The nucleolar phosphoprotein B23 redistributes in part to the spindle poles during mitosis

Investigating the multifaceted role of nucleolin in cellular function and Cancer: Structure, Regulation, and therapeutic implications

Nucleolin (NCL), a highly conserved and multifunctional phosphoprotein, is primarily localized in the nucleolus and participates in various cellular compartments, including the nucleoplasm, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane. Initially discovered in the 1970 s, NCL is integral to ribosome biogenesis through its roles in ribosomal RNA transcription, processing, and assembly. Beyond ribosome synthesis, NCL plays critical roles in cellular processes such as DNA and RNA metabolism, chromatin remodeling, and cell cycle regulation, underscoring its essentiality for cell viability. Structurally, NCL comprises multiple functional domains, which facilitates interaction with various kinases and other proteins. NCL's extensive post-translational modifications influence its localization and function. Importantly, NCL has emerged as a key player in multiple pathologies, particularly cancer, where it contributes to tumor growth, metastasis, and drug resistance. On the cell surface, NCL acts as a co-receptor for growth factors and other ligands, facilitating oncogenic signaling. Additionally, its regulation of non-coding RNAs, stabilization of oncogenic mRNAs, and involvement in immune evasion highlight its potential as a therapeutic target. This review provides an unexplored in-depth overview of NCL's structure, functions, and modifications, with a focus on its role in cancer biology and its therapeutic implications.

Functions of the native NPM1 protein and its leukemic mutant

The nucleophosmin (NPM1) gene encodes for the most abundant nucleolar protein. Thanks to its property to act as histone chaperone and to shuttle between the nucleus and cytoplasm, the NPM1 protein is involved in multiple cellular function that are here extensively reviewed and include the formation of the nucleolus through liquid-liquid phase separation, regulation of ribosome biogenesis and transport, control of DNA repair and centrosome duplication as well as response to nucleolar stress. NPM1 is mutated in about 30-35% of adult acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Due to its unique biological and clinical features, NPM1-mutated AML is regarded as a distinct leukemia entity in the WHO 5th edition and ICC classifications of myeloid malignancies. The NPM1 mutant undergoes changes at the C-terminus of the protein that leads to its delocalization in the cytoplasm of the leukemic cells. Here, we focus also on its biological functions discussing the murine models of NPM1 mutations and the various mechanisms that occur at cytoplasmic and nuclear levels to promote and maintain NPM1-mutated AML.

The Nucleolus and Its Interactions with Viral Proteins Required for Successful Infection

Nuclear bodies are structures in eukaryotic cells that lack a plasma membrane and are considered protein condensates, DNA, or RNA molecules. Known nuclear bodies include the nucleolus, Cajal bodies, and promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies. These bodies are involved in the concentration, exclusion, sequestration, assembly, modification, and recycling of specific components involved in the regulation of ribosome biogenesis, RNA transcription, and RNA processing. Additionally, nuclear bodies have been shown to participate in cellular processes such as the regulation of transcription of the cell cycle, mitosis, apoptosis, and the cellular stress response. The dynamics and functions of these bodies depend on the state of the cell. It is now known that both DNA and RNA viruses can direct their proteins to nuclear bodies, causing alterations in their composition, dynamics, and functions. Although many of these mechanisms are still under investigation, it is well known that the interaction between viral and nuclear body proteins is necessary for the success of the viral infection cycle. In this review, we concisely describe the interaction between viral and nuclear body proteins. Furthermore, we focus on the role of the nucleolus in RNA virus infections. Finally, we discuss the possible implications of the interaction of viral proteins on cellular transcription and the formation/degradation of non-coding RNAs.

Structural basis of microtubule depolymerization by the kinesin-like activity of HIV-1 Rev

HIV-1 Rev is an essential regulatory protein that transports unspliced and partially spliced viral mRNAs from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for the expression of viral structural proteins. During its nucleocytoplasmic shuttling, Rev interacts with several host proteins to use the cellular machinery for the advantage of the virus. Here, we report the 3.5 Å cryo-EM structure of a 4.8 MDa Rev-tubulin ring complex. Our structure shows that Rev's arginine-rich motif (ARM) binds to both the acidic surfaces and the C-terminal tails of α/β-tubulin. The Rev-tubulin interaction is functionally homologous to that of kinesin-13, potently destabilizing microtubules at sub-stoichiometric levels. Expression of Rev in astrocytes and HeLa cells shows that it can modulate the microtubule cytoskeleton within the cellular environment. These results show a previously undefined regulatory role of Rev.

The role of the nucleolus in regulating the cell cycle and the DNA damage response

The nucleolus has long been perceived as the site for ribosome biogenesis, but numerous studies suggest that the nucleolus carefully sequesters crucial proteins involved in multiple cellular functions. Among these, the role of nucleolus in cell cycle regulation is the most evident. The nucleolus is the first responder of growth-related signals to mediate normal cell cycle progression. The nucleolus also senses different cellular stress insults by activating diverse pathways that arrest the cell cycle, promote DNA repair, or initiate apoptosis. Here, we review the emerging concepts on how the ribosomal and nonribosomal nucleolar proteins mediate such cellular effects.

Genetic basis of acute myeloid leukemia (AML): The most common molecular changes in patients with normal karyotype

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a clonal disorder that results from errors in proliferation and differentiation of bone marrow stem cells from myeloid lineage. According to the Gilliland “two-hit” model, genes of both groups related to proliferation (e.g., FLT3) and differentiation (e.g., CEBPA) must be mutated for full development of AML. The genetic background of AML is very complicated and varied, from single nucleotide mutations or changes in gene expression to cytogenetic aberrations. The DNA sequencing results enable identification of important gene alterations that occur first and may lead the whole leukemogenesis (driver mutations). Some of them have prognostic significance – that is, they are related to the overall survival (OS), complete remission rate, and event-free survival (EFS). The most common molecular changes in AML are mutations in NPM1, CEBPA, FLT3, and DNMT3A. Alterations in NPM1 gene are associated with a good prognosis but simultaneous mutation in FLT3 may change this prognosis. DNMT3A mutations are very often correlated with NPM1 mutations and are associated with short OS.

