are essential for proper nuclear division and DNA repair

The protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum, which is responsible for the deadliest form of human malaria, accounts for over half a million deaths a year. These parasites proliferate in human red blood cells by consecutive rounds of closed mitoses called schizogony. Their virulence is attributed to their ability to modify the infected red cells to adhere to the vascular endothelium and to evade immunity through antigenic switches. Spatial dynamics at the nuclear periphery were associated with the regulation of processes that enable the parasites to establish long-term infection. However, our knowledge of components of the nuclear envelope (NE) in Plasmodium remains limited. One of the major protein complexes at the NE is the linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex that forms a connecting bridge between the cytoplasm and the nucleus through the interaction of SUN and KASH domain proteins. Here, we have identified two SUN-domain proteins as possible components of the LINC complex of P. falciparum and show that their proper expression is essential for the parasite's proliferation in human red blood cells, and their depletion leads to the formation of membranous whorls and morphological changes of the NE. In addition, their differential expression highlights different functions at the nuclear periphery as PfSUN2 is specifically associated with heterochromatin, while PfSUN1 expression is essential for activation of the DNA damage response. Our data provide indications for the involvement of the LINC complex in crucial biological processes in the intraerythrocytic development cycle of malaria parasites.

IMPORTANCE

Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite causing the deadliest form of malaria, is able to thrive in its human host by tight regulation of cellular processes, orchestrating nuclear dynamics with cytoplasmic machineries that are separated by the nuclear envelope. One of the major protein complexes that connect nuclear and cytoplasmic processes in eukaryotes is the linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex. However, while the nuclear periphery of P. falciparum was implicated in several important functions, the role of the LINC complex in Plasmodium biology is unknown. Here, we identify two components of P. falciparum LINC complex and demonstrate that they are essential for the parasites' proliferation in human blood, and their depletion leads to the formation of morphological changes in the cell. In addition, the two components have different functions in activating the DNA damage response and in their association with heterochromatin. Our data provide evidence for their essential roles in the parasites' cell cycle.

Tail-anchored membrane protein SLMAP3 is essential for targeting centrosomal proteins to the nuclear envelope in skeletal myogenesis

The positioning and communication between the nucleus and centrosomes are essential in cell division, differentiation and tissue formation. During skeletal myogenesis, the nuclei become evenly spaced with the switch of the microtubule-organizing centre (MTOC) from the centrosome to the nuclear envelope (NE). We report that the tail-anchored sarcolemmal membrane associated protein 3 (SLMAP3), a component of the MTOC and NE, is crucial for myogenesis because its deletion in mice leads to a reduction in the NE-MTOC formation, mislocalization of the nuclei, dysregulation of the myogenic programme and abnormal embryonic myofibres. SLMAP3-/- myoblasts also displayed a similar disorganized distribution of nuclei with an aberrant NE-MTOC and defective myofibre formation and differentiation programming. We identified novel interactors of SLMAP3, including pericentrin, PCM1 (pericentriolar material 1), AKAP9 (A-kinase anchoring protein 9), kinesin-1 members Kif5B (kinesin family member 5B), KCL1 (kinesin light chain 1), KLC2 (kinesin light chain 2) and nuclear lamins, and observed that the distribution of centrosomal proteins at the NE together with Nesprin-1 was significantly altered by the loss of SLMAP3 in differentiating myoblasts. SLMAP3 is believed to negatively regulate Hippo signalling, but its loss was without impact on this pathway in developing muscle. These results reveal that SLMAP3 is essential for skeletal myogenesis through unique mechanisms involving the positioning of nuclei, NE-MTOC dynamics and gene programming.

The scaffold nucleoporins SAR1 and SAR3 are essential for proper meiotic progression in Arabidopsis thaliana

Nuclear Pore Complexes (NPCs) are embedded in the nuclear envelope (NE), regulating macromolecule transport and physically interacting with chromatin. The NE undergoes dramatic breakdown and reformation during plant cell division. In addition, this structure has a specific meiotic function, anchoring and positioning telomeres to facilitate the pairing of homologous chromosomes. To elucidate a possible function of the structural components of the NPCs in meiosis, we have characterized several Arabidopsis lines with mutations in genes encoding nucleoporins belonging to the outer ring complex. Plants defective for either SUPPRESSOR OF AUXIN RESISTANCE1 (SAR1, also called NUP160) or SAR3 (NUP96) present condensation abnormalities and SPO11-dependent chromosome fragmentation in a fraction of meiocytes, which is increased in the double mutant sar1 sar3. We also observed these meiotic defects in mutants deficient in the outer ring complex protein HOS1, but not in mutants affected in other components of this complex. Furthermore, our findings may suggest defects in the structure of NPCs in sar1 and a potential link between the meiotic role of this nucleoporin and a component of the RUBylation pathway. These results provide the first insights in plants into the role of nucleoporins in meiotic chromosome behavior.

Physical model of the nuclear membrane permeability mechanism

Nuclear cytoplasmic transport is mediated by many receptors that recognize specific nuclear localization signals on proteins and RNA and transport these substrates through nuclear pore complexes. Facilitated diffusion through nuclear pore complexes requires the attachment of transport receptors. Despite the relatively large tunnel diameter, some even small proteins (less than 20-30 kDa), such as histones, pass through the nuclear pore complex only with transport receptors. Over several decades, considerable material has been accumulated on the structure, architecture, and amino acid composition of the proteins included in this complex and the sequence of many receptors. We consider the data available in the literature on the structure of the nuclear pore complex and possible mechanisms of nuclear-cytoplasmic transport, applying the theory of electrostatic interactions in the context of our data on changes in the electrokinetic potential of nuclei and our previously proposed physical model of the mechanism of facilitated diffusion through the nuclear pore complex (NPC). According to our data, the main contribution to the charge of the nuclear membrane is made by anionic phospholipids, which are part of both the nuclear membrane and the nuclear matrix, which creates a potential difference between them. The nuclear membrane is a four-layer phospholipid dielectric, so the potential vector can only pass through the NPC, creating an electrostatic funnel that "pulls in" the positively charged load-NLS-NTR trigger complexes. Considering the newly obtained data, an improved model of the previously proposed physical model of the mechanism of nuclear-cytoplasmic transport is proposed. This model considers the contribution of electrostatic fields to the transportation speed when changing the membrane's thickness in the NPC basket at a higher load.

