Race, poverty, and potential exposure of middle-school students to air emissions from confined swine feeding operations

Satellite Observations of Atmospheric Ammonia Inequalities Associated with Industrialized Swine Facilities in Eastern North Carolina

Industrialized swine facilities adversely affect the health and well-being of Eastern North Carolina residents in the U.S. and are an issue of environmental racism. Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) emit various harmful and noxious air pollutants, including ammonia (NH3). There are limited measurements of CAFO-related air quality, contributing to disputes around its severity. We use NH3 vertical column densities from the space-based Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) to report systematic, distributive inequalities in NH3 column enhancements (ΔNH3 columns), equal to NH3 columns less an observationally determined tropospheric background. Population-weighted block group-scale ΔNH3 columns are higher by 27 ± 3% for Black and African Americans, 35 ± 3% for Hispanics and Latinos, and 49 ± 3% for American Indians compared to non-Hispanic/Latino whites in Eastern North Carolina (April-August 2016-2021). Surface winds and air temperature influence block group-scale NH3 distributions, with higher absolute NH3 inequalities for all groups on calm days and for Black and African Americans and Hispanics and Latinos on hot days, consistent with effects from NH3 volatization downfield of facilities from, e.g., manure-covered fields, particles, and other surfaces. ΔNH3 columns correspond spatially with permitted swine facilities, with residents living multiple kilometers from swine CAFOs chronically exposed to elevated NH3. Trends in NH3 columns over 2008-2023 are driven by regional-scale atmospheric processes rather than localized NH3 changes in CAFO emissions. Results are discussed in local decision-making contexts that have broad relevance for air quality issues without protective federal regulatory standards.

Earth Observation Data to Support Environmental Justice: Linking Non-Permitted Poultry Operations to Social Vulnerability Indices

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) apply massive amounts of untreated waste to nearby farmlands, with severe environmental health impacts of swine CAFOs and proximity to disadvantaged communities well documented in some US regions. Most studies documenting the impacts of CAFOs rely almost exclusively on CAFO locations known from incomplete public records. Poultry CAFOs generate dry waste and operate without federal permits; thus, their environmental justice (EJ) impacts are undocumented. North Carolina (NC), a leading poultry producer, has seen a significant increase in poultry CAFOs, particularly since the 1997 swine CAFO moratorium. Using literature-derived heuristics, this study refined the locations of poultry CAFOs derived based on Earth Observation (EO) data and deep learning, reducing the overestimation of poultry CAFO density by 54% after heuristic adjustments. We removed 51.8% of misclassified features in NC and 61.5% across the US, significantly improving data set accuracy. Spatial analysis, including Local Indicators of Spatial Association, revealed that poultry CAFOs often cluster in census tracts with high Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) scores, indicating potential EJ issues. Notably, one-third of NC's census tracts with high poultry CAFO density also have high SVI, primarily in rural eastern regions. Similar patterns were observed in the South and Southeast of the US. However, not all high-density CAFO areas correspond with high SVI, suggesting a complex relationship between CAFO locations and community vulnerabilities. This study highlights the critical need for comprehensive, high-quality data on unpermitted poultry CAFOs derived using AI algorithms to fully understand their impacts on communities and accurately inform EJ evaluations.

A systematic review of animal feeding operations including concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) for exposure, health outcomes, and environmental justice

BACKGROUND

Despite growing literature on animal feeding operations (AFOs) including concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), research on disproportionate exposure and associated health burden is relatively limited and shows inconclusive findings.

OBJECTIVE

We systematically reviewed previous literature on AFOs/CAFOs, focusing on exposure assessment, associated health outcomes, and variables related to environmental justice (EJ) and potentially vulnerable populations.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic search of databases (MEDLINE/PubMed and Web of Science) and performed citation screening. Screening of titles, abstracts, and full-text articles and data extraction were performed independently by pairs of reviewers. We summarized information for each study (i.e., study location, study period, study population, study type, study design, statistical methods, and adjusted variables (if health association was examined), and main findings), AFO/CAFO characteristics and exposure assessment (i.e., animal type, data source, measure of exposure, and exposure assessment), health outcomes or symptoms (if health association was examined), and information related to EJ and potentially vulnerable populations (in relation to exposure and/or health associations, vulnerable populations considered, related variables, and main findings in relation to EJ and vulnerable populations).

RESULTS

After initial screening of 10,963 papers, we identified 76 eligible studies. This review found that a relatively small number of studies (20 studies) investigated EJ and vulnerability issues related to AFOs/CAFOs exposure and/or associated health outcomes (e.g., respiratory diseases/symptoms, infections). We found differences in findings across studies, populations, the metrics used for AFO/CAFO exposure assessment, and variables related to EJ and vulnerability. The most commonly used metric for AFO/CAFO exposure assessment was presence of or proximity to facilities or animals. The most investigated variables related to disparities were race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status.

CONCLUSION

Findings from this review provide suggestive evidence that disparities exist with some subpopulations having higher exposure and/or health response in relation to AFO/CAFO exposure, although results varied across studies.

The association of short-term increases in ambient PM2.5 and temperature exposures with stillbirth: racial/ethnic disparities among Medicaid recipients

Racial/ethnic disparities in the association between short-term (eg, days, weeks), ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and temperature exposures and stillbirth in the United States have been understudied. A time-stratified, case-crossover design using a distributed lag nonlinear model (0- to 6-day lag) was used to estimate stillbirth odds due to short-term increases in average daily PM2.5 and temperature exposures among 118 632 Medicaid recipients from 2000 to 2014. Disparities by maternal race/ethnicity (Black, White, Hispanic, Asian, American Indian) and zip code-level socioeconomic status (SES) were assessed. In the temperature-adjusted model, a 10 μg m-3 increase in PM2.5 concentration was marginally associated with increased stillbirth odds at lag 1 (0.68%; 95% CI, -0.04% to 1.40%) and lag 2 (0.52%; 95% CI, -0.03 to 1.06) but not lag 0-6 (2.80%; 95% CI, -0.81 to 6.45). An association between daily PM2.5 concentrations and stillbirth odds was found among Black individuals at the cumulative lag (0-6 days: 9.26% 95% CI, 3.12%-15.77%) but not among other races or ethnicities. A stronger association between PM2.5 concentrations and stillbirth odds existed among Black individuals living in zip codes with the lowest median household income (lag 0-6: 14.13%; 95% CI, 4.64%-25.79%). Short-term temperature increases were not associated with stillbirth risk among any race/ethnicity. Black Medicaid enrollees, and especially those living in lower SES areas, may be more vulnerable to stillbirth due to short-term increases in PM2.5 exposure. This article is part of a Special Collection on Environmental Epidemiology.

Disparities in exposure to concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) and risk of adverse birth outcomes in Pennsylvania, USA

Background

Previous studies have linked exposure to concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) with various health outcomes. However, relatively few studies evaluated the impacts of CAFOs on adverse birth outcomes, despite significant public health concerns regarding maternal and child health.

Objectives

This cross-sectional study investigated the risk of adverse birth outcomes associated with CAFOs exposure and evaluated disparities in exposure to CAFOs and associated health outcomes.

Methods

We obtained individual-level birth records from 2003 to 2020 from the Pennsylvania Department of Health. We considered two adverse birth outcomes: (1) preterm birth (PTB); and (2) low birth weight (LBW). Exposure was considered as a binary indicator (presence or absence of CAFO) and as categories based on level of exposure. Logistic regression was applied to estimate the association between CAFOs exposure and adverse birth outcomes. Models were adjusted for infant's sex, maternal demographics (age, race/ethnicity, education), prenatal BMI, prenatal care, smoking status, marital status, plurality, WIC status, and urban/rural indicator. We examined both disparities in exposure and in health response.

