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Ji T, Salotti I, Altieri V, Li M, Rossi V. Seasonal Periodicity of the Airborne Spores of Fungi Causing Grapevine Trunk Diseases: An Analysis of 247 Studies Published Worldwide. PLANT DISEASE 2024:PDIS04230709RE. [PMID: 37874281 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-04-23-0709-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are among the most devastating grapevine diseases globally. GTDs are caused by numerous fungi belonging to different taxa, which release spores into the vineyard and infect wood tissue, mainly through wounds caused by viticultural operations. The timing of operations to avoid infection is critical concerning the periodicity of GTD spores in vineyards, and many studies have been conducted in different grape-growing areas worldwide. However, these studies provide conflicting and fragmented information. To synthesize current knowledge, we conducted a systematic literature review, extracted quantitative data from published papers, and used these data to identify trends and knowledge gaps that need to be addressed in future studies. Our database included 26 papers covering 247 studies and 3,529 spore sampling records concerning a total of 29 fungal taxa responsible for Botryosphaeria dieback (BD), Esca complex (EC), and Eutypa dieback (ED). We found a clear seasonality in the presence and abundance of BD spores, with a peak from fall to spring, more in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere, but not for EC and ED. Spores of these fungi were present throughout the growing season in both hemispheres, possibly because of higher variability in spore types, sporulation conditions, and spore release mechanisms in EC and ED fungi than in BD. Our analysis has limitations because of knowledge gaps and data availability for some fungi (e.g., basidiomycetes, which cause EC). These limitations are discussed to facilitate further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Ji
- Department of Horticulture, Agricultural College of Shihezi University/Key Laboratory of Special Fruits and Vegetables Cultivation Physiology and Germplasm Resources Utilization of Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, Shihezi 832003, China
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VES.), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy
| | - Irene Salotti
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VES.), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy
| | - Valeria Altieri
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VES.), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy
| | - Ming Li
- National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture (NERCITA)/Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Vittorio Rossi
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VES.), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy
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2
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Ji T, Altieri V, Salotti I, Li M, Rossi V. Role of Rain in the Spore Dispersal of Fungal Pathogens Associated with Grapevine Trunk Diseases. PLANT DISEASE 2024; 108:1041-1052. [PMID: 37822098 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-03-23-0403-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Grapevine trunk diseases are caused by a complex of fungi that belong to different taxa, which produce different spore types and have different spore dispersal mechanisms. It is commonly accepted that rainfall plays a key role in spore dispersal, but there is conflicting information in the literature on the relationship between rain and spore trapping in aerobiology studies. We conducted a systematic literature review, extracted quantitative data from published papers, and used the pooled data for Bayesian analysis of the effect of rain on spore trapping. We selected 17 papers covering 95 studies and 8,778 trapping periods, concerning a total of 26 fungal taxa causing Botryosphaeria dieback (BD), Esca complex (EC), and Eutypa dieback (ED). Results confirmed the role of rain in the spore dispersal of these fungi but revealed differences among the different fungi. Rain was a good predictor of spore trapping for ED (AUROC = 0.820) and BD (0.766) but not for the ascomycetes involved in EC (0.569) and not for the only basidiomycetes, Fomitiporella viticola, studied as for spore discharge (AUROC not significant). Prediction of spore trapping was more accurate for negative prognosis than for positive prognosis; a rain cutoff of ≥0.2 mm provided an overall accuracy of ≥0.61 for correct prognoses. Spores trapped in rainless periods accounted for only <10% of the total spores. Our analysis had some drawbacks, which were mainly caused by knowledge gaps and limited data availability; these drawbacks are discussed to facilitate further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Ji
- Department of Horticulture, Agricultural College of Shihezi University/Key Laboratory of Special Fruits and Vegetables Cultivation Physiology and Germplasm Resources Utilization of Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, Shihezi 832003, Xinjiang, China
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VES.), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - Valeria Altieri
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VES.), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - Irene Salotti
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VES.), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - Ming Li
- National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture (NERCITA)/Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Vittorio Rossi
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VES.), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
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3
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Challita EJ, Rohilla P, Bhamla MS. Fluid ejections in nature. ARXIV 2024:arXiv:2403.02359v1. [PMID: 38495571 PMCID: PMC10942486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