Novel Functional Features of cGMP Substrate Proteins IRAG1 and IRAG2

The inositol triphosphate-associated proteins IRAG1 and IRAG2 are cGMP kinase substrate proteins that regulate intracellular Ca²⁺. Previously, IRAG1 was discovered as a 125 kDa membrane protein at the endoplasmic reticulum, which is associated with the intracellular Ca²⁺ channel IP₃R-I and the PKGIβ and inhibits IP₃R-I upon PKGIβ-mediated phosphorylation. IRAG2 is a 75 kDa membrane protein homolog of IRAG1 and was recently also determined as a PKGI substrate. Several (patho-)physiological functions of IRAG1 and IRAG2 were meanwhile elucidated in a variety of human and murine tissues, e.g., of IRAG1 in various smooth muscles, heart, platelets, and other blood cells, of IRAG2 in the pancreas, heart, platelets, and taste cells. Hence, lack of IRAG1 or IRAG2 leads to diverse phenotypes in these organs, e.g., smooth muscle and platelet disorders or secretory deficiency, respectively. This review aims to highlight the recent research regarding these two regulatory proteins to envision their molecular and (patho-)physiological tasks and to unravel their functional interplay as possible (patho-)physiological counterparts.

Tubulin Post-Translational Modifications: The Elusive Roles of Acetylation

Microtubules (MTs), dynamic polymers of α/β-tubulin heterodimers found in all eukaryotes, are involved in cytoplasm spatial organization, intracellular transport, cell polarity, migration and division, and in cilia biology. MTs functional diversity depends on the differential expression of distinct tubulin isotypes and is amplified by a vast number of different post-translational modifications (PTMs). The addition/removal of PTMs to α- or β-tubulins is catalyzed by specific enzymes and allows combinatory patterns largely enriching the distinct biochemical and biophysical properties of MTs, creating a code read by distinct proteins, including microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), which allow cellular responses. This review is focused on tubulin-acetylation, whose cellular roles continue to generate debate. We travel through the experimental data pointing to α-tubulin Lys40 acetylation role as being a MT stabilizer and a typical PTM of long lived MTs, to the most recent data, suggesting that Lys40 acetylation enhances MT flexibility and alters the mechanical properties of MTs, preventing MTs from mechanical aging characterized by structural damage. Additionally, we discuss the regulation of tubulin acetyltransferases/desacetylases and their impacts on cell physiology. Finally, we analyze how changes in MT acetylation levels have been found to be a general response to stress and how they are associated with several human pathologies.

Cleavage of the Jaw1 C-terminal region enhances its augmentative effect on the Ca2+ release via IP3 receptors

Jaw1 (also known as IRAG2), a tail-anchored protein with 39 carboxyl (C)-terminal amino acids, is oriented to the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and outer nuclear membrane. We previously reported that Jaw1, as a member of the KASH protein family, plays a role in maintaining nuclear shape via its C-terminal region. Furthermore, we recently reported that Jaw1 functions as an augmentative effector of Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum by interacting with the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs). Intriguingly, the C-terminal region is partially cleaved, meaning that Jaw1 exists in the cell in at least two forms - uncleaved and cleaved. However, the mechanism of the cleavage event and its physiological significance remain to be determined. In this study, we demonstrate that the C-terminal region of Jaw1 is cleaved after its insertion by the signal peptidase complex (SPC). Particularly, our results indicate that the SPC with the catalytic subunit SEC11A, but not SEC11C, specifically cleaves Jaw1. Furthermore, using a mutant with a defect in the cleavage event, we demonstrate that the cleavage event enhances the augmentative effect of Jaw1 on the Ca2+ release ability of IP3Rs.

Nuclear pore complexes concentrate on Actin/LINC/Lamin nuclear lines in response to mechanical stress in a SUN1 dependent manner

Formation of robust actomyosin stress fibers (SF) in response to cell stretch plays a key role in the transfer of information from the cytoplasm into the nucleus. Actin/LINC/Lamin (ALL) nuclear lines provide mechanical linkage between the actin cytoskeleton and the lamin nucleoskeleton across the nuclear envelope. To understand the establishment of ALL lines, we used live cell imaging of cells exposed to cyclic stretch. We discovered that nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) concentrate along ALL lines that are generated in response to uniaxial cyclic stretch. The ALL-associated NPCs display increased fluorescence intensity of nucleoporins Pom121, TPR and Nup153 relative to nucleoporins that are distal to the ALL lines. Here we test the hypothesis that a LINC complex component of ALL lines, SUN1 is involved in the integration of NPCs with ALL lines. We generated CRISPR SUN1 knockdown and knockout cell lines and show that SUN1 is essential for normal integration of NPCs to ALL lines. Loss or elimination of SUN1 significantly diminishes NPC/ALL line integration, demonstrating a key role for SUN1 in the recruitment or stabilization of NPCs to a discrete subdomain of the nuclear envelope at ALL lines. This work provides new insight into the mechanism by which cells respond to mechanical force through nuclear envelope remodeling.

Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Mechanosensitive Regulators and Vascular Remodeling

Blood vessels are subjected to mechanical loads of pressure and flow, inducing smooth muscle circumferential and endothelial shear stresses. The perception and response of vascular tissue and living cells to these stresses and the microenvironment they are exposed to are critical to their function and survival. These mechanical stimuli not only cause morphological changes in cells and vessel walls but also can interfere with biochemical homeostasis, leading to vascular remodeling and dysfunction. However, the mechanisms underlying how these stimuli affect tissue and cellular function, including mechanical stimulation-induced biochemical signaling and mechanical transduction that relies on cytoskeletal integrity, are unclear. This review focuses on signaling pathways that regulate multiple biochemical processes in vascular mesangial smooth muscle cells in response to circumferential stress and are involved in mechanosensitive regulatory molecules in response to mechanotransduction, including ion channels, membrane receptors, integrins, cytoskeletal proteins, nuclear structures, and cascades. Mechanoactivation of these signaling pathways is closely associated with vascular remodeling in physiological or pathophysiological states.