Results

Presence of CAFOs was associated with higher risk of PTB, with an increasing trend with higher levels of CAFOs exposure. Compared to the no CAFO exposure group, the odds ratios for PTB were 1.022 (95 % confidence interval 1.003, 1.043), 1.066 (1.034, 1.100), 1.069 (1.042, 1.097) for low, medium, and high CAFOs exposure groups, respectively. Some maternal characteristics were associated with a higher CAFO-related risk of PTB. Similar associations were observed for LBW for some characteristics such as mother's race/ethnicity, education, WIC status, and urbanicity, although some findings were not statistically significant.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that presence of CAFOs increases risk of preterm birth. Our results indicate that some maternal characteristics may be associated with higher risk of CAFO-related PTB or LBW. This study can inform future research on disparities in CAFO exposure and associated health burden.

Local and Global Public Health and Emissions from Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations in the USA: A Scoping Review

Up to 1.6 million tons of waste is produced annually by each of more than 21,000 concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) located in the United States (USA). These operations give rise to externalities, including adverse local and global health impacts from CAFO waste emissions, which can potentially outweigh their economic viability. However, a shortage of evidence synthesis research exclusively on the impacts of USA-based CAFO waste emissions may hinder effective policy development. This scoping review (ScR) study, adhering to the guidelines from the Joanna Briggs Institute, conducted a search in databases including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Embase in May 2020, resulting in ten publications that met the inclusion criteria. The results suggest possible exposure of CAFO workers to multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MDRSA), campylobacteriosis, and cryptosporidiosis. Communities near CAFOs experienced higher rates of adverse health impacts compared to those in non-CAFO areas, with patterns suggesting that proximity may correlate with increased odds of detrimental health effects. Implicit global health threats include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), MDRSA, campylobacteriosis, tuberculosis, and cryptosporidiosis. These studies provide foundational insights into CAFO proximity, density patterns, and adverse public health effects, indicating a need for evidence-informed environmental health policies to minimize local and global risks.

Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) in relation to environmental justice related variables in Wisconsin, United States

BACKGROUND

The growth of concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) has caused significant environmental detriments and raised concerns regarding environmental justice with CAFOs exposure.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined environmental disparities in exposure to CAFOs with several environmental justice related variables and considered exposure intensity.

METHODS

We obtained data on permitted CAFOs (July 2021) from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. We used Census tract level variables from the 2010 Census to evaluate environmental disparities by environmental justice related variables (i.e., percentages of Non-Hispanic White, Non-Hispanic Black, or Hispanic; percentage living below the poverty level; median annual household income; income inequality (Gini index); percentage with education less than high school diploma; racial isolation (RI) for Non-Hispanic Black; and educational isolation (EI) for population without a college degree). We assessed exposure to CAFOs as the sum of animal units (AUs) within each Census tract and investigated exposure disparities by comparing distributions of environmental justice related variables based on CAFO status (i.e., never, expired, or current) and Census tract-level CAFOs exposure intensity categories (i.e., from low exposure (quartile 1) to high exposure (quartile 4)).

RESULTS

CAFOs in Wisconsin were generally located in areas with lower percentages of racial minority persons and high SES communities; however, within the areas with current CAFO exposure, areas with high CAFOs exposure intensity had higher percentages of non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic, and lower percentages of non-Hispanic White populations compared to areas with low CAFOs exposure.

IMPACT STATEMENT

This study compared distributions of CAFO exposure and multiple environmental justice related variables and considered exposure intensity based on animal units for CAFOs exposure metric. Although CAFOs in Wisconsin were generally located in areas with lower percentages of racial/ethnic minority subpopulations and high SES communities, we found complex disparities with higher exposure for disadvantaged communities within areas with CAFOs. This work adds to the existing evidence that some populations such as racial/ethnic minority populations may face disproportionate burdens from CAFOs.

Assessing Community Vulnerability to Extreme Events in the Presence of Contaminated Sites and Waste Management Facilities: An Indicator Approach

Communities across the world are facing extreme events, such as excessive heat, droughts, floods, and wildfires. In the presence of contaminated sites and waste management facilities, communities must consider the impacts of potential releases from these sites due to such events. Impacts of extreme events on sites and consequently on surrounding, often disadvantaged communities result from complex interactions between natural, physical, and social factors. A conceptual framework was developed to identify and provide a shared understanding of key vulnerabilities and pathways that transcend disciplines. A transparent and replicable method was developed to create mappable indicators that represent contaminated sites, waste facilities, contaminant transport via air and water, and population sensitivities. This method can be applied as a screening step to assist states and local communities in prioritizing targeted strategies and resources and determining where in-depth assessments are needed. These indicators can facilitate communication with a broad audience more easily than complex modeling approaches or aggregated indices. Case study results demonstrate the importance of considering indicators in conjunction with each other. The indicator method was developed together with U.S.-based partners, but can be adapted for other countries seeking to understand the potential impacts of extreme events on contaminated sites and communities.

Early Childcare and Education in a Post-Industrial Landscape: Inequalities in Proximity to Active and Relic Manufacturing in Metropolitan Providence, Rhode Island

Children are uniquely vulnerable to environmental health risks associated with industrial contamination, and early childcare and education (ECE) facilities are important sites for potential exposure to environmental contaminants. Emerging research on historic urban industry has additionally demonstrated that urban environmental risk accumulates historically and spatially across urban landscapes. Accordingly, this study pairs cross-sectional data on licensed childcare facilities with longitudinal manufacturing site data in Providence, Rhode Island. We use these data to investigate the proximity of ECE facilities to active and relic manufacturing sites, controlling for a range of organizational- and tract-level characteristics. Results show that type of childcare facility (center-based vs. in-home) and language of instruction (Spanish vs. English) are important predictors of children's proximity to industrial lands, past and present. These findings indicate that Spanish-speaking children in Providence may experience a "double jeopardy" in the form of disproportionate legacy environmental hazards at ECE as well as at home-suggesting that the historical nature of urban industrial land use is an important mechanism of environmental inequality for young children.

Photovoice Reveals Residents' Concerns for Air and Water Quality in Industry-Impacted Rural Community

Rural communities of color in the southeastern U.S. experience a high burden of environmental hazards from concentrated industry placement. Community-engaged research and qualitative methods can improve our understanding of meaning-making in a community impacted by polluting facilities. This study applies the photovoice method to assess how a predominantly African American community in rural North Carolina, impacted by a landfill and confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs), perceives their health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Two research questions were developed with community-based partners: (a) How do environmental health concerns in this community influence residents' perceptions of their HRQoL? and (b) How do community and county factors facilitate or inhibit community organizing around these concerns? Three photo assignment sessions were held to engage participants in discussions related to the research questions. Researchers analyzed discussion audio recordings and identified themes related to concerns about the following issues: health and quality of life, the landfill industry's influence on community cohesion and self-determination, and actions to address environmental injustice in Sampson County. Photovoice benefits community-engaged researchers by providing a process for assessing the research interests of a community. Photovoice also serves community organizers by providing residents with a structured way to discuss their lived experiences and strategize ways to reduce hazard exposure.

Low level exposure to hydrogen sulfide: a review of emissions, community exposure, health effects, and exposure guidelines

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a toxic gas that is well-known for its acute health risks in occupational settings, but less is known about effects of chronic and low-level exposures. This critical review investigates toxicological and experimental studies, exposure sources, standards, and epidemiological studies pertaining to chronic exposure to H2S from both natural and anthropogenic sources. H2S releases, while poorly documented, appear to have increased in recent years from oil and gas and possibly other facilities. Chronic exposures below 10 ppm have long been associated with odor aversion, ocular, nasal, respiratory and neurological effects. However, exposure to much lower levels, below 0.03 ppm (30 ppb), has been associated with increased prevalence of neurological effects, and increments below 0.001 ppm (1 ppb) in H2S concentrations have been associated with ocular, nasal, and respiratory effects. Many of the studies in the epidemiological literature are limited by exposure measurement error, co-pollutant exposures and potential confounding, small sample size, and concerns of representativeness, and studies have yet to consider vulnerable populations. Long-term community-based studies are needed to confirm the low concentration findings and to refine exposure guidelines. Revised guidelines that incorporate both short- and long-term limits are needed to protect communities, especially sensitive populations living near H2S sources.