Nucleophosmin in leukemia: Consequences of anchor loss

Nucleophosmin (NPM), one of the most abundant nucleolar proteins, has crucial functions in ribosome biogenesis, cell cycle control, and DNA-damage repair. In human cells, NPM occurs mainly in oligomers. It functions as a chaperone, undergoes numerous interactions and forms part of many protein complexes. Although NPM role in carcinogenesis is not fully elucidated, a variety of tumor suppressor as well as oncogenic activities were described. NPM is overexpressed, fused with other proteins, or mutated in various tumor types. In the acute myeloid leukemia (AML), characteristic mutations in NPM1 gene, leading to modification of NPM C-terminus, are the most frequent genetic aberration. Although multiple mutation types of NPM are found in AML, they are all characterized by aberrant cytoplasmic localization of the mutated protein. In this review, current knowledge of the structure and function of NPM is presented in relation to its interaction network, in particular to the interaction with other nucleolar proteins and with proteins active in apoptosis. Possible molecular mechanisms of NPM mutation-driven leukemogenesis and NPM therapeutic targeting are discussed. Finally, recent findings concerning the immunogenicity of the mutated NPM and specific immunological features of AML patients with NPM mutation are summarized.

Phosphoproteome Profiling Reveals Multifunctional Protein NPM1 as part of the Irradiation Response of Tumor Cells

To fight resistances to radiotherapy, the understanding of escape mechanisms of tumor cells is crucial. The aim of this study was to identify phosphoproteins that are regulated upon irradiation. The comparative analysis of the phosphoproteome before and after irradiation brought nucleophosmin (NPM1) into focus as a versatile phosphoprotein that has already been associated with tumorigenesis. We could show that knockdown of NPM1 significantly reduces tumor cell survival after irradiation. NPM1 is dephosphorylated stepwise within 1 hour after irradiation at two of its major phosphorylation sites: threonine-199 and threonine-234/237. This dephosphorylation is not the result of a fast cell cycle arrest, and we found a heterogenous intracellular distribution of NPM1 between the nucleoli, the nucleoplasm, and the cytoplasm after irradiation. We hypothesize that the dephosphorylation of NPM1 at threonine-199 and threonine-234/237 is part of the immediate response to irradiation and of importance for tumor cell survival. These findings could make NPM1 an attractive pharmaceutical target to radiosensitize tumor cells and improve the outcome of radiotherapy by inhibiting the pathways that help tumor cells to escape cell death after gamma irradiation.

Nucleophosmin: from structure and function to disease development

Nucleophosmin (NPM1) is a critical cellular protein that has been implicated in a number of pathways including mRNA transport, chromatin remodeling, apoptosis and genome stability. NPM1 function is a critical requirement for normal cellular biology as is underlined in cancer where NPM1 is commonly overexpressed, mutated, rearranged and sporadically deleted. Consistent with a multifunctional role within the cell, NPM1 can function not only as a proto-oncogene but also as a tumor suppressor. The aim of this review is to look at the less well-described role of NPM1 in the DNA repair pathways as well as the role of NPM1 in the regulation of apoptosis and its mutation in cancers.

High intake of dietary sugar enhances bisphenol A (BPA) disruption and reveals ribosome-mediated pathways of toxicity

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an organic compound to which human populations are ubiquitously exposed. Epidemiological data suggest BPA exposure might be associated with higher rates of diabetes and reproductive anomalies. Health concerns also include transgenerational consequences, but these mechanisms are crudely defined. Similarly, little is known about synergistic interactions between BPA and other substances. Here we show that acute and chronic exposure to BPA causes genome-wide modulation of several functionally coherent genetic pathways in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. In particular, BPA exposure causes massive downregulation of testis-specific genes and upregulation of ribosome-associated genes widely expressed across tissues. In addition, it causes the modulation of transposable elements that are specific to the ribosomal DNA loci, suggesting that nucleolar stress might contribute to BPA toxicity. The upregulation of ribosome-associated genes and the impairment of testis-specific gene expression are significantly enhanced upon BPA exposure with a high-sugar diet. Our results suggest that BPA and dietary sugar might functionally interact, with consequences to regulatory programs in both reproductive and somatic tissues.

The G1 phase Cdks regulate the centrosome cycle and mediate oncogene-dependent centrosome amplification

Because centrosome amplification generates aneuploidy and since centrosome amplification is ubiquitous in human tumors, a strong case is made for centrosome amplification being a major force in tumor biogenesis. Various evidence showing that oncogenes and altered tumor suppressors lead to centrosome amplification and aneuploidy suggests that oncogenes and altered tumor suppressors are a major source of genomic instability in tumors, and that they generate those abnormal processes to initiate and sustain tumorigenesis. We discuss how altered tumor suppressors and oncogenes utilize the cell cycle regulatory machinery to signal centrosome amplification and aneuploidy.

The Multifunctional Nucleolar Protein Nucleophosmin/NPM/B23 and the Nucleoplasmin Family of Proteins

The nucleophosmin (NPM)/nucleoplasmin family of nuclear chaperones has three members: NPM1, NPM2, and NPM3. Nuclear chaperones serve to ensure proper assembly of nucleosomes and proper formation of higher order structures of chromatin. In fact, this family of proteins has such diverse functions in cellular processes such as chromatin remodeling, ribosome biogenesis, genome stability, centrosome replication, cell cycle, transcriptional regulation, apoptosis, and tumor suppression. Of the members of this family, NPM1 is the most studied and is the main focus of this review. NPM2 and NPM3 are less well characterized, and are also discussed wherever appropriate. The structure–function relationship of NPM proteins has largely been worked out. Other than the many processes in which NPM1 takes part, the major interest comes from its involvement in human cancers, particularly acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Its significance stems from the fact that AML with mutated NPM1 accounts for ∼30% of all AML cases and usually has good prognosis. Its clinical importance also comes from its involvement in virus replication, particularly in the era of outbreaks of infectious diseases.

BRCA2 and nucleophosmin coregulate centrosome amplification and form a complex with the Rho effector kinase ROCK2

BRCA2 germline mutations account for the majority of heredity breast and ovarian cancer. Besides its role in DNA damage repair, BRCA2 also plays an important role in cytokinesis, transcription regulation, and cancer cell proliferation. Recently, we reported that BRCA2 localizes to centrosomes as well as nuclei and the dysfunction of BRCA2 in a centrosome causes abnormalities in cell division. Here, we identified a nucleolar phosphoprotein, nucleophosmin (NPM), as a novel BRCA2-associated protein. We also detected the binding of BRCA2 to ROCK2, an effector of Rho small GTPase. Because it is known that ROCK2 binds to NPM at centrosomes, these 3 proteins may form a complex. NPM-binding region was within amino acids 639-1,000 of BRCA2. Exogenous expression of this BRCA2 region resulted in aberrant centrosome amplification and a high frequency of multinucleated cells. Our results suggested that a complex consisting of BRCA2, NPM, and ROCK2 maintains the numerical integrity of centrosomes and accurate cell division and that dysfunction of this regulation might be involved in the tumorigenesis of breast cancer.