LINCking the Nuclear Envelope to Sperm Architecture

Nuclear architecture undergoes an extensive remodeling during spermatogenesis, especially at levels of spermatocytes (SPC) and spermatids (SPT). Interestingly, typical events of spermiogenesis, such as nuclear elongation, acrosome biogenesis, and flagellum formation, need a functional cooperation between proteins of the nuclear envelope and acroplaxome/manchette structures. In addition, nuclear envelope plays a key role in chromosome distribution. In this scenario, special attention has been focused on the LINC (linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton) complex, a nuclear envelope-bridge structure involved in the connection of the nucleoskeleton to the cytoskeleton, governing mechanotransduction. It includes two integral proteins: KASH- and SUN-domain proteins, on the outer (ONM) and inner (INM) nuclear membrane, respectively. The LINC complex is involved in several functions fundamental to the correct development of sperm cells such as head formation and head to tail connection, and, therefore, it seems to be important in determining male fertility. This review provides a global overview of the main LINC complex components, with a special attention to their subcellular localization in sperm cells, their roles in the regulation of sperm morphological maturation, and, lastly, LINC complex alterations associated to male infertility.

Barrier-to-autointegration factor: a first responder for repair of nuclear ruptures

The nuclear envelope (NE) is a critical barrier between the cytosol and nucleus that is key for compartmentalization within the cell and serves an essential role in organizing and protecting genomic DNA. Rupturing of the NE through loss of constitutive NE proteins and/or mechanical force applied to the nucleus results in the unregulated mixing of cytosolic and nuclear compartments, leading to DNA damage and genomic instability. Nuclear rupture has recently gained interest as a mechanism that may participate in various NE-associated diseases as well as cancer. Remarkably, these rupturing events are often transient, with cells being capable of rapidly repairing nuclear ruptures. Recently, we identified Barrier-to-Autointegration Factor (BAF), a DNA-binding protein involved in post-mitotic NE reformation and cytosolic viral regulation, as an essential protein for nuclear rupture repair. During interphase, the highly mobile cytosolic BAF is primed to monitor for a compromised NE by rapidly binding to newly exposed nuclear DNA and subsequently recruiting the factors necessary for NE repair. This review highlights the recent findings of BAF's roles in rupture repair, and offers perspectives on how regulatory factors that control BAF activity may potentially alter the cellular response to nuclear ruptures and how BAF may participate in human disease.

The N-terminal region of Jaw1 has a role to inhibit the formation of organized smooth endoplasmic reticulum as an intrinsically disordered region

Jaw1/LRMP is a type II integral membrane protein that is localized at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and outer nuclear membrane. We previously reported that a function of Jaw1 is to maintain the nuclear shape as a KASH protein via its carboxyl terminal region, a component of linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton complex in the oligomeric state. Although the oligomerization of some KASH proteins via the cytosolic regions serves to stabilize protein-protein interactions, the issue of how the oligomerization of Jaw1 is regulated is not completely understood. Therefore, we focused on three distinct regions on the cytosolic face of Jaw1: the N-terminal region, the coiled-coil domain and the stem region, in terms of oligomerization. A co-immunoprecipitation assay showed that its coiled-coil domain is a candidate for the oligomerization site. Furthermore, our data indicated that the N-terminal region prevents the aberrant oligomerization of Jaw1 as an intrinsically disordered region (IDR). Importantly, the ectopic expression of an N-terminal region deleted mutant caused the formation of organized smooth ER (OSER), structures such as nuclear karmellae and whorls, in B16F10 cells. Furthermore, this OSER interfered with the localization of the oligomer and interactors such as the type III inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor (IP₃R3) and SUN2. In summary, the N-terminal region of Jaw1 inhibits the formation of OSER as an IDR to maintain the homeostatic localization of interactors on the ER membrane.

The Plant Nuclear Envelope and Its Role in Gene Transcription

Chromosomes are dynamic entities in the eukaryotic nucleus. During cell development and in response to biotic and abiotic change, individual sections as well as entire chromosomes re-organise and reposition within the nuclear space. A focal point for these processes is the nuclear envelope (NE) providing both barrier and anchor for chromosomal movement. In plants, positioning of chromosome regions and individual genes at the nuclear envelope has been shown to be associated with distinct transcriptional patterns. Here, we will review recent findings on the interplay between transcriptional activity and gene positioning at the nuclear periphery (NP). We will discuss potential mechanisms of transcriptional regulation at the nuclear envelope and outline future perspectives in this research area.

Diverse cellular functions of barrier-to-autointegration factor and its roles in disease

Barrier-to-autointegration factor (BAF; encoded by BANF1) is a small highly conserved, ubiquitous and self-associating protein that coordinates with numerous binding partners to accomplish several key cellular processes. By interacting with double-stranded DNA, histones and various other nuclear proteins, including those enriched at the nuclear envelope, BAF appears to be essential for replicating cells to protect the genome and enable cell division. Cellular processes, such as innate immunity, post-mitotic nuclear reformation, repair of interphase nuclear envelope rupture, genomic regulation, and the DNA damage and repair response have all been shown to depend on BAF. This Review focuses on the regulation of the numerous interactions of BAF, which underlie the mechanisms by which BAF accomplishes its essential cellular functions. We will also discuss how perturbation of BAF function may contribute to human disease.

Meiotic chromosome movement: what's lamin got to do with it?