From microscopic fungi to colossal whales, fluidic ejections are a universal and intricate phenomenon in biology, serving vital functions such as animal excretion, venom spraying, prey hunting, spore dispersal, and plant guttation. This review delves into the complex fluid physics of ejections across various scales, exploring both muscle-powered active systems and passive mechanisms driven by gravity or osmosis. We introduce a framework using dimensionless numbers to delineate transitions from dripping to jetting and elucidate the governing forces. Highlighting the understudied area of complex fluid ejections, this work not only rationalizes the biophysics involved but also uncovers potential engineering applications in soft robotics, additive manufacturing, and drug delivery. By bridging biomechanics, the physics of living systems, and fluid dynamics, this review offers valuable insights into the diverse world of fluid ejections and paves the way for future bioinspired research across the spectrum of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elio J Challita
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 801 Ferst Drive NW, Atlanta, GA, 30318, USA
| | - Pankaj Rohilla
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - M Saad Bhamla
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 801 Ferst Drive NW, Atlanta, GA, 30318, USA
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Wójcik M, Kasprzyk I. Seasonality and intensity of airborne Boletus-type spores in relation to land use and weather pattern. IMA Fungus 2023; 14:26. [PMID: 38124146 PMCID: PMC10734109 DOI: 10.1186/s43008-023-00135-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Forests are a natural source of airborne bolete spores. The timing of sporulation and its intensity as well as the dispersal of airborne spores and in consequence their concentrations depend in particular on the type of land use determining the availability of matter on which they develop and on meteorological factors. The aim of this study was to perform a spatial and temporal analysis of the occurrence of Boletus-type spores in the warm temperate climate of the Northern Hemisphere. An assumption was made that the spore concentrations depend on the type of land cover and weather conditions. The volumetric method was applied to investigate differences in spore concentrations and using spore traps installed at different heights and at locations with different land cover types. Boletus-type spores occurred in the air at high concentrations in late summer and in the autumn. The season start dates and maximum concentrations did not differ significantly between sites and seasons, but the season intensity varied. Higher spore concentrations were usually found in the region with a larger proportion of green areas, including forests. An analysis of the diurnal cycles showed that within 24 h spore concentration reached high levels twice, which was especially noticeable in ground level monitoring. Air temperature and air humidity were the main weather factors affecting the occurrence of airborne spores. This research indicates that when studying the effects of different factors on the concentration of airborne basidiospores, many environmental elements should be analyzed, including the characteristics of habitats in which basidiomycetes grow. Climate, weather, geobotany, and land use type should be taken into account in analysis and interpretation of aeromycological phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Wójcik
- Institue of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszów, Zelwerowicza 4, 35-601, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Idalia Kasprzyk
- Institue of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszów, Zelwerowicza 4, 35-601, Rzeszów, Poland.
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Money NP. Goldilocks mushrooms: How ballistospory has shaped basidiomycete evolution. Fungal Biol 2023; 127:975-984. [PMID: 37024157 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2023.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Ballistospory has been a governing factor in mushroom diversification. Modifications to fruit body morphology are subject to a series of fundamental constraints imposed by this uniquely fungal mechanism. Gill spacing in lamellate mushrooms, tube width in poroid species, and other configurations of the hymenium must comply with the distance that spores shoot themselves from their basidia. This reciprocal relationship between the development of fruit bodies and spores may have been maintained by a form of evolutionary seesaw proposed in this article. The necessity of the accurate gravitropic orientation of gills and tubes is another constraint on mushroom development and physiology, along with the importance of evaporative cooling of the hymenium for successful spore discharge and the aerodynamic shaping of the fruit body to aid dispersal. Ballistospory has been lost in secotioid and gasteroid basidiomycetes whose spores are dispersed by animal vectors and has been replaced by alterative mechanisms of active spore discharge in some species. Partnered with the conclusions drawn from molecular phylogenetic research, the biomechanical themes discussed in this review afford new ways to think about the evolution of basidiomycetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas P Money
- Western Program and Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