Environmental justice and allergic disease: A Work Group Report of the AAAAI Environmental Exposure and Respiratory Health Committee and the Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Committee

Environmental justice is the concept that all people have the right to live in a healthy environment, to be protected against environmental hazards, and to participate in decisions affecting their communities. Communities of color and low-income populations live, work, and play in environments with disproportionate exposure to hazards associated with allergic disease. This unequal distribution of hazards has contributed to health disparities and is largely the result of systemic racism that promotes segregation of neighborhoods, disinvestment in predominantly racial/ethnic minority neighborhoods, and discriminatory housing, employment, and lending practices. The AAAAI Environmental Exposure and Respiratory Health Committee and Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Committee jointly developed this report to improve allergy/immunology specialists' awareness of environmental injustice, its roots in systemic racism, and its impact on health disparities in allergic disease. We present evidence supporting the relationship between exposure to environmental hazards, particularly at the neighborhood level, and the disproportionately high incidence and poor outcomes from allergic diseases in marginalized populations. Achieving environmental justice requires investment in at-risk communities to increase access to safe housing, clean air and water, employment opportunities, education, nutrition, and health care. Through policies that promote environmental justice, we can achieve greater health equity in allergic disease.

Race and Street-Level Firework Legalization as Primary Determinants of July 4th Air Pollution across Southern California

Air pollution is a major public health threat that is associated with asthma, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease and all-cause mortality. Among the most important acute air pollution events occurring each year are celebrations involving fireworks, such as the 4th of July holiday in the United States. In this community-engaged study, academic partners and residents collaborated to collect indoor and outdoor PM2.5 concentration measurements in the disadvantaged city of Santa Ana, California, using low-cost AtmoTube sensor devices before, during and after the July 4th firework celebration, while also examining July 4th data extracted from the PurpleAir sensor network across over a hundred other cities in southern California. Average outdoor PM2.5 concentrations on July 4th were found to be three-to-five times higher than baseline, with hourly concentrations exceeding 160 μg/m3. Outdoor averages were roughly 30% to 100% higher than indoor levels. The most polluted cities exhibited 15-times higher PM2.5 levels compared with the least contaminated cities and were often those where household-level fireworks were legal for sale and use. Race/ethnicity was found to be the leading predictor of July 4th-related air pollution across three counties in southern California, with greater PM2.5 being associated with higher proportions of Hispanic residents and lower proportions of White residents. The findings from this study underscore the importance of environmental justice as it relates to firework-related air pollution exposure, and the critical role city- and county-level firework policies play in determining exposure.

Poultry Concentrated Animal-Feeding Operations on the Eastern Shore, Virginia, and Geospatial Associations with Adverse Birth Outcomes

Concentrated animal-feeding operations (CAFOs) emit pollution into surrounding areas, and previous research has found associations with poor health outcomes. The objective of this study was to investigate if home proximity to poultry CAFOs during pregnancy is associated with adverse birth outcomes, including preterm birth (PTB) and low birth weight (LBW). This study includes births occurring on the Eastern Shore, Virginia, from 2002 to 2015 (N = 5768). A buffer model considering CAFOs within 1 km, 2 km, and 5 km of the maternal residence and an inverse distance weighted (IDW) approach were used to estimate proximity to CAFOs. Associations between proximity to poultry CAFOs and adverse birth outcomes were determined by using regression models, adjusting for available covariates. We found a −52.8 g (−95.8, −9.8) change in birthweight and a −1.51 (−2.78, −0.25) change in gestational days for the highest tertile of inverse distance to CAFOs. Infants born with a maternal residence with at least one CAFO within a 5 km buffer weighed −47 g (−94.1, −1.7) less than infants with no CAFOs within a 5 km buffer of the maternal address. More specific measures of exposure pathways via air and water should be used in future studies to refine mediators of the association found in the present study.

Compound Risk of Air Pollution and Heat Days and the Influence of Wildfire by SES across California, 2018-2020: Implications for Environmental Justice in the Context of Climate Change

Major wildfires and heatwaves have begun to increase in frequency throughout much of the United States, particularly in western states such as California, causing increased risk to public health. Air pollution is exacerbated by both wildfires and warmer temperatures, thus adding to such risk. With climate change and the continued increase in global average temperatures, the frequency of major wildfires, heat days, and unhealthy air pollution episodes is projected to increase, resulting in the potential for compounding risks. Risks will likely vary by region and may disproportionately impact low-income communities and communities of color. In this study, we processed daily particulate matter (PM) data from over 18,000 low-cost PurpleAir sensors, along with gridMET daily maximum temperature data and government-compiled wildfire perimeter data from 2018-2020 in order to examine the occurrence of compound risk (CR) days (characterized by high temperature and high PM2.5) at the census tract level in California, and to understand how such days have been impacted by the occurrence of wildfires. Using American Community Survey data, we also examined the extent to which CR days were correlated with household income, race/ethnicity, education, and other socioeconomic factors at the census tract level. Results showed census tracts with a higher frequency of CR days to have statistically higher rates of poverty and unemployment, along with high proportions of child residents and households without computers. The frequency of CR days and elevated daily PM2.5 concentrations appeared to be strongly related to the occurrence of nearby wildfires, with over 20% of days with sensor-measured average PM2.5 > 35 μg/m3 showing a wildfire within a 100 km radius and over two-thirds of estimated CR days falling on such days with a nearby wildfire. Findings from this study are important to policymakers and government agencies who preside over the allocation of state resources as well as organizations seeking to empower residents and establish climate resilient communities.

Patterns of Children's Blood Lead Screening and Blood Lead Levels in North Carolina, 2011-2018-Who Is Tested, Who Is Missed?

BACKGROUND

No safe level of lead in blood has been identified. Blood lead testing is required for children on Medicaid, but it is at the discretion of providers and parents for others. Elevated blood lead levels (EBLLs) cannot be identified in children who are not tested.

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this research were to identify determinants of lead testing and EBLLs among North Carolina children and estimate the number of additional children with EBLLs among those not tested.

METHODS

We linked geocoded North Carolina birth certificates from 2011-2016 to 2010 U.S. Census data and North Carolina blood lead test results from 2011-2018. We estimated the probability of being screened for lead and created inverse probability (IP) of testing weights. We evaluated the risk of an EBLL of ≥3μg/dL at <30  months of age, conditional on characteristics at birth, using generalized linear models and then applied IP weights to account for missing blood lead results among unscreened children. We estimated the number of additional children with EBLLs of all North Carolina children using the IP-weighted population and bootstrapping to produce 95% credible intervals (CrI).

RESULTS

Mothers of the 63.5% of children (402,002 of 633,159) linked to a blood lead test result were disproportionately young, Hispanic, Black, American Indian, or on Medicaid. In full models, maternal age ≤20y [risk ratio (RR)=1.10; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.13, 1.20] or smoking (RR=1.14; 95% CI: 1.12, 1.17); proximity to a major roadway (RR=1.10; 95% CI: 1.05, 1.15); proximity to a lead-releasing Toxics Release Inventory site (RR=1.08; 95% CI: 1.03, 1.14) or a National Emissions Inventory site (RR=1.11; 95% CI: 1.07, 1.14); and living in neighborhoods with more housing built before 1950 (RR=1.10; 95% CI: 1.05, 1.14) or before 1940 (RR=1.18; 95% CI: 1.11, 1.25) or more vacant housing (RR=1.14; 95% CI: 1.11, 1.17) were associated with an increased risk of EBLL, whereas overlap with a public water service system was associated with a decreased risk of EBLL (RR=0.85; 95% CI: 0.83, 0.87). Children of Black mothers were no more likely than children of White mothers to have EBLLs (RR=0.98; 95% CI: 0.96, 1.01). Complete blood lead screening in 2011-2018 may have identified an additional 17,543 (95% CrI: 17,462, 17,650) children with EBLLs ≥3μg/dL.