Active meiotic chromosome movements are a universally conserved feature. They occur at the early stages of prophase of the first meiotic division and support the chromosome pairing process by (1) efficiently installing the synaptonemal complex between homologous chromosomes, (2) discouraging inadvertent chromosome interactions and (3) bringing homologous chromosomes into proximity. Chromosome movements are driven by forces in the cytoplasm, which are passed on to chromosome ends attached to the nuclear periphery by nuclear-membrane-spanning protein modules. In this extra view, we highlight our recent studies into the role of the nuclear lamina during this process to emphasize that it is a highly conserved structure in metazoans. The nuclear lamina forms a rigid proteinaceous network that underlies the inner nuclear membrane to provide stability to the nucleus. Misdemeanors of the nuclear lamina during meiosis has deleterious consequences for the viability and health of the offspring, highlighting the importance of a functional nuclear lamina during this cell cycle stage.

Abbreviations: DSB: DNA double strand break; LEM: LAP2, Emerin, MAN1; LINC: LInker of the Nucleoskeleton and Cytoskeleton; RPM: rapid prophase movement; SUN/KASH: Sad1p, UNC-84/Klarsicht, ANC-1, Syne Homology

The testis-specific LINC component SUN3 is essential for sperm head shaping during mouse spermiogenesis

Sperm head shaping is a key event in spermiogenesis and is tightly controlled via the acrosome-manchette network. Linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complexes consist of Sad1 and UNC84 domain-containing (SUN) and Klarsicht/ANC-1/Syne-1 homology (KASH) domain proteins and form conserved nuclear envelope bridges implicated in transducing mechanical forces from the manchette to sculpt sperm nuclei into a hook-like shape. However, the role of LINC complexes in sperm head shaping is still poorly understood. Here we assessed the role of SUN3, a testis-specific LINC component harboring a conserved SUN domain, in spermiogenesis. We show that CRISPR/Cas9-generated Sun3 knockout male mice are infertile, displaying drastically reduced sperm counts and a globozoospermia-like phenotype, including a missing, mislocalized, or fragmented acrosome, as well as multiple defects in sperm flagella. Further examination revealed that the sperm head abnormalities are apparent at step 9 and that the sperm nuclei fail to elongate because of the absence of manchette microtubules and perinuclear rings. These observations indicate that Sun3 deletion likely impairs the ability of the LINC complex to transduce the cytoskeletal force to the nuclear envelope, required for sperm head elongation. We also found that SUN3 interacts with SUN4 in mouse testes and that the level of SUN4 proteins is drastically reduced in Sun3-null mice. Altogether, our results indicate that SUN3 is essential for sperm head shaping and male fertility, providing molecular clues regarding the underlying pathology of the globozoospermia-like phenotype.

Job Opening for Nucleosome Mechanic: Flexibility Required

The nucleus has been studied for well over 100 years, and chromatin has been the intense focus of experiments for decades. In this review, we focus on an understudied aspect of chromatin biology, namely the chromatin fiber polymer’s mechanical properties. In recent years, innovative work deploying interdisciplinary approaches including computational modeling, in vitro manipulations of purified and native chromatin have resulted in deep mechanistic insights into how the mechanics of chromatin might contribute to its function. The picture that emerges is one of a nucleus that is shaped as much by external forces pressing down upon it, as internal forces pushing outwards from the chromatin. These properties may have evolved to afford the cell a dynamic and reversible force-induced communication highway which allows rapid coordination between external cues and internal genomic function.

Rapid Cellular Perception of Gravitational Forces in Human Jurkat T Cells and Transduction into Gene Expression Regulation

Cellular processes are influenced in many ways by changes in gravitational force. In previous studies, we were able to demonstrate, in various cellular systems and research platforms that reactions and adaptation processes occur very rapidly after the onset of altered gravity. In this study we systematically compared differentially expressed gene transcript clusters (TCs) in human Jurkat T cells in microgravity provided by a suborbital ballistic rocket with vector-averaged gravity (vag) provided by a 2D clinostat. Additionally, we included 9× g centrifuge experiments and rigorous controls for excluding other factors of influence than gravity. We found that 11 TCs were significantly altered in 5 min of flight-induced and vector-averaged gravity. Among the annotated clusters were G3BP1, KPNB1, NUDT3, SFT2D2, and POMK. Our results revealed that less than 1% of all examined TCs show the same response in vag and flight-induced microgravity, while 38% of differentially regulated TCs identified during the hypergravity phase of the suborbital ballistic rocket flight could be verified with a 9× g ground centrifuge. In the 2D clinostat system, doing one full rotation per second, vector effects of the gravitational force are only nullified if the sensing mechanism requires 1 s or longer. Due to the fact that vag with an integration period of 1 s was not able to reproduce the results obtained in flight-induced microgravity, we conclude that the initial trigger of gene expression response to microgravity requires less than 1 s reaction time. Additionally, we discovered extensive gene expression differences caused by simple handling of the cell suspension in control experiments, which underlines the need for rigorous standardization regarding mechanical forces during cell culture experiments in general.

Recapitulation of molecular regulators of nuclear motion during cell migration

Cell migration is a highly orchestrated cellular event that involves physical interactions of diverse subcellular components. The nucleus as the largest and stiffest organelle in the cell not only maintains genetic functionality, but also actively changes its morphology and translocates through dynamic formation of nucleus-bound contractile stress fibers. Nuclear motion is an active and essential process for successful cell migration and nucleus self-repairs in response to compression and extension forces in complex cell microenvironment. This review recapitulates molecular regulators that are crucial for nuclear motility during cell migration and highlights recent advances in nuclear deformation-mediated rupture and repair processes in a migrating cell.

A network of nuclear envelope proteins and cytoskeletal force generators mediates movements of and within nuclei throughout Caenorhabditis elegans development

Nuclear migration and anchorage, together referred to as nuclear positioning, are central to many cellular and developmental events. Nuclear positioning is mediated by a conserved network of nuclear envelope proteins that interacts with force generators in the cytoskeleton. At the heart of this network are li nker of n ucleoskeleton and c ytoskeleton (LINC) complexes made of S ad1 and UN C-84 (SUN) proteins at the inner nuclear membrane and K larsicht, A NC-1, and S yne homology (KASH) proteins in the outer nuclear membrane. LINC complexes span the nuclear envelope, maintain nuclear envelope architecture, designate the surface of nuclei distinctly from the contiguous endoplasmic reticulum, and were instrumental in the early evolution of eukaryotes. LINC complexes interact with lamins in the nucleus and with various cytoplasmic KASH effectors from the surface of nuclei. These effectors regulate the cytoskeleton, leading to a variety of cellular outputs including pronuclear migration, nuclear migration through constricted spaces, nuclear anchorage, centrosome attachment to nuclei, meiotic chromosome movements, and DNA damage repair. How LINC complexes are regulated and how they function are reviewed here. The focus is on recent studies elucidating the best-understood network of LINC complexes, those used throughout Caenorhabditis elegans development.