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Money NP. The fastest short jump in nature: Progress in understanding the mechanism of ballistospore discharge. Fungal Biol 2023; 127:835-844. [PMID: 36746555 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2023.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The coalescence of fluid droplets on the surface of ballistospores powers their launch into the air at a speed of up to one meter per second with an acceleration of thousands of g's. This mechanism has been studied for more than a century and its solution is an emblem of mycological progress. Because the spores move too fast for the launch to be watched with a light microscope, early advances were made by inferences about what must be happening when the spores disappeared rather than direct observations. These investigations were followed by ingenious experiments that led to a satisfying explanation of ballistospory by the 1990s. Ultra-high-speed video recordings of spore discharge verified this model in the 2000s and subsequent research has shown how the mechanism has been adapted to launch spores over different distances. The available evidence suggests that many of these adaptations have been achieved by changes in spore morphology. Understanding the cellular and genetic basis of these modifications is one of the principal challenges for understanding the evolution of the basidiomycetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas P Money
- Western Program and Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
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Iapichino M, Wang YW, Gentry S, Pringle A, Seminara A. A precise relationship among Buller's drop, ballistospore, and gill morphologies enables maximum packing of spores within gilled mushrooms. Mycologia 2021; 113:300-311. [PMID: 33497296 DOI: 10.1080/00275514.2020.1823175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Basidiomycete fungi eject basidiospores using a surface tension catapult. A fluid drop forms at the base of each spore and, after reaching a critical size, coalesces with the spore and launches it from the gill surface. It has long been hypothesized that basidiomycete fungi pack the maximum number of spores into a minimal investment of biomass. Building on a nascent understanding of the physics underpinning the surface tension catapult, we modeled a spore's trajectory away from a basidium and demonstrated that to achieve maximum packing the size of the fluid drop, the size of the spore, and the distance between gills must be finely coordinated. To compare the model with data, we measured spore and gill morphologies from wild mushrooms and compared measurements with the model. The empirical data suggest that in order to pack the maximum number of spores into the least amount of biomass, the size of Buller's drop should be smaller but comparable to the spore size. Previously published data of Buller's drop and spore sizes support our hypothesis and also suggest a linear scaling between spore radius and Buller's drop radius. Morphological features of the surface tension catapult appear tightly regulated to enable maximum packing of spores. If mushrooms are maximally packed and Buller's drop radii scale linearly with spore radii, we predict that intergill distance should be proportional to spore radius to the power 3/2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Iapichino
- Institut de Physique de Nice, UMR7010, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and Université Côte d'Azur, Nice, France
| | - Yen-Wen Wang
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706.,Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706
| | - Savannah Gentry
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706.,Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706
| | - Anne Pringle
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706.,Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706
| | - Agnese Seminara
- Institut de Physique de Nice, UMR7010, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and Université Côte d'Azur, Nice, France
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8
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Abstract
Fungi move between habitats by dispersing small spores through the atmosphere. We ask what causes some species to release spores at a specific time every day versus irregularly. We find that timing of spore release dictates how long spores remain in the atmosphere before returning to the ground: Spores released at night are likely to travel for hours while spores released during the day may linger for days. Drivers are stronger in lower, warmer latitudes. Because spores in the open atmosphere are likely to die from prolonged exposure to light and air, the timing of spore release will impact survival. We have discovered a constraint likely to shape observed patterns of spore liberation. Fungi disperse spores to move across landscapes and spore liberation takes different patterns. Many species release spores intermittently; others release spores at specific times of day. Despite intriguing evidence of periodicity, why (and if) the timing of spore release would matter to a fungus remains an open question. Here we use state-of-the-art numerical simulations of atmospheric transport and meteorological data to follow the trajectory of many spores in the atmosphere at different times of day, seasons, and locations across North America. While individual spores follow unpredictable trajectories due to turbulence, in the aggregate patterns emerge: Statistically, spores released during the day fly for several days, whereas spores released at night return to ground within a few hours. Differences are caused by intense turbulence during the day and weak turbulence at night. The pattern is widespread but its reliability varies; for example, day/night patterns are stronger in southern regions. Results provide testable hypotheses explaining both intermittent and regular patterns of spore release as strategies to maximize spore survival in the air. Species with short-lived spores reproducing where there is strong turbulence during the day, for example in Mexico, maximize survival by releasing spores at night. Where cycles are weak, for example in Canada during fall, there is no benefit to releasing spores at the same time every day. Our data challenge the perception of fungal dispersal as risky, wasteful, and beyond control of individuals; our data suggest the timing of spore liberation may be finely tuned to maximize fitness during atmospheric transport.