NPM1/B23: A Multifunctional Chaperone in Ribosome Biogenesis and Chromatin Remodeling

At a first glance, ribosome biogenesis and chromatin remodeling are quite different processes, but they share a common problem involving interactions between charged nucleic acids and small basic proteins that may result in unwanted intracellular aggregations. The multifunctional nuclear acidic chaperone NPM1 (B23/nucleophosmin) is active in several stages of ribosome biogenesis, chromatin remodeling, and mitosis as well as in DNA repair, replication and transcription. In addition, NPM1 plays an important role in the Myc-ARF-p53 pathway as well as in SUMO regulation. However, the relative importance of NPM1 in these processes remains unclear. Provided herein is an update on the expanding list of the diverse activities and interacting partners of NPM1. Mechanisms of NPM1 nuclear export functions of NPM1 in the nucleolus and at the mitotic spindle are discussed in relation to tumor development. It is argued that the suggested function of NPM1 as a histone chaperone could explain several, but not all, of the effects observed in cells following changes in NPM1 expression. A future challenge is to understand how NPM1 is activated, recruited, and controlled to carry out its functions.

Inhibiting Crm1 causes the formation of excess acentriolar spindle poles containing NuMA and B23, but does not affect centrosome numbers

BACKGROUND

B23/nucleophosmin is present on spindle poles at metaphase. Migration of B23 to the poles is under the control of exportin Crm1. B23 at the centrosome plays a role in the control centrosome duplication.

RESULTS

h-Tert-RPE1 cells blocked in prometaphase with low doses of Nocodazol showed a progression to mitosis if Crm1 exportin was inhibited. Under these conditions, the formation of accessory poles containing gamma-tubulin, NuMA (nuclear-mitotic-apparatus) and B23 was induced at metaphase. No effect on centrosome number was observed. In quiescent h-Tert-RPE1 cells, when Crm1 was active, B23 was not detected at the centrosome as well as B23-mutants reported to block centrosome duplication. In addition, the modification of B23 nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling showed no effect on centrosome duplication.

CONCLUSION

Inhibition of Crm1 in early metaphase favours the formation of supplementary acentriolar spindle poles. B23 and NuMA are present at these poles that ultimately focus around the centrosome. Inhibition of Crm1 at metaphase has no effect on the control of centrosome numbers.

Nucleophosmin protein expression level, but not threonine 198 phosphorylation, is essential in growth and proliferation

Nucleophosmin (NPM), an oligomeric phosphoprotein and nucleolar target of the ARF tumor suppressor, contributes to several critical cellular processes. Previous studies have shown that the human NPM's phosphorylation by cyclin E-cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (cdk2) on threonine (Thr) 199 regulates its translocation from the centrosome during cell cycle progression. Given our previous finding that ARF directly binds NPM, impeding its transit to the cytoplasm and arresting cells before S-phase entry, we hypothesized that ARF might also inhibit NPM phosphorylation. However, ARF induction did not impair phosphorylation of the cdk2 target residue in murine NPM, Thr198. Furthermore, phosphorylation of Thr198 occurred throughout the cell cycle and was concomitant with increases in overall NPM expression. To investigate the cell's presumed requirement for NPM-Thr198 phosphorylation in promoting the processes of growth and proliferation, we examined the effects of a non-phosphorylatable NPM mutant, T198A, in a clean cell system in which endogenous NPM had been removed by RNA interference. Here, we show that the T198A mutant is fully capable of executing NPM's described roles in nucleocytoplasmic shuttling, ribosome export and cell cycle progression. Moreover, the proliferative defects observed with stable NPM knockdown were restored by mutant NPM-T198A expression. Thus, we demonstrate that the reduction in NPM protein expression blocks cellular growth and proliferation, whereas phosphorylation of NPM-Thr198 is not essential for NPM's capacity to drive cell cycle progression and proliferation.

The putative RNA-processing protein, THO2, is a microtubule-associated protein in tobacco

THO2 is a component of the THO-TREX (transcription and export factor) complex that participates in mRNA metabolism and export from the nucleus in yeast and animal cells. Here we report that tobacco putative THO2-related protein (NtTHO2) is a microtubule-associated protein, which directly binds to microtubules in vitro and co-localizes with cortical microtubules in vivo. We purified endogenous NtTHO2 by cycles of microtubule polymerization-depolymerization from crude extracts of tobacco BY-2 miniprotoplasts. Purified NtTHO2 sedimented with microtubules in vitro. Immunofluorescence revealed that NtTHO2 was present in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. In interphase, cytoplasmic NtTHO2 was localized along cortical microtubules. In the mitotic phase, NtTHO2 was localized to the mitotic spindle but not to either the preprophase band or the phragmoplast. In mature cells of seedling roots, and in BY-2 cells in which proliferation was stopped by removing 2,4-D, NtTHO2 staining was confined mainly to the nucleolus. These results suggest that NtTHO2 is a multifunctional protein that participates in mRNA metabolism, and also functions within the cortical microtubules and mitotic spindle.

The retinal ciliopathies

While the functions of many of the proteins located in or associated with the photoreceptor cilia are poorly understood, disruption of the function of these proteins may result in a wide variety of phenotypes ranging from isolated retinal degeneration to more pleiotropic phenotypes. Systemic findings include neurosensory hearing loss, developmental delay, situs-inversus, infertility, disorders of limb and digit development, obesity, kidney disease, liver disease, and respiratory disease. The concept of "retinal ciliopathies" brings to attention the importance of further molecular analysis of this organelle as well as provides a potential common target for therapies for these disorders. The retinal ciliopathies include retinitis pigmentosa, macular degeneration, cone-dystrophy, cone-rod dystrophy, Leber congenital amaurosis, as well as retinal degenerations associated with Usher syndrome, primary ciliary dyskinesia, Senior-Loken syndrome, Joubert syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, Laurence-Moon syndrome, McKusick-Kaufman syndrome, and Biemond syndrome. Mutations for these disorders have been found in retinitis pigmentosa-1 (RP1), retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator (RPGR), retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator interacting protein (RPGR-IP), as well as the Usher, Bardet-Biedl, and nephronophthisis genes. Other systemic disorders associated with retinal degenerations that may also involve ciliary abnormalities include: Alstrom, Edwards-Sethi, Ellis-van Creveld, Jeune, Meckel-Gruber, Orofaciodigital Type 9, and Gurrieri syndromes. Understanding these conditions as ciliopathies may help the ophthalmologist to recognize associations between seemingly unrelated diseases and have a high degree of suspicion that a systemic finding may be present.