Nuclear Organization in Stress and Aging

The eukaryotic nucleus controls most cellular processes. It is isolated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope, which plays a prominent role in the structural organization of the cell, including nucleocytoplasmic communication, chromatin positioning, and gene expression. Alterations in nuclear composition and function are eminently pronounced upon stress and during premature and physiological aging. These alterations are often accompanied by epigenetic changes in histone modifications. We review, here, the role of nuclear envelope proteins and histone modifiers in the 3-dimensional organization of the genome and the implications for gene expression. In particular, we focus on the nuclear lamins and the chromatin-associated protein BAF, which are linked to Hutchinson–Gilford and Nestor–Guillermo progeria syndromes, respectively. We also discuss alterations in nuclear organization and the epigenetic landscapes during normal aging and various stress conditions, ranging from yeast to humans.

Mechanosensing and Mechanoregulation of Endothelial Cell Functions

Vascular endothelial cells (ECs) form a semiselective barrier for macromolecules and cell elements regulated by dynamic interactions between cytoskeletal elements and cell adhesion complexes. ECs also participate in many other vital processes including innate immune reactions, vascular repair, secretion, and metabolism of bioactive molecules. Moreover, vascular ECs represent a unique cell type exposed to continuous, time-dependent mechanical forces: different patterns of shear stress imposed by blood flow in macrovasculature and by rolling blood cells in the microvasculature; circumferential cyclic stretch experienced by the arterial vascular bed caused by heart propulsions; mechanical stretch of lung microvascular endothelium at different magnitudes due to spontaneous respiration or mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients. Accumulating evidence suggests that vascular ECs contain mechanosensory complexes, which rapidly react to changes in mechanical loading, process the signal, and develop context-specific adaptive responses to rebalance the cell homeostatic state. The significance of the interactions between specific mechanical forces in the EC microenvironment together with circulating bioactive molecules in the progression and resolution of vascular pathologies including vascular injury, atherosclerosis, pulmonary edema, and acute respiratory distress syndrome has been only recently recognized. This review will summarize the current understanding of EC mechanosensory mechanisms, modulation of EC responses to humoral factors by surrounding mechanical forces (particularly the cyclic stretch), and discuss recent findings of magnitude-specific regulation of EC functions by transcriptional, posttranscriptional and epigenetic mechanisms using -omics approaches. We also discuss ongoing challenges and future opportunities in developing new therapies targeting dysregulated mechanosensing mechanisms to treat vascular diseases. © 2019 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 9:873-904, 2019.

Meiosis-specific cohesin component, Rec8, promotes the localization of Mps3 SUN domain protein on the nuclear envelope

Proteins in the nuclear envelope (NE) play a role in the dynamics and functions of the nucleus and of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis. Mps3, a yeast NE protein with a conserved SUN domain, predominantly localizes on a yeast centrosome equivalent, spindle pole body (SPB), in mitotic cells. During meiosis, Mps3, together with SPB, forms a distinct multiple ensemble on NE. How meiosis-specific NE localization of Mps3 is regulated remains largely unknown. In this study, we found that a meiosis-specific component of the protein complex essential for sister chromatid cohesion, Rec8, binds to Mps3 during meiosis and controls Mps3 localization and proper dynamics on NE. Ectopic expression of Rec8 in mitotic yeast cells induced the formation of Mps3 patches/foci on NE. This required the cohesin regulator, WAPL ortholog, Rad61/Wpl1, suggesting that a meiosis-specific cohesin complex with Rec8 controls NE localization of Mps3. We also observed that two domains of the nucleoplasmic region of Mps3 are essential for NE localization of Mps3 in mitotic as well as meiotic cells. We speculate that the interaction of Mps3 with the meiosis-specific cohesin in the nucleoplasm is a key determinant for NE localization/function of Mps3.

Centrosomal protein TRIM43 restricts herpesvirus infection by regulating nuclear lamina integrity

Tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins mediate antiviral host defences by either directly targeting viral components or modulating innate immune responses. Here we identify a mechanism of antiviral restriction in which a TRIM E3 ligase controls viral replication by regulating the structure of host cell centrosomes and thereby nuclear lamina integrity. Through RNAi screening we identified several TRIM proteins, including TRIM43, that control the reactivation of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. TRIM43 was distinguished by its ability to restrict a broad range of herpesviruses and its profound upregulation during herpesvirus infection as part of a germline-specific transcriptional program mediated by the transcription factor DUX4. TRIM43 ubiquitinates the centrosomal protein pericentrin, thereby targeting it for proteasomal degradation, which subsequently leads to alterations of the nuclear lamina that repress active viral chromatin states. Our study identifies a role of the TRIM43-pericentrin-lamin axis in intrinsic immunity, which may be targeted for therapeutic intervention against herpesviral infections.

Mechanical principles of nuclear shaping and positioning

Positioning and shaping the nucleus represents a mechanical challenge for the migrating cell because of its large size and resistance to deformation. Cells shape and position the nucleus by transmitting forces from the cytoskeleton onto the nuclear surface. This force transfer can occur through specialized linkages between the nuclear envelope and the cytoskeleton. In response, the nucleus can deform and/or it can move. Nuclear movement will occur when there is a net differential in mechanical force across the nucleus, while nuclear deformation will occur when mechanical forces overcome the mechanical resistance of the various structures that comprise the nucleus. In this perspective, we review current literature on the sources and magnitude of cellular forces exerted on the nucleus, the nuclear envelope proteins involved in transferring cellular forces, and the contribution of different nuclear structural components to the mechanical response of the nucleus to these forces.