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Li CJ, Zhao D, Li BX, Zhang N, Yan JY, Zou HT. Whole genome sequencing and comparative genomic analysis of oleaginous red yeast Sporobolomyces pararoseus NGR identifies candidate genes for biotechnological potential and ballistospores-shooting. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:181. [PMID: 32093624 PMCID: PMC7041287 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-6593-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sporobolomyces pararoseus is regarded as an oleaginous red yeast, which synthesizes numerous valuable compounds with wide industrial usages. This species hold biotechnological interests in biodiesel, food and cosmetics industries. Moreover, the ballistospores-shooting promotes the colonizing of S. pararoseus in most terrestrial and marine ecosystems. However, very little is known about the basic genomic features of S. pararoseus. To assess the biotechnological potential and ballistospores-shooting mechanism of S. pararoseus on genome-scale, the whole genome sequencing was performed by next-generation sequencing technology. RESULTS Here, we used Illumina Hiseq platform to firstly assemble S. pararoseus genome into 20.9 Mb containing 54 scaffolds and 5963 predicted genes with a N50 length of 2,038,020 bp and GC content of 47.59%. Genome completeness (BUSCO alignment: 95.4%) and RNA-seq analysis (expressed genes: 98.68%) indicated the high-quality features of the current genome. Through the annotation information of the genome, we screened many key genes involved in carotenoids, lipids, carbohydrate metabolism and signal transduction pathways. A phylogenetic assessment suggested that the evolutionary trajectory of the order Sporidiobolales species was evolved from genus Sporobolomyces to Rhodotorula through the mediator Rhodosporidiobolus. Compared to the lacking ballistospores Rhodotorula toruloides and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we found genes enriched for spore germination and sugar metabolism. These genes might be responsible for the ballistospores-shooting in S. pararoseus NGR. CONCLUSION These results greatly advance our understanding of S. pararoseus NGR in biotechnological potential and ballistospores-shooting, which help further research of genetic manipulation, metabolic engineering as well as its evolutionary direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Ji Li
- College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
- College of Agriculture and Biology, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou, 510225, People's Republic of China
| | - Die Zhao
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
| | - Bing-Xue Li
- College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ning Zhang
- College of Biological Science and Technology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian-Yu Yan
- College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong-Tao Zou
- College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
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10
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Madronich S, Björn LO, McKenzie RL. Solar UV radiation and microbial life in the atmosphere. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2018; 17:1918-1931. [PMID: 29978175 DOI: 10.1039/c7pp00407a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Many microorganisms are alive while suspended in the atmosphere, and some seem to be metabolically active during their time there. One of the most important factors threatening their life and activity is solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Quantitative understanding of the spatial and temporal survival patterns in the atmosphere, and of the ultimate deposition of microbes to the surface, is limited by a number factors some of which are discussed here. These include consideration of appropriate spectral sensitivity functions for biological damage (e.g. inactivation), and the estimation of UV radiation impingent on a microorganism suspended in the atmosphere. We show that for several bacteria (E. coli, S. typhimurium, and P. acnes) the inactivation rates correlate well with irradiances weighted by the DNA damage spectrum in the UV-B spectral range, but when these organisms show significant UV-A (or visible) sensitivities, the correlations become clearly non-linear. The existence of these correlations enables the use of a single spectrum (here DNA damage) as a proxy for sensitivity spectra of other biological effects, but with some caution when the correlations are strongly non-linear. The radiative quantity relevant to the UV exposure of a suspended particle is the fluence rate at an altitude above ground, while down-welling irradiance at ground-level is the quantity most commonly measured or estimated in satellite-derived climatologies. Using a radiative transfer model that computes both quantities, we developed a simple parameterization to exploit the much larger irradiance data bases to estimate fluence rates, and present the first fluence-rate based climatology of DNA-damaging UV radiation in the atmosphere. The estimation of fluence rates in the presence of clouds remains a particularly challenging problem. Here we note that both reductions and enhancements in the UV radiation field are possible, depending mainly on cloud optical geometry and prevailing solar zenith angles. These complex effects need to be included in model simulations of the atmospheric life cycle of the organisms.
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11
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Balzamo G, Willcock H, Ali J, Ratcliffe E, Mele E. Bioinspired Poly(vinylidene fluoride) Membranes with Directional Release of Therapeutic Essential Oils. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:8652-8660. [PMID: 29957953 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b01175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Here, the morphology of polypore fungi has inspired the fabrication of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) membranes with dual porosity by nonsolvent-induced phase separation (NIPS). The fruiting body of such microorganisms is constituted of two distinct regions, finger- and sponge-like structures, which have been successfully mimicked by controlling the coagulation bath temperature during the NIPS process. The use of water at 10 °C as coagulant resulted in membranes with the highest finger-like/sponge-like ratio (53% of the total membrane thickness), while water at 90 °C allowed the formation of macrovoid-free membranes. The microchannels and the asymmetric porosity were used to enhance the oil sorption capacity of the PVDF membranes and to achieve directional release of therapeutic essential oils. These PVDF membranes with easily tuned asymmetric channel-like porosity and controlled pore size are ideal candidates for drug delivery applications.