DISCUSSION

Our results indicate that current North Carolina lead screening strategies fail to identify over 30% (17,543 of 57,398) of children with subclinical lead poisoning and that accounting for characteristics at birth alters the conclusions about racial disparities in children's EBLLs. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10335.

Use of Low-Cost Sensors to Characterize Occupational Exposure to PM2.5 Concentrations Inside an Industrial Facility in Santa Ana, CA: Results from a Worker- and Community-Led Pilot Study

PM2.5 is an air contaminant that has been widely associated with adverse respiratory and cardiovascular health, leading to increased hospital admissions and mortality. Following concerns reported by workers at an industrial facility located in Santa Ana, California, workers and community leaders collaborated with experts in the development of an air monitoring pilot study to measure PM2.5 concentrations to which employees and local residents are exposed during factory operating hours. To detect PM2.5, participants wore government-validated AtmoTube Pro personal air monitoring devices during three separate workdays (5 AM–1:30 PM) in August 2021. Results demonstrated a mean PM2.5 level inside the facility of 112.3 µg/m3, nearly seven-times greater than outdoors (17.3 µg/m3). Of the eight workers who wore personal indoor sampling devices, five showed measurements over 100 μg/m3. Welding-related activity inside the facility resulted in the greatest PM2.5 concentrations. This study demonstrates the utility of using low-cost air quality sensors combined with employee knowledge and participation for the investigation of workplace air pollution exposure as well as facilitation of greater health-related awareness, education, and empowerment among workers and community members. Results also underscore the need for basic measures of indoor air pollution control paired with ongoing air monitoring within the Santa Ana facility, and the importance of future air monitoring studies aimed at industrial facilities.

Community-Engaged Use of Low-Cost Sensors to Assess the Spatial Distribution of PM2.5 Concentrations across Disadvantaged Communities: Results from a Pilot Study in Santa Ana, CA

PM_2.5 is an air pollutant that is widely associated with adverse health effects, and which tends to be disproportionately located near low-income communities and communities of color. We applied a community-engaged research approach to assess the distribution of PM_2.5 concentrations in the context of community concerns and urban features within and around the city of Santa Ana, CA. Approximately 183 h of one-minute average PM_2.5 measurements, along with high-resolution geographic coordinate measurements, were collected by volunteer community participants using roughly two dozen low-cost AtmoTube Pro air pollution sensors paired with real-time GPS tracking devices. PM_2.5 varied by region, time of day, and month. In general, concentrations were higher near the city’s industrial corridor, which is an area of concern to local community members. While the freeway systems were shown to correlate with some degree of elevated air pollution, two of four sampling days demonstrated little to no visible association with freeway traffic. Concentrations tended to be higher within socioeconomically disadvantaged communities compared to other areas. This pilot study demonstrates the utility of using low-cost air pollution sensors for the application of community-engaged study designs that leverage community knowledge, enable high-density air monitoring, and facilitate greater health-related awareness, education, and empowerment among communities. The mobile air-monitoring approach used in this study, and its application to characterize the ambient air quality within a defined geographic region, is in contrast to other community-engaged studies, which employ fixed-site monitoring and/or focus on personal exposure. The findings from this study underscore the existence of environmental health inequities that persist in urban areas today, which can help to inform policy decisions related to health equity, future urban planning, and community access to resources.

Exposure to concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) and risk of mortality in North Carolina, USA

Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) have emerged as an environmental justice issue due to disproportionate siting in low-income and minority communities. However, CAFOs' impact on health is not fully understood. We examined risk of cause-specific mortality associated with CAFOs in North Carolina (NC) for 2000-2017 and health disparities. We obtained data on individual-level cause-specific mortality and on permitted animal facilities. We estimated associations between exposure to CAFOs and cause-specific mortality using logistic regression, controlling for demographics (e.g., age) and area-level covariates. To estimate exposure to CAFOs, we considered (1) a binary indicator (presence or absence) of CAFOs within a buffer around individual residence based on several buffer sizes, and (2) four levels of exposure (no, low, medium, and high) based on the number of CAFOs within 15 km around each residence. We considered individual-level (sex, race/ethnicity, age, education) and community-level (median household income, urbanicity, and region) factors. Under all buffer sizes used to estimate CAFOs exposure, people living near CAFOs had significantly higher risk of cardiovascular mortality than other persons. Comparing those living near CAFOs to the no exposure group, odds ratios (ORs) for cardiovascular mortality were 1.01 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.00, 1.03), 1.04 (1.03, 1.06), and 1.06 (1.05, 1.07) for low, medium, and high CAFOs exposure, respectively, indicating a trend of higher risk with higher exposure. Those in the high CAFOs exposure group had significantly higher risk of anemia and kidney disease mortality than those with no exposure. Results suggest higher mortality risk from CAFOs for some subpopulations, however differences were not statistically significant. Findings provide evidence of excess mortality risk from CAFOs in NC. These results have implications for future studies of environmental justice and CAFOs.

Climate Justice and California's Methane Superemitters: Environmental Equity Assessment of Community Proximity and Exposure Intensity

Methane superemitters emit non-methane copollutants that are harmful to human health. Yet, no prior studies have assessed disparities in exposure to methane superemitters with respect to race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and civic engagement. To do so, we obtained the location, category (e.g., landfill, refinery), and emission rate of California methane superemitters from Next Generation Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS-NG) flights conducted between 2016 and 2018. We identified block groups within 2 km of superemitters (exposed) and 5-10 km away (unexposed) using dasymetric mapping and assigned level of exposure among block groups within 2 km (measured via number of superemitter categories and total methane emissions). Analyses included 483 superemitters. The majority were dairy/manure (n = 213) and oil/gas production sites (n = 127). Results from fully adjusted logistic mixed models indicate environmental injustice in methane superemitter locations. For example, for every 10% increase in non-Hispanic Black residents, the odds of exposure increased by 10% (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.04, 1.17). We observed similar disparities for Hispanics and Native Americans but not with indicators of socioeconomic status. Among block groups located within 2 km, increasing proportions of non-White populations and lower voter turnout were associated with higher superemitter emission intensity. Previously unrecognized racial/ethnic disparities in exposure to California methane superemitters should be considered in policies to tackle methane emissions.

Distribution of environmental justice metrics for exposure to CAFOs in North Carolina, USA

BACKGROUND

Several studies have reported environmental disparities regarding exposure to concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). Public health implications of environmental justice from the intensive livestock industry are of great concern in North Carolina (NC), USA, a state with a large number and extensive history of CAFOs.

OBJECTIVES

We examined disparities by exposure to CAFOs using several environmental justice metrics and considering potentially vulnerable subpopulations.

METHODS

We obtained data on permitted animal facilities from NC Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ). Using ZIP code level variables from the 2010 Census, we evaluated environmental disparities by eight environmental justice metrics (i.e., percentage of Non-Hispanic White, Non-Hispanic Black, or Hispanic; percentage living below the poverty level; median household income; percentage with education less than high school diploma; racial residential isolation (RI) for Non-Hispanic Black; and educational residential isolation (ERI) for population without college degree). We applied two approaches to assign CAFOs exposure for each ZIP code: (1) a count method based on the number of CAFOs within ZIP code; and (2) a buffer method based on the area-weighted number of CAFOs using a 15 km buffer.