Multiple Aspects of PIP2 Involvement in C. elegans Gametogenesis

One of the most studied phosphoinositides is phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), which localizes to the plasma membrane, nuclear speckles, small foci in the nucleoplasm, and to the nucleolus in mammalian cells. Here, we show that PIP2 also localizes to the nucleus in prophase I, during the gametogenesis of C. elegans hermaphrodite. The depletion of PIP2 by type I PIP kinase (PPK-1) kinase RNA interference results in an altered chromosome structure and leads to various defects during meiotic progression. We observed a decreased brood size and aneuploidy in progeny, defects in synapsis, and crossover formation. The altered chromosome structure is reflected in the increased transcription activity of a tightly regulated process in prophase I. To elucidate the involvement of PIP2 in the processes during the C. elegans development, we identified the PIP2-binding partners, leucine-rich repeat (LRR-1) protein and proteasome subunit beta 4 (PBS-4), pointing to its involvement in the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway.

Sad1 Spatiotemporally Regulates Kinetochore Clustering To Ensure High-Fidelity Chromosome Segregation in the Human Fungal Pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans

The linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex is present in fungi, animals, and plants. It performs diverse functions in animals, and its role(s) have recently been explored in plants. In ascomycetous yeast species, the role of the LINC complex in spindle pole body function and telomere clustering during meiosis has been determined. However, nothing is known about the LINC complex in the fungal phylum of Basidiomycota. In this study, we identified the role of the LINC complex in kinetochore dynamics as well as in nuclear migration in a basidiomycetous yeast, Cryptococcus neoformans, a human pathogen. Unlike most other yeast species, kinetochores remain unclustered during interphase but gradually cluster during mitosis in C. neoformans. We report that the LINC complex is required for timely onset of kinetochore clustering and high-fidelity chromosome segregation in C. neoformans. Thus, our study identifies a novel factor required for kinetochore clustering during mitosis in yeast species.

Kinetochore clustering, frequently observed in yeasts, plays a key role in genome organization and chromosome segregation. In the absence of the metaphase plate arrangement, kinetochore clustering in yeast species is believed to facilitate timely kinetochore-microtubule interactions to achieve bivalent attachments of chromosomes during metaphase. The factors determining the dynamics of kinetochore clustering remain largely unknown. We previously reported that kinetochores oscillate between an unclustered and a clustered state during the mitotic cell cycle in the basidiomycetous yeast Cryptococcus neoformans. Based on tubulin localization patterns, while kinetochore clustering appears to be microtubule dependent, an indirect interaction of microtubules with kinetochores is expected in C. neoformans. In this study, we sought to examine possible roles of the SUN-KASH protein complex, known to form a bridge across the nuclear envelope, in regulating kinetochore clustering in C. neoformans. We show that the SUN domain protein Sad1 localizes close to kinetochores in interphase as well as in mitotic cells. Sad1 is nonessential for viability in C. neoformans but is required for proper growth and high-fidelity chromosome segregation. Further, we demonstrate that the onset of kinetochore clustering is significantly delayed in cells lacking Sad1 compared to wild-type cells. Taken together, this study identifies a novel role of the SUN domain protein Sad1 in spatiotemporal regulation of kinetochore clustering during the mitotic cell cycle in C. neoformans.

IMPORTANCE The linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex is present in fungi, animals, and plants. It performs diverse functions in animals, and its role(s) have recently been explored in plants. In ascomycetous yeast species, the role of the LINC complex in spindle pole body function and telomere clustering during meiosis has been determined. However, nothing is known about the LINC complex in the fungal phylum of Basidiomycota. In this study, we identified the role of the LINC complex in kinetochore dynamics as well as in nuclear migration in a basidiomycetous yeast, Cryptococcus neoformans, a human pathogen. Unlike most other yeast species, kinetochores remain unclustered during interphase but gradually cluster during mitosis in C. neoformans. We report that the LINC complex is required for timely onset of kinetochore clustering and high-fidelity chromosome segregation in C. neoformans. Thus, our study identifies a novel factor required for kinetochore clustering during mitosis in yeast species.

Variable Patterning of Chromatin Remodeling, Telomere Positioning, Synapsis, and Chiasma Formation of Individual Rye Chromosomes in Meiosis of Wheat-Rye Additions

Meiosis, the type of cell division that halves the chromosome number, shows a considerable degree of diversity among species. Unraveling molecular mechanisms of the meiotic machinery has been mainly based on meiotic mutants, where the effects of a change were assessed on chromosomes of the particular species. An alternative approach is to study the meiotic behavior of the chromosomes introgressed into different genetic backgrounds. As an allohexaploid, common wheat tolerates introgression of chromosomes from related species, such as rye. The behavior of individual pairs of rye homologues added to wheat has been monitored in meiotic prophase I and metaphase I. Chromosome 4R increased its length in early prophase I much more than other chromosomes studied, implying chromosome specific patterns of chromatin organization. Chromosome conformation affected clustering of telomeres but not their dispersion. Telomeres of the short arm of submetacentric chromosomes 4R, 5R, and 6R failed more often to be included in the telomere cluster either than the telomeres of the long arms or telomeres of metacentrics such as 2R, 3R, and 7R. The disturbed migration of the telomeres of 5RS and 6RS was associated with failure of synapsis and chiasma formation. However, despite the failed convergence of its telomere, the 4RS arm developed normal synapsis, perhaps because the strong increase of its length in early prophase I facilitated homologous encounters in intercalary regions. Surprisingly, chiasma frequencies in both arms of 4R were reduced. Similarly, the short arm of metacentric chromosome 2R often failed to form chiasmata despite normal synapsis. Chromosomes 1R, 3R, and 7R showed a regular meiotic behavior. These observations are discussed in the context of the behavior that these chromosomes show in rye itself.