Nucleolin functions in nucleolus formation and chromosome congression

A complex structure, designated the chromosome periphery, surrounds each chromosome during mitosis. Although several proteins have been shown to localize to the chromosome periphery, their functions during mitosis remain unclear. Here, we used a combination of high-resolution microscopy and RNA-interference-mediated depletion to study the functions of nucleolin, a nucleolar protein localized at the chromosome periphery, in interphase and mitosis. During mitosis, nucleolin was localized in the peripheral region including the vicinity of the outer kinetochore of chromosomes. Staining with an antibody specific for nucleolin phosphorylated by CDC2 revealed that nucleolin was also associated with the spindle poles from prometaphase to anaphase. Nucleolin depletion resulted in disorganization of the nucleoli at interphase. Furthermore, nucleolin-depleted cells showed a prolonged cell cycle with misaligned chromosomes and defects in spindle organization. The misaligned chromosomes showed syntelic kinetochore-microtubule attachments with reduced centromere stretching. Taken together, our results indicate that nucleolin is required for nucleolus formation, and is also involved in chromosome congression and spindle formation.

NPM/ALK binds and phosphorylates the RNA/DNA-binding protein PSF in anaplastic large-cell lymphoma

The oncogenic fusion tyrosine kinase nucleophosmin/anaplastic lymphoma kinase (NPM/ALK) induces cellular transformation in anaplastic large-cell lymphomas (ALCLs) carrying the t(2;5) chromosomal translocation. Protein-protein interactions involving NPM/ALK are important for the activation of downstream signaling pathways. This study was aimed at identifying novel NPM/ALK-binding proteins that might contribute to its oncogenic transformation. Using a proteomic approach, several RNA/DNA-binding proteins were found to coimmunoprecipitate with NPM/ALK, including the multifunctional polypyrimidine tract binding proteinassociated splicing factor (PSF). The interaction between NPM/ALK and PSF was dependent on an active ALK kinase domain and PSF was found to be tyrosine-phosphorylated in NPM/ALK-expressing cell lines and in primary ALK(+) ALCL samples. Furthermore, PSF was shown to be a direct substrate of purified ALK kinase domain in vitro, and PSF Tyr293 was identified as the site of phosphorylation. Y293F PSF was not phosphorylated by NPM/ALK and was not delocalized in NPM/ALK(+) cells. The expression of ALK fusion proteins induced delocalization of PSF from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and forced overexpression of PSF-inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis in cells expressing NPM/ALK. PSF phosphorylation also increased its binding to RNA and decreased the PSF-mediated suppression of GAGE6 expression. These results identify PSF as a novel NPM/ALK-binding protein and substrate, and suggest that PSF function may be perturbed in NPM/ALK-transformed cells.

The MPAC domain is a novel mitotically regulated domain, removed by apoptotic protease cleavage during cell death

The apoptotic proteases, including caspases and granzyme B, have independent evolutionary origins, yet are both highly specific for cleavage after aspartic acid residues and cleave many of the same substrates at closely spaced sites. In addition, many of these substrates are also reversibly regulated during other processes such as the cell cycle. In these studies, we have identified a novel domain (the MPAC domain: Mitotically Phosphorylated, Apoptotically Cleaved) present at the N-terminus of Ufd2a, which is regulated both by cleavage during cell death, and by phosphorylation during mitosis. We have also identified a corresponding domain, at the C-terminus of polyA polymerase (PAP), which is similarly regulated by phosphorylation during mitosis and is delineated by an apoptotic protease cleavage site. The positioning of the apoptotic cleavage site suggests that it represents a novel connector between the regulatory domain and its functional partner(s), providing insights into the structure and function that guided the evolution of the apoptotic proteases.

Nucleophosmin and cancer

NPM1 is a crucial gene to consider in the context of the genetics and biology of cancer. NPM1 is frequently overexpressed, mutated, rearranged and deleted in human cancer. Traditionally regarded as a tumour marker and a putative proto-oncogene, it has now also been attributed with tumour-suppressor functions. Therefore, NPM can contribute to oncogenesis through many mechanisms. The aim of this review is to analyse the role of NPM in cancer, and examine how deregulated NPM activity (either gain or loss of function) can contribute to tumorigenesis.

[Properties and functions of a new nucleolar protein, Surf-6, in 3T3 mouse cells]

The localization of the specific protein Surf-6 from nucleoli of eukaryotic cells in mitosis and its sensitivity to the treatment of cells with RNase A and DNase I in situ were studied. It was shown that, in interphase nucleoli of 3T3 mouse cells, Surf-6 is probably associated with RNA and practically is not associated with DNA. In mitosis, Surf-6 appears in forming nucleoli after the known RNA-binding proteins fibrillarin and B23/nucleofozmin, which are involved in the early and late stages of the assembly of ribosomal particles, respectively. These observations and the regularities of migration of early and late proteins of ribosome assembly to nucleoli in the telophase of mitosis led us to the presumption that Surf-6 is involved in the terminal stages of the assembly of ribosomal particles in murine cells. An immunoblot analysis of the Surf-6 content in synchronized 3T3 cells showed for the first time that Surf-6 is present at all stages of the cell cycle but its content markedly decreases when cells enter the G0 period. Conversely, the activation of cells for proliferation is accompanied by an increase in the Surf-6 content. These observations allow one to regard Surf-6 as a marker of the cell proliferative state and suggest its implication in the regulation of the cell cycle. The English version of the paper: Russian Journal of Bioorganic Chemistry, 2005, vol. 31, no. 6; see also http://www.maik.ru.

Characterization of centrosomal association of nucleophosmin/B23 linked to Crm1 activity

Nucleophosmin (NPM)/B23 is a multifunctional protein, involving in a wide variety of basic cellular processes, including ribosome assembly, DNA duplication, nucleocytoplasmic trafficking, and centrosome duplication. It has previously been shown that NPM/B23 localizes to centrosomes, and dissociate from centrosomes upon phosphorylation by Cdk2/cyclin E. However, detail characterization of centrosomal association of NPM/B23 has been hampered by the lack of appropriate antibodies that efficiently detects centrosomally localized NPM/B23, as well as by apparent loss of natural behavior of NPM/B23 when tagged with fluorescent proteins. Here, by the use of newly generated anti-NPM/B23 antibody, we conducted a careful analysis of centrosomal localization of NPM/B23. We found that NPM/B23 localizes between the paired centrioles of unduplicated centrosomes, suggesting the role of NPM/B23 in the centriole pairing. Upon initiation of centrosome duplication, some NPM/B23 proteins remain at mother centrioles of the parental centriole pairs. We further found that inhibition of Crm1 nuclear export receptor results in both accumulation of cyclin E at centrosomes and efficient dissociation of NPM/B23 from centrosomes.