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Ilton M, Bhamla MS, Ma X, Cox SM, Fitchett LL, Kim Y, Koh JS, Krishnamurthy D, Kuo CY, Temel FZ, Crosby AJ, Prakash M, Sutton GP, Wood RJ, Azizi E, Bergbreiter S, Patek SN. The principles of cascading power limits in small, fast biological and engineered systems. Science 2018; 360:360/6387/eaao1082. [PMID: 29700237 DOI: 10.1126/science.aao1082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Mechanical power limitations emerge from the physical trade-off between force and velocity. Many biological systems incorporate power-enhancing mechanisms enabling extraordinary accelerations at small sizes. We establish how power enhancement emerges through the dynamic coupling of motors, springs, and latches and reveal how each displays its own force-velocity behavior. We mathematically demonstrate a tunable performance space for spring-actuated movement that is applicable to biological and synthetic systems. Incorporating nonideal spring behavior and parameterizing latch dynamics allows the identification of critical transitions in mass and trade-offs in spring scaling, both of which offer explanations for long-observed scaling patterns in biological systems. This analysis defines the cascading challenges of power enhancement, explores their emergent effects in biological and engineered systems, and charts a pathway for higher-level analysis and synthesis of power-amplified systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Ilton
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - M Saad Bhamla
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Xiaotian Ma
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Suzanne M Cox
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Leah L Fitchett
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Yongjin Kim
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Je-Sung Koh
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | | | - Chi-Yun Kuo
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Fatma Zeynep Temel
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Alfred J Crosby
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Manu Prakash
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Gregory P Sutton
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TH, UK
| | - Robert J Wood
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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13
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Calhim S, Halme P, Petersen JH, Læssøe T, Bässler C, Heilmann-Clausen J. Fungal spore diversity reflects substrate-specific deposition challenges. Sci Rep 2018; 8:5356. [PMID: 29599480 PMCID: PMC5876365 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-23292-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual spores are important for the dispersal and population dynamics of fungi. They show remarkable morphological diversity, but the underlying forces driving spore evolution are poorly known. We investigated whether trophic status and substrate associations are associated with morphology in 787 macrofungal genera. We show that both spore size and ornamentation are associated with trophic specialization, so that large and ornamented spores are more probable in ectomycorrhizal than in saprotrophic genera. This suggests that spore ornamentation facilitates attachment to arthropod vectors, which ectomycorrhizal species may need to reach lower soil layers. Elongated spore shapes are more common in saprotrophic taxa, and genera associated with above ground substrates are more likely to have allantoid (curved elongated) spores, probably to lower the risk of wash out by precipitation. Overall, our results suggest that safe arrival on specific substrates is a more important driver of evolution in spore morphology than dispersal per se.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Calhim
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Panu Halme
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
| | - Jens H Petersen
- Æbletoften, Nøruplundvej 2, Tirstrup, DK-8400, Ebeltoft, Denmark
| | - Thomas Læssøe
- Natural History Museum of Denmark/Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Centre for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Claus Bässler
- Department of Conservation and Research, Bavarian Forest National Park, Freyunger Str. 2, 94481, Grafenau, Germany
| | - Jacob Heilmann-Clausen
- Department of Conservation and Research, Bavarian Forest National Park, Freyunger Str. 2, 94481, Grafenau, Germany
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Liu F, Chavez RL, Patek SN, Pringle A, Feng JJ, Chen CH. Asymmetric drop coalescence launches fungal ballistospores with directionality. J R Soc Interface 2018; 14:rsif.2017.0083. [PMID: 28747394 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Thousands of fungal species use surface energy to power the launch of their ballistospores. The surface energy is released when a spherical Buller's drop at the spore's hilar appendix merges with a flattened drop on the adaxial side of the spore. The launching mechanism is primarily understood in terms of energetic models, and crucial features such as launching directionality are unexplained. Integrating experiments and simulations, we advance a mechanistic model based on the capillary-inertial coalescence between the Buller's drop and the adaxial drop, a pair that is asymmetric in size, shape and relative position. The asymmetric coalescence is surprisingly effective and robust, producing a launching momentum governed by the Buller's drop and a launching direction along the adaxial plane of the spore. These key functions of momentum generation and directional control are elucidated by numerical simulations, demonstrated on spore-mimicking particles, and corroborated by published ballistospore kinematics. Our work places the morphological and kinematic diversity of ballistospores into a general mechanical framework, and points to a generic catapulting mechanism of colloidal particles with implications for both biology and engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangjie Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Roger L Chavez