Nuclear Envelope-Associated Chromosome Dynamics during Meiotic Prophase I

Chromosome dynamics during meiotic prophase I are associated with a series of major events such as chromosomal reorganization and condensation, pairing/synapsis and recombination of the homologs, and chromosome movements at the nuclear envelope (NE). The NE is the barrier separating the nucleus from the cytoplasm and thus plays a central role in NE-associated chromosomal movements during meiosis. Previous studies have shown in various species that NE-linked chromosome dynamics are actually driven by the cytoskeleton. The linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complexes are important constituents of the NE that facilitate in the transfer of cytoskeletal forces across the NE to individual chromosomes. The LINCs consist of the inner and outer NE proteins Sad1/UNC-84 (SUN), and Klarsicht/Anc-1/Syne (KASH) domain proteins. Meiosis-specific adaptations of the LINC components and unique modifications of the NE are required during chromosomal movements. Nonetheless, the actual role of the NE in chromosomic dynamic movements in plants remains elusive. This review summarizes the findings of recent studies on meiosis-specific constituents and modifications of the NE and corresponding nucleoplasmic/cytoplasmic adaptors being involved in NE-associated movement of meiotic chromosomes, as well as describes the potential molecular network of transferring cytoplasm-derived forces into meiotic chromosomes in model organisms. It helps to gain a better understanding of the NE-associated meiotic chromosomal movements in plants.

Outer nuclear membrane protein Kuduk modulates the LINC complex and nuclear envelope architecture

LINC complexes connect the inner and outer nuclear membrane (ONM) to transduce nucleocytoskeletal force. Ding et al. identify an ONM protein, Kuduk/TMEM258, which modulates the quality of LINC complexes and regulates the nuclear envelope architecture, nuclear positioning, and the development of ovarian follicles.

Linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complexes spanning the nuclear envelope (NE) contribute to nucleocytoskeletal force transduction. A few NE proteins have been found to regulate the LINC complex. In this study, we identify one, Kuduk (Kud), which can reside at the outer nuclear membrane and is required for the development of Drosophila melanogaster ovarian follicles and NE morphology of myonuclei. Kud associates with LINC complex components in an evolutionarily conserved manner. Loss of Kud increases the level but impairs functioning of the LINC complex. Overexpression of Kud suppresses NE targeting of cytoskeleton-free LINC complexes. Thus, Kud acts as a quality control mechanism for LINC-mediated nucleocytoskeletal connections. Genetic data indicate that Kud also functions independently of the LINC complex. Overexpression of the human orthologue TMEM258 in Drosophila proved functional conservation. These findings expand our understanding of the regulation of LINC complexes and NE architecture.

New nuclear and perinuclear functions of formins

Formin family proteins (formins) represent an evolutionary conserved protein family encoded in the genome of a wide range of eukaryotes. Formins are hallmarked by a formin homology 1 (FH1) domain juxtaposed to an FH2 domain whereby they control actin and microtubule dynamics. Not surprisingly, formins are best known as key regulators of the cytoskeleton in a variety of morphogenetic processes. However, mounting evidence implicates several formins in the assembly and organization of actin within and around the nucleus. In addition, actin-independent roles for formins have recently been discovered. In this mini-review, we summarize these findings and highlight the novel nuclear and perinulcear functions of formins. In light of the emerging new biology of formins, we also discuss the fundamental principles governing the versatile activity and multimodal regulation of these proteins.

Nesprin 1α2 is essential for mouse postnatal viability and nuclear positioning in skeletal muscle

The position of the nucleus in a cell is controlled by interactions between the linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex and the cytoskeleton. Defects in nuclear positioning and abnormal aggregation of nuclei occur in many muscle diseases and correlate with muscle dysfunction. Nesprin 1, which includes multiple isoforms, is an integral component of the LINC complex, critical for nuclear positioning and anchorage in skeletal muscle, and is thought to provide an essential link between nuclei and actin. However, previous studies have yet to identify which isoform is responsible. To elucidate this, we generated a series of nesprin 1 mutant mice. We showed that the actin-binding domains of nesprin 1 were dispensable, whereas nesprin 1α2, which lacks actin-binding domains, was crucial for postnatal viability, nuclear positioning, and skeletal muscle function. Furthermore, we revealed that kinesin 1 was displaced in fibers of nesprin 1α2-knockout mice, suggesting that this interaction may play an important role in positioning of myonuclei and functional skeletal muscle.

Cell Biology of the Plant Nucleus

The eukaryotic nucleus is enclosed by the nuclear envelope, which is perforated by the nuclear pores, the gateways of macromolecular exchange between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The nucleoplasm is organized in a complex three-dimensional fashion that changes over time and in response to stimuli. Within the cell, the nucleus must be viewed as an organelle (albeit a gigantic one) that is a recipient of cytoplasmic forces and capable of morphological and positional dynamics. The most dramatic reorganization of this organelle occurs during mitosis and meiosis. Although many of these aspects are less well understood for the nuclei of plants than for those of animals or fungi, several recent discoveries have begun to place our understanding of plant nuclei firmly into this broader cell-biological context.

Neurons of the rat cervical spinal cord express vimentin and neurofilament after intraparenchymal injection of kainic acid

Intermediate filaments (IF) can be altered under disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases. Kainic acid (KA) induce behavioral changes and histopathological alterations of the spinal cord of injected rats. Our goal was to evaluate the IF expression in neurons during this injury model. Animals were injected with KA at the C5 segment of the cervical spinal cord and euthanized at 1, 3 and 7 post injection (pi) days. Neuronal cell counting showed a significant loss of neurons at the injection site when compared with those of sham and non-operated animals. Immunohistochemistry for vimentin and neurofilament showed positive labeling of perikarya in sham and KA-injected animals since day 1 pi that lasted for the remaining experimental days. Colocalization analysis between enolase and vimentin or neurofilament confirmed a high index of colocalization in both experimental groups at day 1 pi. This index decreased in sham animals by day 3 pi whereas that of KA-injected animals remained high throughout the experiment. These results may suggest that perikarya initiate an unconventional IF expression, which may respond to the neuronal damage induced by the mechanical injury and the excitotoxic effect of KA. It seems that vimentin and neurofilament expression may be a necessary change to promote recovery of the damaged tissue.