Centrosomal microtubule nucleation activity is inhibited by BRCA1-dependent ubiquitination

In this study we find that the function of BRCA1 inhibits the microtubule nucleation function of centrosomes. In particular, cells in early S phase have quiescent centrosomes due to BRCA1 activity, which inhibits the association of gamma-tubulin with centrosomes. We find that modification of either of two specific lysine residues (Lys-48 and Lys-344) of gamma-tubulin, a known substrate for BRCA1-dependent ubiquitination activity, led to centrosome hyperactivity. Interestingly, mutation of gamma-tubulin lysine 344 had a minimal effect on centrosome number but a profound effect on microtubule nucleation function, indicating that the processes regulating centrosome duplication and microtubule nucleation are distinct. Using an in vitro aster formation assay, we found that BRCA1-dependent ubiquitination activity directly inhibits microtubule nucleation by centrosomes. Mutant BRCA1 protein that was inactive as a ubiquitin ligase did not inhibit aster formation by the centrosome. Further, a BRCA1 carboxy-terminal truncation mutant that was an active ubiquitin ligase lacked domains critical for the inhibition of centrosome function. These experiments reveal an important new functional assay regulated by the BRCA1-dependent ubiquitin ligase, and the results suggest that the loss of this BRCA1 activity could cause the centrosome hypertrophy and subsequent aneuploidy typically found in breast cancers.

Temporal and spatial control of nucleophosmin by the Ran-Crm1 complex in centrosome duplication

Centrosome duplication is tightly controlled during faithful cell division, and unnecessary reduplication can lead to supernumerary centrosomes and multipolar spindles that are associated with most human cancer cells. In addition to nucleocytoplasmic transport, the Ran-Crm1 network is involved in regulating centrosome duplication to ensure the formation of a bipolar spindle. Here, we discover that nucleophosmin (NPM) may be a Ran-Crm1 substrate that controls centrosome duplication. NPM contains a functional nuclear export signal (NES) that is responsible for both its nucleocytoplasmic shuttling and its association with centrosomes, which are Ran-Crm1-dependent as they are sensitive to Crm1-specific nuclear export inhibition, either by leptomycin B (LMB) or by the expression of a Ran-binding protein, RanBP1. Notably, LMB treatment induces premature centrosome duplication in quiescent cells, which coincides with NPM dissociation from centrosomes. Moreover, deficiency of NPM by RNA interference results in supernumerary centrosomes, which can be reversed by reintroducing wild-type but not NES-mutated NPM. Mutation of a potential proline-dependent kinase phosphorylation site at residue 95, from threonine to aspartic acid (T95D) within the NES motif, abolishes NPM association and inhibition of centrosome duplication. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that the Ran-Crm1 complex may promote a local enrichment of NPM on centrosomes, thereby preventing centrosome reduplication.

Centrosomal amplification and spindle multipolarity in cancer cells

Recent developments have highlighted the important role centrosomal defects play in the cellular changes associated with tumorigenesis. This article reviews recent developments addressing the impact of numerical centrosomal amplification on chromosomal segregational defects in the cancer cell. Probably, the most significant is the change to the structure of the spindle that leads to increased numbers of spindle poles and abnormal partitioning of the chromosomes in mitosis. I address how centrosomal changes are initiated and how they may lead to spindle multipolarity.

Protein NPM3 interacts with the multifunctional nucleolar protein B23/nucleophosmin and inhibits ribosome biogenesis

Protein B23/nucleophosmin is a multifunctional protein that plays roles in ribosome biogenesis, control of centrosome duplication, and regulation of p53 expression. A yeast two-hybrid screen was performed in a search for interaction partners of B23. The complementary DNA for a highly acidic protein, nucleoplasmin 3 (NPM3), was found in multiple positive clones. Protein NPM3 and its interaction with B23 were further characterized. Endogenous B23 was able to be co-immunoprecipitated with NPM3, and this complex was resistant to ribonuclease treatment and high concentrations of salt. The N-terminal 35-90 amino acids of B23 were found to be required for their interaction. Separate co-immunoprecipitation studies of B23 and NPM3 suggested the existence of two different complexes, one containing B23 and 28 S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and another composed of B23, NPM3, and other proteins, but no RNA. NPM3 was localized in the nucleolus, and its nucleolar localization depended on active rRNA transcription. In the cells overexpressing NPM3, there were decreased rates of pre-rRNA synthesis and processing. Overexpression of a mutant of NPM3 that did not interact with B23 did not alter pre-rRNA synthesis and processing, suggesting that the interaction of NPM3 with B23 plays a role in the ribosome biogenesis.

ARF impedes NPM/B23 shuttling in an Mdm2-sensitive tumor suppressor pathway

The ARF tumor suppressor is widely regarded as an upstream activator of p53-dependent growth arrest and apoptosis. However, recent findings indicate that ARF can also regulate the cell cycle in the absence of p53. In search of p53-independent ARF targets, we isolated nucleophosmin (NPM/B23), a protein we show is required for proliferation, as a novel ARF binding protein. In response to hyperproliferative signals, ARF is upregulated, resulting in the nucleolar retention of NPM and concomitant cell cycle arrest. The Mdm2 oncogene outcompetes NPM/B23 for ARF binding, and introduction of Mdm2 reverses ARF's p53-independent properties: in vitro, NPM is released from ARF-containing protein complexes, and in vivo S phase progression ensues. ARF induction by oncogenes or replicative senescence does not alter NPM/B23 protein levels but rather prevents its nucleocytoplasmic shuttling without inhibiting rRNA processing. By actively sequestering NPM in the nucleolus, ARF utilizes an additional mechanism of tumor suppression, one that is readily antagonized by Mdm2.

Nek2A kinase regulates the localization of numatrin to centrosome in mitosis

Chromosome segregation in mitosis is orchestrated by the kinetochore and spindle microtubules stemming from two centrosomes. Our recent studies demonstrated the importance of Nek2A in faithful chromosome segregation during mitosis. Here, we report that Nek2A regulates the function of numatrin in mitosis. The biochemical interaction between Nek2A and numatrin in mitotic cells was revealed by a set of reciprocal immunoprecipitation experiments using Nek2A and numatrin antibodies, respectively. The interaction is validated by a pull-down assay using recombinant Nek2A and numatrin proteins. Moreover, our immunofluorescence studies demonstrate that numatrin becomes centrosome-associated as the cell enters into mitosis and depart from the centrosome after sister chromatid separation in anaphase. The co-localization of numatrin and Nek2A to the centrosome suggests their interaction with and involvement in centrosome function. Indeed, elimination of Nek2A kinase by siRNA diminished its association with the centrosome. Furthermore, we show that numatrin is phosphorylated by wild type but not kinase-death Nek2A. Our studies suggest that the Nek2A kinase cascade is essential for the localization of numatrin to the centrosome.