RESULTS

Spatial distributions of CAFOs exposure generally showed similar patterns between the two exposure methods. However, some ZIP codes had different estimated CAFOs exposure for the different approaches, with higher exposure when using the buffer method. Our findings indicate that CAFOs are located disproportionately in communities with higher percentage of minorities and in low-income communities. Distributions of environmental justice metrics generally showed similar patterns for both exposure methods, however starker disparities were observed using a buffer method.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings of the disproportionate location of CAFOs provide evidence of environmental disparities with respect to race and socioeconomic status in NC and have implications for future studies of environmental and health impacts of CAFOs.

Linking History to Contemporary State-Sanctioned Slow Violence through Cultural and Structural Racism

Environmental scientists started documenting the racial inequities of environmental exposures (e.g., proximity to waste facilities or to industrial pollution) in the 1970s and 1980s. Since then, research has documented inequities in exposures to nearly every studied environmental hazard, showing that American society delivers racial violence toward non-White families. Through cultural racism, a resilient social hierarchy is set where the lives of some groups of people are considered more valuable than others; then, through structural racism, institutions unequally mete and dole environmental benefits and burdens to these groups. We argue that the "slow violence" of environmental racism is linked to other forms of racial violence that have been enacted throughout history. We discuss the meaning of cultural racism as it pertains to the hierarchy of groups of people whose lives are valued unequally and its link to structural racism. To remedy this environmental racial violence, we propose shifts in the empirical research on environmental inequities that are built upon, either implicitly or explicitly, the interconnected concepts of cultural and structural racism that link historical to contemporary forms of racial violence.

Uterine Cancer Mortality in White and African American Females in Southeastern North Carolina

The residents of southeastern North Carolina (NC) are exposed to multiple socioeconomic and environmental risk factors and have higher mortality rates for a number of diseases. Uterine cancer mortality is known to vary dramatically by race, so we analyzed uterine cancer mortality in populations defined by zip codes in this area to investigate the contributions of various environmental risk factors to race-specific disease patterns. Methods. Zip code specific mortality and hospital admissions for uterine cancer from 2007 to 2013 were analyzed using the NC State Center for Health Statistics data and the Inpatient Database of the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project datafiles, respectively. Results were adjusted for age, income, education, health insurance coverage, prevalence of current smokers, and density of primary care providers. Results. Uterine cancer mortality rates were generally higher in African American (32.5/100,000, 95% CI = 18.9–46.1) compared to White (19.6/100,000, 95% CI = 12.3–26.9) females. Odds ratios (ORs) of uterine cancer death were higher in White females (OR = 2.27, p < 0.0001) residing within zip codes with hog concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) (hog density >215 hogs/km²) than in White females residing in non-CAFO communities. African American females living near CAFOs had less pronounced increase of uterine cancer death (OR = 1.08, p=0.7657). Conclusion. White females living in adjacent to hog CAFOs areas of southeastern NC have lower rates of mortality from uterine cancer than African American females, but they have higher odds of death compared to their counterparts living in other NC areas. African American females living near CAFOs also have modest increases from their high baseline mortality. While the observed associations do not prove a causation, improving access to screening and medical care is important to mitigate this health issues in southeastern NC.

Impact of Odor Nuisance on Preferred Place of Residence

Context of the research: Research is increasingly carried out to take into account the social behavior of residents, the type of industry located in the area, and perceived preference for the place of residence. The quality of life in urban space is increasingly seen as a problem of cooperation between various stakeholders. These studies not only identify factors and sources of odor emissions, but also serve as the basis for creating systems to alert people living in areas adjacent to industrial areas or harmful and unpleasant industrial emissions. In recent years, environmental issues, particularly unpleasant sensory experiences, have been one of the most important acceptance criteria. Aim of the article: The aim of the study is to assess the impact of odor nuisance in the south-eastern part of Kraków (Płaszów) on the residents’ decision to leave their place of residence. In particular, the research goal was achieved to indicate which of the unpleasant odors may cause a change of residence, as well as to assess the degree of their impact on the decision to move, taking into account the social and demographic characteristics of residents. New in the article: The novelty of the work was the finding out of the residents’ opinions about the quality of life by accepting the place of residence, taking into account the aspect of odor nuisance. Previous studies on odor nuisance have focused on the emission of odors from individual plants. A novelty of this research is its implementation in an urban area, in which numerous industrial plants are located, with various odors emitted. Research methodology: To assess odor nuisance, a measuring tool developed in accordance with VDI 3883 guidelines was used, based on the latest research results on odor and noise nuisance. The questionnaire was developed based on German experience. Conclusions from the research: The data obtained as a result of the research allow us to state that specific smells are so burdensome that they may cause the necessity to leave the place of residence, because the respondents feel various unpleasant smells that have an adverse impact upon the quality of life that they perceive. A possible need for relocation of domiciles out of the current place of residence due to unpleasant smells would affect the perceptible, specific level of grief—the greater it is, the more attached the residents are to their current place of residence.

Youth Engaged Participatory Air Monitoring: A 'Day in the Life' in Urban Environmental Justice Communities

Air pollution in Southern California does not impact all communities equally; communities of color are disproportionately burdened by poor air quality and more likely to live near industrial facilities and freeways. Government regulatory monitors do not have the spatial resolution to provide air quality information at the neighborhood or personal scale. We describe the A Day in the Life program, an approach to participatory air monitoring that engages youth in collecting data that they can then analyze and use to take action. Academics partnered with Los Angeles-based youth environmental justice organizations to combine personal air monitoring, participatory science, and digital storytelling to build capacity to address local air quality issues. Eighteen youth participants from four different neighborhoods wore portable personal PM2.5 (fine particles <2.5 µm in diameter) monitors for a day in each of their respective communities, documenting and mapping their exposure to PM2.5 during their daily routine. Air monitoring was coupled with photography and videos to document what they experienced over the course of their day. The PM2.5 exposure during the day for participants averaged 10.7 µg/m3, although the range stretched from <1 to 180 µg/m3. One-third of all measurements were taken <300 m from a freeway. Overall, we demonstrate a method to increase local youth-centered understanding of personal exposures, pollution sources, and vulnerability to air quality.

Environmental and human health challenges of industrial livestock and poultry farming in China and their mitigation

Driven by the growing demand for food products of animal origin, industrial livestock and poultry production has become increasingly popular and is on the track of becoming an important source of environmental pollution in China. Although concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) have higher production efficiency and profitability with less resource consumption compared to the traditional family-based and "free range" farming, they bring significant environmental pollution concerns and pose public health risks. Gaseous pollutants and bioaerosols are emitted directly from CAFOs, which have health implications on animal producers and neighboring communities. A range of pollutants are excreted with the animal waste, including nutrients, pathogens, natural and synthetic hormones, veterinary antimicrobials, and heavy metals, which can enter local farmland soils, surface water, and groundwater, during the storage and disposal of animal waste, and pose direct and indirect human health risks. The extensive use of antimicrobials in CAFOs also contributes to the global public health concern of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Efforts on treating the large volumes of manure generated in CAFOs should be enhanced (e.g., by biogas digesters and integrated farm systems) to minimize their impacts on the environment and human health. Furthermore, the use of veterinary drugs and feed additives in industrial livestock and poultry farming should be controlled, which will not only make the animal food products much safer to the consumers, but also render the manure more benign for treatment and disposal on farmlands. While improving the sustainability of animal farming, China also needs to promote healthy food consumption, which not only improves public health from avoiding high-meat diets, but also slows down the expansion of industrial animal farming, and thus reduces the associated environmental and public health risks.

Characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticle (nZnO) alginate beads in reducing gaseous emission from swine manure

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and greenhouse gases' emission from livestock production facilities are of concern to human welfare and the environment. Application of nanoparticles (NPs) has emerged as a potential option for minimizing these gaseous emissions. Application of bare NPs, however, could have an adverse effect on plants, soil, human health, and the environment. To minimize NPs' exposure to the environment by recovering them, NPs were entrapped in polymeric beads for treating livestock manure. The objectives of the research were to understand the mechanism of gaseous reduction in swine manure treated for 33 days with zinc oxide nanoparticles (nZnO) or nZnO-entrapped alginate (alginate-nZnO) beads by different characterization techniques. Headspace gases from treated manure flasks were collected in 2-6-day intervals during the experimental period and were analyzed for methane (CH₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and H₂S concentrations. The microbial analysis of manure was carried out using bacterial plate counts and Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction methods. Morphology and chemical composition of alginate-nZnO beads were analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS). Alginate-nZnO beads or bare nZnO proved to be an effective NP in reducing H₂S (up to 99%), CH₄ (49-72%), and CO₂ (46-62%) from manure stored under anaerobic conditions and these reductions are likely due to the microbial inhibitory effect from nZnO, as well as chemical conversion. Both SEM-EDS and XPS analysis confirmed the presence of zinc sulfide (ZnS) in the beads, which is likely formed by reacting nZnO with H₂S.

Hydrogen sulfide concentrations at three middle schools near industrial livestock facilities

Safe school environments are essential for healthy development, yet some schools are near large-scale livestock facilities that emit air pollution. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) from decomposing manure is an indicator of livestock-related air pollution. We measured outdoor concentrations of H₂S at three public middle schools near livestock facilities in North Carolina. We used circular graphs to relate H₂S detection and wind direction to geospatial distributions of nearby livestock barns. We also used logistic and linear regression to model H₂S in relation to upwind, distance-weighted livestock barn area. Circular graphs suggested an association between upwind livestock barns and H₂S detection. The log-odds of H₂S detection per 1000 m² increased with upwind weighted swine barn area (School A: β-coefficient (β)=0.43, SE=0.06; School B: β=0.64, SE=0.24) and upwind weighted poultry barn area (School A: β=0.05, SE=0.01), with stronger associations during periods of atmospheric stability than atmospheric instability (School A stable: β=0.69, SE=0.11; School A unstable: β=0.32, SE=0.09). H₂S concentration also increased linearly with upwind swine barn area, with greater increases during stable atmospheric conditions (stable: β=0.16 parts per billion (p.p.b.), SE=0.01; unstable: β=0.05 p.p.b., SE=0.01). Off-site migration of pollutants from industrial livestock operations can decrease air quality at nearby schools.

Pigs in Space: Determining the Environmental Justice Landscape of Swine Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) in Iowa

Given the primacy of Iowa in pork production for the U.S. and global markets, we sought to understand if the same relationship with traditional environmental justice (EJ) variables such as low income and minority populations observed in other concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO) studies exists in the relationship with swine CAFO densities in Iowa. We examined the potential for spatial clustering of swine CAFOs in certain parts of the state and used spatial regression techniques to determine the relationships of high swine concentrations to these EJ variables. We found that while swine CAFOs do cluster in certain regions and watersheds of Iowa, these high densities of swine are not associated with traditional EJ populations of low income and minority race/ethnicity. Instead, the potential for environmental injustice in the negative impacts of intensive swine production require a more complex appraisal. The clustering of swine production in watersheds, the presence of antibiotics used in swine production in public waterways, the clustering of manure spills, and other findings suggest that a more literal and figurative “downstream” approach is necessary. We document the presence and location of antibiotics used in animal production in the public waterways of the state. At the same time, we suggest a more “upstream” understanding of the structural, political and economic factors that create an environmentally unjust landscape of swine production in Iowa and the Upper Midwest is also crucial. Finally, we highlight the important role of publicly accessible and high quality data in the analysis of these upstream and downstream EJ questions.

Environmental Justice Research and Action: A Case Study in Political Economy and Community-Academic Collaboration

Community-university partnerships increasingly are being created to study and address environmental injustices. This article describes a case study of one such effort and its contributions to a decade-long community struggle to curb the growth of industrial hog operations and their adverse health effects in the United States' rural south. Worldwide transformation of livestock production from family farms to large-scale industrial agricultural complexes has resulted in the degradation of local environments, with negative impacts on public health. In the rural south, the concentration of industrial livestock operations has been most pronounced in low income African-American communities. Using political economy and community-based participatory research (CBPR) as a conceptual framework, this article explores the partnership between a strong community-based organization, Concerned Citizens of Tillery, and researchers at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, School of Public Health to study and address this problem. The political, economic, and historical context of the partnership is examined, as are the challenges faced, and the partnership's contributions to maintaining grassroots community organizing and activism and affecting local policy change. Implications for other CBPR partnerships are discussed.

The effect of feeding high fat diet to beef cattle on manure composition and gaseous emission from a feedlot pen surface

BACKGROUND

Dietary manipulation is a common practice to mitigate gaseous emission from livestock production facilities, and the variation of fat level in the diet has shown great influence on ruminal volatile fatty acids (VFA) and enteric methane generation. The changes in dietary fat levels influence rumen chemistry that could modify manure nutrient composition along with odor and gaseous emissions from manure management facilities.

METHODS

A field experiment was carried out on beef cattle feedlots to investigate the effect of four levels of dietary fat concentrations (3 to 5.5 %) on the manure composition and gaseous emissions (methane-CH4, nitrous oxide-N2O, carbon dioxide-CO2 and hydrogen sulfide-H2S) from the feedlot pen surface. The experiment was carried out over a 5-month period from June to October during North Dakota's summer-fall climatic condition. Air and manure sampling was conducted five times at a 20-30 day intervals.

RESULTS

Overall, this research indicated that fat levels in diet have no or little effect on the nutrient composition of manure and gaseous emission from the pens with cattle fed with different diet. Though significant variation of gaseous emission and manure composition were observed between different sampling periods, no effect of high fat diet was observed on manure composition and gaseous emission.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that addition of fat to animal diet may not have any impact on gaseous emission and manure compositions.

Industrial Food Animal Production and Community Health

Industrial food animal production (IFAP) is a source of environmental microbial and chemical hazards. A growing body of literature suggests that populations living near these operations and manure-applied crop fields are at elevated risk for several health outcomes. We reviewed the literature published since 2000 and identified four health outcomes consistently and positively associated with living near IFAP: respiratory outcomes, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Q fever, and stress/mood. We found moderate evidence of an association of IFAP with quality of life and limited evidence of an association with cognitive impairment, Clostridium difficile, Enterococcus, birth outcomes, and hypertension. Distance-based exposure metrics were used by 17/33 studies reviewed. Future work should investigate exposure through drinking water and must improve exposure assessment with direct environmental sampling, modeling, and high-resolution DNA typing methods. Investigators should not limit study to high-profile pathogens like MRSA but include a broader range of pathogens, as well as other disease outcomes.

Increased respiratory symptoms in COPD patients living in the vicinity of livestock farms

Several studies have investigated the effect of livestock farm emissions on the respiratory health of local residents, but results are inconsistent. This study aims to explore associations between the presence of livestock farms and respiratory health in an area of high-density livestock farming in the Netherlands. We focused especially on associations between farm exposures and respiratory symptoms within subgroups of potentially susceptible patients with a pre-existing lung disease.In total, 14 875 adults (response rate 53.4%) completed a questionnaire concerning respiratory health, smoking habits and personal characteristics. Different indicators of livestock farm exposures relative to the home address were computed using a geographic information system.Prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma was lower among residents living within 100 m of a farm (OR 0.47, 95% CI 0.24-0.91 and OR 0.65, 95% CI 0.45-0.93, respectively). However, >11 farms in 1000 m compared to fewer than four farms in 1000 m (fourth quartile versus first quartile) was associated with wheezing among COPD patients (OR 1.71, 95% CI 1.01-2.89). Using general practitioners' electronic medical records, we demonstrated that selection bias did not affect the observed associations.Our data suggest a protective effect of livestock farm emissions on the respiratory health of residents. Nonetheless, COPD patients living near livestock farms reported more respiratory symptoms, suggesting an increased risk of exacerbations.