Nuclear movement regulated by non-Smad Nodal signaling via JNK is associated with Smad signaling during zebrafish endoderm specification

Although asymmetric nuclear positioning is observed during animal development, the regulation and significance of this nuclear positioning in cell differentiation remains poorly understood. Using zebrafish blastulae, we provide evidence that nuclear movement toward the yolk syncytial layer, which comprises extraembryonic tissue, occurs in the first endoderm specified cells during endoderm specification. Nodal signaling is essential for nuclear movement, whereas nuclear envelope proteins are involved in the movement through the microtubule formation. The positioning of the microtubule organizing center, which is proposed to be critical for nuclear movement, is regulated by Nodal signaling and nuclear envelope proteins. The non-Smad JNK signaling pathway, which is downstream of Nodal signaling, regulates nuclear movement independent of the Smad pathway, and this nuclear movement is associated with Smad signal transduction toward the nucleus. Our study provides insights into the function of nuclear movement in Smad signaling toward the nucleus, and could be applied to the control of Transforming Growth Factor-β signaling.

Spatial organization of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe genome within the nucleus

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is a useful experimental system for studying the organization of chromosomes within the cell nucleus. S. pombe has a small genome that is organized into three chromosomes. The small size of the genome and the small number of chromosomes are advantageous for cytological and genome-wide studies of chromosomes; however, the small size of the nucleus impedes microscopic observations owing to limits in spatial resolution during imaging. Recent advances in microscopy, such as super-resolution microscopy, have greatly expanded the use of S. pombe as a model organism in a wide range of studies. In addition, biochemical studies, such as chromatin immunoprecipitation and chromosome conformation capture, have provided complementary approaches. Here, we review the spatial organization of the S. pombe genome as determined by a combination of cytological and biochemical studies. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Physical role for the nucleus in cell migration

Cell migration is important for the function of many eukaryotic cells. Recently the nucleus has been shown to play an important role in cell motility. After giving an overview of cell motility mechanisms we review what is currently known about the mechanical properties of the nucleus and the connections between it and the cytoskeleton. We also discuss connections to the extracellular matrix and mechanotransduction. We identify key physical roles of the nucleus in cell migration.

Centrosome positioning in non-dividing cells

Centrioles and centrosomes are found in almost all eukaryotic cells, where they are important for organising the microtubule cytoskeleton in both dividing and non-dividing cells. The spatial location of centrioles and centrosomes is tightly controlled and, in non-dividing cells, plays an important part in cell migration, ciliogenesis and immune cell functions. Here, we examine some of the ways that centrosomes are connected to other organelles and how this impacts on cilium formation, cell migration and immune cell function in metazoan cells.

The Hagfish Gland Thread Cell: A Fiber-Producing Cell Involved in Predator Defense

Fibers are ubiquitous in biology, and include tensile materials produced by specialized glands (such as silks), extracellular fibrils that reinforce exoskeletons and connective tissues (such as chitin and collagen), as well as intracellular filaments that make up the metazoan cytoskeleton (such as F-actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments). Hagfish gland thread cells are unique in that they produce a high aspect ratio fiber from cytoskeletal building blocks within the confines of their cytoplasm. These threads are elaborately coiled into structures that readily unravel when they are ejected into seawater from the slime glands. In this review we summarize what is currently known about the structure and function of gland thread cells and we speculate about the mechanism that these cells use to produce a mechanically robust fiber that is almost one hundred thousand times longer than it is wide. We propose that a key feature of this mechanism involves the unidirectional rotation of the cell’s nucleus, which would serve to twist disorganized filaments into a coherent thread and impart a torsional stress on the thread that would both facilitate coiling and drive energetic unravelling in seawater.

Centrosomal clustering contributes to chromosomal instability and cancer

Cells assemble mitotic spindles during each round of division to insure accurate segregation of their duplicated genome. In animal cells, stereotypical spindles have two poles, each containing one centrosome, from which microtubules are nucleated. By contrast, many cancer cells often contain more than two centrosomes and form transient multipolar spindle structures with more than two poles. In order to divide and produce viable progeny, the multipolar spindle intermediate must be reshaped into a pseudo-bipolar structure via a process called centrosomal clustering. Pseudo-bipolar spindles appear to function normally during mitosis, but they occasionally give rise to aneuploid and transformed daughter cells. Agents that inhibit centrosomal clustering might therefore work as a potential cancer therapy, specifically targeting mitosis in supernumerary centrosome-containing cells.

Impaired mechanical response of an EDMD mutation leads to motility phenotypes that are repaired by loss of prenylation

There are roughly 14 distinct heritable autosomal dominant diseases associated with mutations in lamins A/C, including Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD). The mechanical model proposes that the lamin mutations change the mechanical properties of muscle nuclei, leading to cell death and tissue deterioration. Here, we developed an experimental protocol that analyzes the effect of disease-linked lamin mutations on the response of nuclei to mechanical strain in living Caenorhabditis elegans We found that the EDMD mutation L535P disrupts the nuclear mechanical response specifically in muscle nuclei. Inhibiting lamin prenylation rescued the mechanical response of the EDMD nuclei, reversed the muscle phenotypes and led to normal motility. The LINC complex and emerin were also required to regulate the mechanical response of C. elegans nuclei. This study provides evidence to support the mechanical model and offers a potential future therapeutic approach towards curing EDMD.

Mechanotransduction and nuclear function

Many signaling pathways converge on the nucleus to regulate crucial nuclear events such as transcription, DNA replication and cell cycle progression. Although the vast majority of research in this area has focused on signals generated in response to hormones or other soluble factors, the nucleus also responds to mechanical forces. During the past decade or so, much has been learned about how mechanical force can affect transcription, as well as the growth and differentiation of cells. Much has also been learned about how force is transmitted via the cytoskeleton to the nucleus and then across the nuclear envelope to the nuclear lamina and chromatin. In this brief review, we focus on some of the key proteins that transmit mechanical signals across the nuclear envelope.