B23/nucleophosmin serine 4 phosphorylation mediates mitotic functions of polo-like kinase 1

Phosphoprotein profiling by Kinetworks trade mark analysis of M-phase-arrested HeLa cells by nocodazole treatment revealed that a novel mitosis-specific phosphorylation event occurred in the nucleolar protein B23/nucleophosmin at a conserved Ser-4 residue. Consistent with the resemblance of the Ser-4 phosphorylation site to the Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) consensus recognition sequence, inhibition of Plk1 by a kinase-defective mutation (K82M) abrogated B23 Ser-4 phosphorylation, whereas activation of Plk1 by a constitutively active mutation (T210D) enhanced its phosphorylation following in vivo transfection and in vitro phosphorylation assays. Depletion of endogenous Plk1 by RNA interference abolished B23 Ser-4 phosphorylation. The physical interaction of Plk1 and B23 was further demonstrated by their co-immunoprecipitation and glutathione S-transferase fusion protein pull-down assays. Interference of Ser-4 phosphorylation of B23 induced multiple mitotic defects in HeLa cells, including aberrant numbers of centrosomes, elongation and fragmentation of nuclei, and incomplete cytokinesis. The phenotypes of B23 mutants are reminiscent of a subset of those described previously in Plk1 mutants. Our findings provide insights into the biochemical mechanism underlying the role of Plk1 in mitosis regulation through the identification of Ser-4 in B23 as a major physiological substrate of Plk1.

Nucleophosmin/B23 is a candidate substrate for the BRCA1-BARD1 ubiquitin ligase

The breast and ovarian tumor suppressor BRCA1 forms a heterodimeric RING-type ubiquitin ligase with BARD1 to catalyze untraditional Lys-6-linked polyubiquitin chains. It is not clear how the BRCA1-BARD1 ligase regulates various cellular processes such as DNA repair, cell-cycle progression, transcriptional regulation, and centrosome duplication. Here we report that BRCA1-BARD1 catalyzes the polyubiquitination of nucleolar phosphoprotein nucleophosmin/B23 (NPM). Two different mass spectrometry screens for protein ubiquitinated by BRCA1-BARD1 both identified NPM. NPM interacts with N-terminal fragments of BRCA1 and BARD1 in a manner dependent upon BRCA1-BARD1 heterodimer formation. NPM colocalizes with BRCA1 and BARD1 in mitotic cells suggesting the possibility of NPM regulation by BRCA1-BARD1 during mitosis. BRCA1-BARD1 catalyzes the ubiquitination of NPM in vitro and in vivo, and BRCA1-BARD1 co-expression in cells causes NPM stabilization rather than degradation. This is consistent with the notion that this ligase catalyzes untraditional polyubiquitin chains. Given the many overlapped functions between NPM and BRCA1, we propose that NPM is a strong candidate as a substrate of the BRCA1-BARD1 ubiquitin ligase.

Cell and Molecular Biology of Nucleolar Assembly and Disassembly

Nucleoli disassemble in prophase of the metazoan mitotic cycle, and they begin their reassembly (nucleologenesis) in late anaphase?early telophase. Nucleolar disassembly and reassembly were obvious to the early cytologists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and although this has lead to a plethora of literature describing these events, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating nucleolar assembly and disassembly has expanded immensely just within the last 10-15 years. We briefly survey the findings of nineteenth-century cytologists on nucleolar assembly and disassembly, followed by the work of Heitz and McClintock on nucleolar organizers. A primer review of nucleolar structure and functions precedes detailed descriptions of modern molecular and microscopic studies of nucleolar assembly and disassembly. Nucleologenesis is concurrent with the reinitiation of rDNA transcription in telophase. The perichromosomal sheath, prenucleolar bodies, and nucleolar-derived foci serve as repositories for nucleolar processing components used in the previous interphase. Disassembly of the perichromosomal sheath along with the dynamic movements and compositional changes of the prenucleolar bodies and nucleolus-derived foci coincide with reactivation of rDNA synthesis within the chromosomal nucleolar organizers during telophase. Nucleologenesis is considered in various model organisms to provide breadth to our understanding. Nucleolar disassembly occurs at the onset of mitosis primarily as a result of the mitosis-specific phosphorylation of Pol I transcription factors and processing components. Although we have learned much regarding nucleolar assembly and disassembly, many questions still remain, and these questions are as vibrant for us today as early questions were for nineteenth- and early twentieth-century cytologists.

Emerging roles of DNA tumor viruses in cell proliferation: new insights into genomic instability

The small DNA virus proteins E1A and E1B from human Adenovirus, E6 and E7 from human papillomavirus, and large T and small T antigens from SV40, are multifaceted molecular tools that can carry out an impressive number of tasks in the host cell. These viral factors, collectively termed 'oncoproteins' for their ability to induce cancer, can be viewed as paradigmatic oncogenic factors which can disrupt checkpoint controls at multiple levels--they interfere with both 'gatekeeper' cellular functions, including major control pathways of cell cycle and apoptosis, and with 'caretaker' functions, thereby inducing mitotic abnormalities and increasing genomic instability. Both E1A and E7 have been recently found to interact physically with the Ran GTPase. This interaction is key in uncoupling the centrosome cycle from the cell cycle, highlighting a direct link between viral infection and the induction of genomic instability. Further expanding our current knowledge in this field will be crucial to elucidate viral strategies leading to cellular transformation and cancer progression, as well as design novel preventive or therapeutic approaches to human cancer.

The leader peptide of MMTV Env precursor localizes to the nucleoli in MMTV-derived T cell lymphomas and interacts with nucleolar protein B23

We have previously described two nucleolar proteins, named p14 and p21, in MMTV-induced T cell lymphomas. These proteins were identified by a monoclonal antibody (M-66) generated from a nontumorigenic, immunogenic variant of S49 T cell lymphoma. While p14 was common to several MMTV-derived T cell lymphomas, p21 was found only in highly tumorigenic variants of S49 cells. Here we report that p14 is the leader peptide of the MMTV env precursor. The epitope recognized by M-66 contains a putative nuclear localization signal. Actinomycin D was found to induce redistribution of p14/p21 from the nucleolus to the nucleoplasm. p14 coimmunoprecipitated and colocalized with the cellular protein, B23. Association with B23 has been previously reported for other auxiliary nucleolar retroviral proteins, such as Rev (HIV) and Rex (HTLV).

The role of nucleophosmin in centrosome duplication

In higher animal cells, duplication of centrosomes is triggered by CDK2/cyclin E-mediated phosphorylation. Nucleophosmin (NPM)/B23, a multifunctional protein, has recently been identified as one of the substrates of CDK2/cyclin E in centrosome duplication. Centrosome-bound NPM/B23 dissociates from centrosome upon phosphorylation by CDK2/cyclin E, which in turn triggers initiation of centriole duplication. Duplicated centrosomes remain free of NPM/B23 till mitosis. When the nuclear membrane breaks down during mitosis, NPM/B23 re-localizes to centrosomes. Upon cytokinesis, each daughter cell receives one centrosome bound by NPM/B23, which again dissociates from the centrosome upon exposure to CDK2/cyclin E at mid-late G1 phase of the next cell cycle. Thus, NPM/B23 would constitute one of the licensing systems for centrosome duplication, ensuring the coordination of centrosome and DNA duplication, which limiting duplication once per cell cycle.