Challenges and benefits of conducting environmental justice research in a school setting

Environmental justice (EJ) research requires attention to consequences for research participants beyond those typically considered by institutional review boards. The imbalance of power between impacted communities and those who create and regulate pollution creates challenges for participation, yet research can also benefit those involved. Our community-academic partnership designed the Rural Air Pollutants and Children's Health (RAPCH) study to provide positive impacts while measuring health effects at three low-resource public middle schools near concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) in North Carolina. We evaluated perceived benefits and challenges of study involvement by interviewing school staff and community liaisons who facilitated data collection. Reported benefits included enhancement of students' academic environment and increased community environmental awareness; challenges were associated mainly with some participants' immaturity. Leadership from a strong community-based organization was crucial to recruitment, yet our approach entailed minimal focus on EJ, which may have limited opportunities for community education or organizing for environmental health.

Neurofunctional correlates of ethical, food-related decision-making

For consumers today, the perceived ethicality of a food’s production method can be as important a purchasing consideration as its price. Still, few studies have examined how, neurofunctionally, consumers are making ethical, food-related decisions. We examined how consumers’ ethical concern about a food’s production method may relate to how, neurofunctionally, they make decisions whether to purchase that food. Forty-six participants completed a measure of the extent to which they took ethical concern into consideration when making food-related decisions. They then underwent a series of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans while performing a food-related decision-making (FRDM) task. During this task, they made 56 decisions whether to purchase a food based on either its price (i.e., high or low, the “price condition”) or production method (i.e., with or without the use of cages, the “production method condition”), but not both. For 23 randomly selected participants, we performed an exploratory, whole-brain correlation between ethical concern and differential neurofunctional activity in the price and production method conditions. Ethical concern correlated negatively and significantly with differential neurofunctional activity in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). For the remaining 23 participants, we performed a confirmatory, region-of-interest (ROI) correlation between the same variables, using an 8-mm3 volume situated in the left dlPFC. Again, the variables correlated negatively and significantly. This suggests, when making ethical, food-related decisions, the more consumers take ethical concern into consideration, the less they may rely on neurofunctional activity in the left dlPFC, possibly because making these decisions is more routine for them, and therefore a more perfunctory process requiring fewer cognitive resources.

Data quality from a longitudinal study of adolescent health at schools near industrial livestock facilities

PURPOSE

Longitudinal designs enable examination of temporal relationships between exposures and health outcomes, but extended participation can cause study fatigue. We present an approach for analyzing data quality and study fatigue in a participatory, longitudinal study of adolescents.

METHODS

Participants (n = 340) in the Rural Air Pollutants and Children's Health study completed daily diaries for 3 to 5 weeks in 2009 while we monitored outdoor pollutant concentrations. We used regression models to examine established associations between disease, symptoms, anthropometrics, and lung function as indicators of internal consistency and external validity. We modeled temporal trends in data completeness, lung function, environmental odors, and symptoms to assess study fatigue.

RESULTS

Of 5728 records, 94.2% were complete. Asthma and allergy status were associated with asthma-related symptoms at baseline and during follow-up, for example, prevalence ratio = 8.77 (95% confidence interval: 4.33-17.80) for awakening with wheeze among diagnosed asthmatics versus nonasthmatics. Sex, height, and age predicted mean lung function. Plots depicting outcome reporting over time and associated linear trends showed time-dependent declines for most outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

We achieved data completeness, internal consistency, and external validity, yet still observed study fatigue, despite efforts to maintain participant engagement. Future investigators should model time trends in reporting to monitor longitudinal data quality.

Investigating the role of state permitting and agriculture agencies in addressing public health concerns related to industrial food animal production

Objectives

Industrial food animal production (IFAP) operations adversely impact environmental public health through air, water, and soil contamination. We sought to determine how state permitting and agriculture agencies respond to these public health concerns.

Methods

We conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with staff at 12 state agencies in seven states, which were chosen based on high numbers or rapid increase of IFAP operations. The interviews served to gather information regarding agency involvement in regulating IFAP operations, the frequency and type of contacts received about public health concerns, how the agency responds to such contacts, and barriers to additional involvement.

Results

Permitting and agriculture agencies’ responses to health-based IFAP concerns are constrained by significant barriers including narrow regulations, a lack of public health expertise within the agencies, and limited resources.

Conclusions

State agencies with jurisdiction over IFAP operations are unable to adequately address relevant public health concerns due to multiple factors. Combining these results with previously published findings on barriers facing local and state health departments in the same states reveals significant gaps between these agencies regarding public health and IFAP. There is a clear need for regulations to protect public health and for public health professionals to provide complementary expertise to agencies responsible for regulating IFAP operations.

Distribution of Industrial Farms in the United States and Socioeconomic, Health, and Environmental Characteristics of Counties

The method of producing food animals has changed in the United States over the past century, moving from traditional burns to enclosed structures resembling industrial buildings, where animals are raised in high stocking density (commonly known as “Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations,” CAFOs). The objective to maximize profit has resulted in poor farm management; raised issues of environmental pollution, public health, animal rights, and environmental justice, and had socio-economic impacts. Studies concerning the issues are limited to specific regions and types of CAFOs. In addition, studies on the spatial distribution and temporal changes of CAFO at a country scale are lacking. This study bridges some of the gaps by analyzing the spatial distribution of industrial farms in the United States in 2002 and 2007 and their relationship with vulnerable population and exploring the relationships among the concentrations of farms, socio-economic, health, and environmental characteristics of the counties. A range of spatial statistics tools were applied in this study. The study revealed variations in spatial distribution depending on the type of the CAFOs. The issue of environmental justice was found prevalent depending on the types of industrial farms. Each type of industrial farm was found to interact uniquely with the selected demographic, health, and environmental parameters.

Investigating the role of state and local health departments in addressing public health concerns related to industrial food animal production sites

Objectives

Evidence of community health concerns stemming from industrial food animal production (IFAP) facilities continues to accumulate. This study examined the role of local and state health departments in responding to and preventing community-driven concerns associated with IFAP.

Methods

We conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with state and county health department staff and community members in eight states with high densities or rapid growth of IFAP operations. We investigated the extent to which health concerns associated with IFAP sites are reported to health departments, the nature of health departments’ responses, and barriers to involvement.

Results

Health departments’ roles in these matters are limited by political barriers, lack of jurisdiction, and finite resources, expertise, and staff. Community members reported difficulties in engaging health departments on these issues.

Conclusions

Our investigation suggests that health departments frequently lack resources or jurisdiction to respond to health concerns related to IFAP sites, resulting in limited engagement. Since agencies with jurisdiction over IFAP frequently lack a health focus, increased health department engagement may better protect public health.

Data sources for an environmental quality index: availability, quality, and utility

OBJECTIVES

An environmental quality index (EQI) for all counties in the United States is under development to explore the relationship between environmental insults and human health. The EQI is potentially useful for investigators researching health disparities to account for other concurrent environmental conditions. This article focused on the identification and assessment of data sources used in developing the EQI. Data source strengths, limitations, and utility were addressed.

METHODS

Five domains were identified that contribute to environmental quality: air, water, land, built, and sociodemographic environments. An inventory of possible data sources was created. Data sources were evaluated for appropriate spatial and temporal coverage and data quality.

RESULTS

The overall data inventory identified multiple data sources for each domain. From the inventory (187 sources, 617 records), the air, water, land, built environment, and sociodemographic domains retained 2, 9, 7, 4, and 2 data sources for inclusion in the EQI, respectively. However, differences in data quality, geographic coverage, and data availability existed between the domains.