The RNA binding activity of a ribosome biogenesis factor, nucleophosmin/B23, is modulated by phosphorylation with a cell cycle-dependent kinase and by association with its subtype

Nucleophosmin/B23 is a nucleolar phosphoprotein. It has been shown that B23 binds to nucleic acids, digests RNA, and is localized in nucleolar granular components from which preribosomal particles are transported to cytoplasm. The intracellular localization of B23 is significantly changed during the cell cycle. Here, we have examined the cellular localization of B23 proteins and the effect of mitotic phosphorylation of B23.1 on its RNA binding activity. Two splicing variants of B23 proteins, termed B23.1 and B23.2, were complexed both in vivo and in vitro. The RNA binding activity of B23.1 was impaired by hetero-oligomer formation with B23.2. Both subtypes of B23 proteins were phosphorylated during mitosis by cyclin B/cdc2. The RNA binding activity of B23.1 was repressed through cyclin B/cdc2-mediated phosphorylation at specific sites in B23. Thus, the RNA binding activity of B23.1 is stringently modulated by its phosphorylation and subtype association. Interphase B23.1 was mainly localized in nucleoli, whereas B23.2 and mitotic B23.1, those of which were incapable of binding to RNA, were dispersed throughout the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm, respectively. These results suggest that nucleolar localization of B23.1 is mediated by its ability to associate with RNA.

Interaction of the coronavirus nucleoprotein with nucleolar antigens and the host cell

Coronavirus nucleoproteins (N proteins) localize to the cytoplasm and the nucleolus, a subnuclear structure, in both virus-infected primary cells and in cells transfected with plasmids that express N protein. The nucleolus is the site of ribosome biogenesis and sequesters cell cycle regulatory complexes. Two of the major components of the nucleolus are fibrillarin and nucleolin. These proteins are involved in nucleolar assembly and ribosome biogenesis and act as chaperones for the import of proteins into the nucleolus. We have found that fibrillarin is reorganized in primary cells infected with the avian coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) and in continuous cell lines that express either IBV or mouse hepatitis virus N protein. Both N protein and a fibrillarin-green fluorescent protein fusion protein colocalized to the perinuclear region and the nucleolus. Pull-down assays demonstrated that IBV N protein interacted with nucleolin and therefore provided a possible explanation as to how coronavirus N proteins localize to the nucleolus. Nucleoli, and proteins that localize to the nucleolus, have been implicated in cell growth-cell cycle regulation. Comparison of cells expressing IBV N protein with controls indicated that cells expressing N protein had delayed cellular growth. This result could not to be attributed to apoptosis. Morphological analysis of these cells indicated that cytokinesis was disrupted, an observation subsequently found in primary cells infected with IBV. Coronaviruses might therefore delay the cell cycle in interphase, where maximum translation of viral mRNAs can occur.

Nucleolar changes in bovine nucleotransferred embryos

This study focused on nucleolar changes in bovine embryos reconstructed from enucleated mature oocytes fused with blastomeres of morulae or with cultured, serum unstarved bovine fetal skin fibroblasts (embryonic vs. somatic cloning). The nucleotransferred (NT) embryos were collected and fixed at time intervals of 1-2 h (early 1-cell stage), 10-15 h (late 1-cell stage), 22-24 h (2-cell stage), 37-38 h (4-cell stage), 40-41 h (early 8-cell stage), 47-48 h (late 8-cell stage), and 55 h (16-cell stage) after fusion. Immunocytochemistry by light and electron microscopy was used for structure-function characterization of nucleolar components. Antibodies against RNA, protein B23, protein C23, and fibrillarin were applied. In addition, DNA was localized by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) technique, and the functional organization of chromatin was determined with the nick-translation immunogold approach. The results show that fully reticulated (active) nucleoli observed in donor cells immediately before fusion as well as in the early 1-cell stage after fusion were progressively transformed into nucleolar bodies displaying decreasing numbers of vacuoles from the 2- to 4-cell stage in both types of reconstructed embryos. At the late 8-cell stage, morphological signs of resuming nucleolar activity were detected. Numerous new small vacuoles appeared, and chromatin blocks reassociated with the nucleolar body. During this period, nick-translation technique revealed numerous active DNA sites in the periphery of chromatin blocks associated with the nucleolar body. Fully reticulated nucleoli were again observed as early as the 16-cell stage of embryonic cloned embryos. In comparison, the embryos obtained by fetal cloning displayed a lower tendency to develop, mainly during the first cell cycle and during the period of presumed reactivation. Correlatively, the changes in nucleolar morphology (desegregation and rebuilding) were at least delayed in many somatic NT embryos in comparison with the embryonic NT group. It is concluded that complete reprogramming of rRNA gene expression is part of the general nuclear reprogramming necessary for development after NT.

Two splice variants of Nopp140 in Drosophila melanogaster

The Nopp140 gene of Drosophila maps within 79A5 of chromosome 3. Alternative splicing yields two variants. DmNopp140 (654 residues) is the sequence homolog of vertebrate Nopp140. Its carboxy terminus is 64% identical to that of the prototypical rat Nopp140. DmNopp140-RGG (688 residues) is identical to DmNopp140 throughout its first 551 residues, but its carboxy terminus contains a glycine/arginine-rich domain that is often found in RNA-binding proteins such as vertebrate nucleolin. Both Drosophila variants localize to nucleoli in Drosophila Schneider II cells and Xenopus oocytes, specifically within the dense fibrillar components. In HeLa cells, DmNopp140-RGG localizes to intact nucleoli, whereas DmNopp140 partitions HeLa nucleoli into phase-light and phase-dark regions. The phase-light regions contain DmNopp140 and endogenous fibrillarin, whereas the phase-dark regions contain endogenous nucleolin. When coexpressed, both Drosophila variants colocalize to HeLa cell nucleoli. Both variants fail to localize to endogenous Cajal bodies in Xenopus oocyte nuclei and in HeLa cell nuclei. Endogenous HeLa coilin, however, accumulates around the periphery of phase-light regions in cells expressing DmNopp140. The carboxy truncation (DmNopp140DeltaRGG) also fails to localize to Cajal bodies, but it forms similar phase-light regions that peripherally accumulate endogenous coilin. Conversely, we see no unusual accumulation of coilin in cells expressing DmNopp140-RGG.

Conventional and nonconventional roles of the nucleolus

As the most prominent of subnuclear structures, the nucleolus has a well-established role in ribosomal subunit assembly. Additional nucleolar functions, not related to ribosome biogenesis, have been discovered within the last decade. Built around multiple copies of the genes for preribosomal RNA (rDNA), nucleolar structure is largely dependent on the process of ribosome assembly. The nucleolus is disassembled during mitosis at which time preribosomal RNA transcription and processing are suppressed; it is reassembled at the end of mitosis in part from components preserved from the previous cell cycle. Expression of preribosomal RNA (pre-rRNA) is regulated by the silencing of individual rDNA genes via alterations in chromatin structure or by controlling RNA polymerase I initiation complex formation. Preribosomal RNA processing and posttranscriptional modifications are guided by a multitude of small nucleolar RNAs. Nearly completed ribosomal subunits are exported to the cytoplasm by an established nuclear export system with the aid of specialized adapter molecules. Some preribosomal and nucleolar components are transiently localized in Cajal bodies, presumably for modification or assembly. The nonconventional functions of nucleolus include roles in viral infections, nuclear export, sequestration of regulatory molecules, modification of small RNAs, RNP assembly, and control of aging, although some of these functions are not well established. Additional progress in defining the mechanisms of each step in ribosome biogenesis as well as clarification of the precise role of the nucleolus in nonconventional activities is expected in the next decade.

Translocations of the RARalpha gene in acute promyelocytic leukemia

Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) has been recognized as a distinct clinical entity for over 40 years. Although relatively rare among hematopoietic malignancies (approximately 10% of AML cases), this disease has attracted a particularly good share of attention by becoming the first human cancer in which all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA), a physiologically active derivative of vitamin A, was able to induce complete remission (CR). ATRA induced remission is not associated with rapid cell death, as in the case of conventional chemotherapy, but with a restoration of the 'normal' granulocytic differentiation pathway. With this remarkable medical success story APL has overnight become a paradigm for the differentiation therapy of cancer. A few years later, excitement with APL was further enhanced by the discovery that a cytogenetic marker for this disease, the t(15:17) reciprocal chromosomal translocation, involves a fusion between the retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARalpha) gene and a previously unknown locus named promyelocytic leukemia (PML). Consequence of this gene rearrangement is expression of the PML-RARalpha chimeric oncoprotein, which is responsible for the cellular transformation as well as ATRA response that is observed in APL. Since this initial discovery, a number of different translocation partner genes of RARalpha have been reported in rarer cases of APL, strongly suggesting that disruption of RARalpha underlies its pathogenesis. This article reviews various rearrangements of the RARalpha gene that have so far been described in literature, functions of the proteins encoded by the different RARalpha partner loci, and implications that these may have for the molecular pathogenesis of APL.

Translocations involving anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK)

Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL) comprises a group of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHLs) that were first described in 1985 by Stein and co-workers and are characterized by the expression of the CD30/Ki-1 antigen (Stein et al., 1985). Approximately half of these lymphomas are associated with a typical chromosomal translocation, t(2;5)(p23;q35). Much confusion about the exact classification and clinicopathological features of this subgroup of NHL was clarified with the identification of NPM-ALK (nucleophosmin-anaplastic lymphoma kinase) as the oncogene created by the t(2;5) (Morris et al., 1994). With the discovery of NPM-ALK as the specific lymphoma gene mutation, this NHL subtype could be redefined on the molecular level. This achievement was enhanced by the availability of specific antibodies that recognize ALK fusion proteins in paraffin-embedded lymphoma tissues. Several excellent recent reviews have summarized the histopathological and molecular findings of ALCL and their use in the classification of this lymphoma entity (Anagnostopoulos and Stein, 2000; Benharroch et al., 1998; Drexler et al., 2000; Foss et al., 2000; Gogusev and Nezelof, 1998; Kadin and Morris, 1998; Ladanyi, 1997; Morris et al., 2001; Shiota and Mori, 1996; Skinnider et al., 1999; Stein et al., 2000). This review will focus on the molecular function and signal transduction pathways activated by ALK fusion oncogenes, with recent advances and possible clinical implications to be discussed.

Centrosome duplication: three kinases come up a winner!

Despite over one hundred years of research, the duplication of the centrosome is a poorly understood process. Three recent papers--exploring three different kinases--may have provided the answer.

Specific phosphorylation of nucleophosmin on Thr(199) by cyclin-dependent kinase 2-cyclin E and its role in centrosome duplication

The kinase activity of cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2)-cyclin E is required for centrosomes to initiate duplication. We have recently found that nucleophosmin (NPM/B23), a phosphoprotein primarily found in nucleolus, associates with unduplicated centrosomes and is a direct substrate of CDK2-cyclin E in centrosome duplication. Upon phosphorylation by CDK2-cyclin E, NPM/B23 dissociates from centrosomes, which is a prerequisite step for centrosomes to initiate duplication. Here, we identified that threonine 199 (Thr(199)) of NPM/B23 is the major phosphorylation target site of CDK2-cyclin E in vitro, and the same site is phosphorylated in vivo. NPM/T199A, a nonphosphorylatable NPM/B23 substitution mutant (Thr(199) --> Ala) acts as dominant negative when expressed in cells, resulting in specific inhibition of centrosome duplication. As expected, NPM/T199A remains associated with the centrosomes. These observations provide direct evidence that the CDK2-cyclin E-mediated phosphorylation on Thr(199) determines association and dissociation of NPM/B23 to the centrosomes, which is a critical control for the centrosome to initiate duplication.

A novel nucleolar G-protein conserved in eukaryotes

We describe here a novel, evolutionarily conserved set of predicted G-proteins. The founding member of this family, TbNOG1, was identified in a two-hybrid screen as a protein that interacts with NOPP44/46, a nucleolar phosphoprotein of Trypanosoma brucei. The biological relevance of the interaction was verified by co-localization and co-immunoprecipitation. TbNOG1 localized to the trypanosome nucleolus and interacted with domains of NOPP44/46 that are found in several other nucleolar proteins. Genes encoding proteins highly related to TbNOG1 are present in yeast and metazoa, and related G domains are found in bacteria. We show that NOG1 proteins in humans and Saccharomyces cerevisae are also nucleolar. The S. cerevisae NOG1 gene is essential for cell viability, and mutations in the predicted G motifs abrogate function. Together these data suggest that NOG1 may play an important role in nucleolar functions. The GTP-binding region of TbNOG1 is similar to those of Obg and DRG proteins, which, together with NOG, form a newly recognized family of G-proteins, herein named ODN. The ODN family differs significantly from other G-protein families, and shows several diagnostic sequence characteristics. All organisms appear to possess an ODN gene, pointing to the biological significance of this family of G-proteins.