CONCLUSIONS

The data sources identified for use in the EQI may be useful to researchers, advocates, and communities to explore specific environmental quality questions.

Exploring potential sources of differential vulnerability and susceptibility in risk from environmental hazards to expand the scope of risk assessment

Genetic factors, other exposures, individual disease states and allostatic load, psychosocial stress, and socioeconomic position all have the potential to modify the response to environmental exposures. Moreover, many of these modifiers covary with the exposure, leading to much higher risks in some subgroups. These are not theoretical concerns; rather, all these patterns have already been demonstrated in studies of the effects of lead and air pollution. However, recent regulatory impact assessments for these exposures have generally not incorporated these findings. Therefore, differential risk and vulnerability is a critically important but neglected area within risk assessment, and should be incorporated in the future.

Disproportionate proximity to environmental health hazards: methods, models, and measurement

We sought to provide a historical overview of methods, models, and data used in the environmental justice (EJ) research literature to measure proximity to environmental hazards and potential exposure to their adverse health effects. We explored how the assessment of disproportionate proximity and exposure has evolved from comparing the prevalence of minority or low-income residents in geographic entities hosting pollution sources and discrete buffer zones to more refined techniques that use continuous distances, pollutant fate-and-transport models, and estimates of health risk from toxic exposure. We also reviewed analytical techniques used to determine the characteristics of people residing in areas potentially exposed to environmental hazards and emerging geostatistical techniques that are more appropriate for EJ analysis than conventional statistical methods. We concluded by providing several recommendations regarding future research and data needs for EJ assessment that would lead to more reliable results and policy solutions.

Environmental health effects of concentrated animal feeding operations: implications for nurses

Changes in livestock farming over the last 50 years have led to the increase of large-scale livestock farms called concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). These farms pose a threat to the environment by polluting the air and nearby ground and surface waters. In addition, adverse health effects have been found in CAFO workers and CAFO neighbors. A multitude of respiratory effects have been noted by workers and neighbors, some of which are severe enough to cause workers to leave the industry. The mental health of CAFO neighbors appears to suffer as well, mainly because of noxious odors and stress. Concentrated animal feeding operations also contribute to the growth of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which have the potential to harm populations nationwide. Although research is being done on this topic around the world, the nursing literature contains very little information on health effects from CAFOs. Occupational, community, and public health nurses should be aware of the dangers from CAFOs and should participate in caring practices, research, and advocacy to diminish the risks.

Effects on pulmonary health of neighboring residents of concentrated animal feeding operations: exposure assessed using optimized estimation technique

Potential adverse health effects of concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), which were also shown in the authors' Lower Saxony Lung Study, are of public concern. The authors aimed to investigate pulmonary health effect of neighboring residents assessed using optimized estimation technique. Annual ammonia emission was measured to assess the emission from CAFO and from surrounding fields. Location of sampling points was optimized using cluster analysis. Individual exposure of 457 nonfarm subjects was interpolated by weighting method. Mean estimated annual ammonia levels varied between 16 and 24 μg/m³. Higher exposed participants were more likely to be sensitized against ubiquitous allergens as compared to lower exposed subjects (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 4.2; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.2-13.2). In addition, they showed a significantly lower forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV₁) (adjusted mean difference in % of predicted -8%; 95% CI -13% to -3%). The authors' previous findings that CAFOs may contribute to burden of respiratory diseases were confirmed by this study.

Patterns of protozoan infections: spatiotemporal associations with cattle density

Waste from cattle production contains protozoa, such as Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia, which can be transmitted to humans. People residing in areas of high cattle density may be at increased risk for protozoan infections. The objective of this study was to assess spatial and temporal associations between cattle density and hospitalizations for protozoan infections in the U.S. elderly. Data on protozoan infections were abstracted from Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services datasets for a 14-year period (1991-2004). Cattle inventory data were abstracted from the 2002 U.S. Census of Agriculture. Counties were classified into one of five exposure categories based on both cattle density and human density. Our analyses considered differences in rates, trends, and variations in seasonal patterns based on exposure categories. Cryptosporidiosis demonstrated a trend of increasing annual rates related to increased potential exposure to cattle. Both cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis demonstrated significant seasonal patterns peaking during the fourth week of October in areas of high cattle/low population density and the second week of September in counties with low cattle/low human density, respectively. Counties with low human population density (regardless of cattle density) had the highest rate of all protozoan infections, peaking in the summer. These results demonstrate the elderly population is at increased risk of protozoan infections in areas of high cattle density, particularly cryptosporidiosis. The seasonal patterns and higher annual rates seen in rural areas suggest time-variant environmental exposures, which may be affected with geographical and temporal targeting of agricultural policies and interventions to improve public health.

The association between proximity to animal feeding operations and community health: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

A systematic review was conducted for the association between animal feeding operations (AFOs) and the health of individuals living near AFOs.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The review was restricted to studies reporting respiratory, gastrointestinal and mental health outcomes in individuals living near AFOs in North America, European Union, United Kingdom, and Scandinavia. From June to September 2008 searches were conducted in PUBMED, CAB, Web-of-Science, and Agricola with no restrictions. Hand searching of narrative reviews was also used. Two reviewers independently evaluated the role of chance, confounding, information, selection and analytic bias on the study outcome. Nine relevant studies were identified. The studies were heterogeneous with respect to outcomes and exposures assessed. Few studies reported an association between surrogate clinical outcomes and AFO proximity. A negative association was reported when odor was the measure of exposure to AFOs and self-reported disease, the measure of outcome. There was evidence of an association between self-reported disease and proximity to AFO in individuals annoyed by AFO odor.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

There was inconsistent evidence of a weak association between self-reported disease in people with allergies or familial history of allergies. No consistent dose response relationship between exposure and disease was observable.

The public health impacts of concentrated animal feeding operations on local communities

Large-scale farm animal production facilities, also known as concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), release a significant amount of contaminants into the air and water. Adverse health effects related to exposure to these contaminants among CAFO workers have been well-documented; however, less is known about their impact on the health of residents in nearby communities. Epidemiological research in this area suggests that neighboring residents are at increased risk of developing neurobehavioral symptoms and respiratory illnesses, including asthma. Additional research is needed to better understand community-scale exposures and health outcomes related to the management practices and emissions of CAFOs.

Malodor as a trigger of stress and negative mood in neighbors of industrial hog operations

OBJECTIVES

We evaluated malodor and air pollutants near industrial hog operations as environmental stressors and negative mood triggers.

METHODS

We collected data from 101 nonsmoking adults in 16 neighborhoods within 1.5 miles of at least 1 industrial hog operation in eastern North Carolina. Participants rated malodor intensity, stress, and mood for 2 weeks while air pollutants were monitored.

RESULTS

Reported malodor was associated with stress and 4 mood states; odds ratios (ORs) for a 1-unit change on the 0-to-8 odor scale ranged from 1.31 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.16, 1.50) to 1.81 (95% CI = 1.63, 2.00). ORs for stress and feeling nervous or anxious were 1.18 (95% CI = 1.08, 1.30) and 1.12 (95% CI = 1.03, 1.22), respectively, for a 1 ppb change in hydrogen sulfide and 1.06 (95% CI = 1.00, 1.11) and 1.10 (95% CI = 1.03, 1.17), respectively, for a 1 microg/m(3) change in semivolatile particulate matter less than 10 microm in aerodynamic diameter (PM(10)).

CONCLUSIONS

Hog odor, hydrogen sulfide, and semivolatile PM(10) are related to stress and negative mood in disproportionately low-income communities near industrial hog operations in eastern North Carolina. Malodor should be considered in studies of health impacts of environmental injustice.