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Anne Pringle
- Departments of Botany and Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - James J Feng
- Departments of Chemical and Biological Engineering and Mathematics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z2
| | - Chuan-Hua Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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15
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Lakkireddy K, Kües U. Bulk isolation of basidiospores from wild mushrooms by electrostatic attraction with low risk of microbial contaminations. AMB Express 2017; 7:28. [PMID: 28124290 PMCID: PMC5267591 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-017-0326-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The basidiospores of most Agaricomycetes are ballistospores. They are propelled off from their basidia at maturity when Buller's drop develops at high humidity at the hilar spore appendix and fuses with a liquid film formed on the adaxial side of the spore. Spores are catapulted into the free air space between hymenia and fall then out of the mushroom's cap by gravity. Here we show for 66 different species that ballistospores from mushrooms can be attracted against gravity to electrostatic charged plastic surfaces. Charges on basidiospores can influence this effect. We used this feature to selectively collect basidiospores in sterile plastic Petri-dish lids from mushrooms which were positioned upside-down onto wet paper tissues for spore release into the air. Bulks of 104 to >107 spores were obtained overnight in the plastic lids above the reversed fruiting bodies, between 104 and 106 spores already after 2-4 h incubation. In plating tests on agar medium, we rarely observed in the harvested spore solutions contaminations by other fungi (mostly none to up to in 10% of samples in different test series) and infrequently by bacteria (in between 0 and 22% of samples of test series) which could mostly be suppressed by bactericides. We thus show that it is possible to obtain clean basidiospore samples from wild mushrooms. The technique of spore collection through electrostatic attraction in plastic lids is applicable to fresh lamellate and poroid fruiting bodies from the wild, to short-lived deliquescent mushrooms, to older and dehydrating fleshy fruiting bodies, even to animal-infested mushrooms and also to dry specimens of long-lasting tough species such as Schizophyllum commune.
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16
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Castaño C, Oliva J, Martínez de Aragón J, Alday JG, Parladé J, Pera J, Bonet JA. Mushroom Emergence Detected by Combining Spore Trapping with Molecular Techniques. Appl Environ Microbiol 2017; 83:e00600-17. [PMID: 28432095 PMCID: PMC5478987 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00600-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Obtaining reliable and representative mushroom production data requires time-consuming sampling schemes. In this paper, we assessed a simple methodology to detect mushroom emergence by trapping the fungal spores of the fruiting body community in plots where mushroom production was determined weekly. We compared the performance of filter paper traps with that of funnel traps and combined these spore trapping methods with species-specific quantitative real-time PCR and Illumina MiSeq to determine the spore abundance. Significantly more MiSeq proportional reads were generated for both ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungal species using filter traps than were obtained using funnel traps. The spores of 37 fungal species that produced fruiting bodies in the study plots were identified. Spore community composition changed considerably over time due to the emergence of ephemeral fruiting bodies and rapid spore deposition (lasting from 1 to 2 weeks), which occurred in the absence of rainfall events. For many species, the emergence of epigeous fruiting bodies was followed by a peak in the relative abundance of their airborne spores. There were significant positive relationships between fruiting body yields and spore abundance in time for five of seven fungal species. There was no relationship between fruiting body yields and their spore abundance at plot level, indicating that some of the spores captured in each plot were arriving from the surrounding areas. Differences in fungal detection capacity by spore trapping may indicate different dispersal ability between fungal species. Further research can help to identify the spore rain patterns for most common fungal species.IMPORTANCE Mushroom monitoring represents a serious challenge in economic and logistical terms because sampling approaches demand extensive field work at both the spatial and temporal scales. In addition, the identification of fungal taxa depends on the expertise of experienced fungal taxonomists. Similarly, the study of fungal dispersal has been constrained by technological limitations, especially because the morphological identification of spores is a challenging and time-consuming task. Here, we demonstrate that spores from ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungal species can be identified using simple spore traps together with either MiSeq fungus-specific amplicon sequencing or species-specific quantitative real-time PCR. In addition, the proposed methodology can be used to characterize the airborne fungal community and to detect mushroom emergence in forest ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carles Castaño
- Forest Bioengineering Solutions S.A., Solsona, Spain
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-AGROTECNIO, Lleida, Spain
| | - Jonàs Oliva
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-AGROTECNIO, Lleida, Spain
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Juan Martínez de Aragón
- Forest Bioengineering Solutions S.A., Solsona, Spain
- Centre Tecnològic Forestal de Catalunya, CTFC-CEMFOR, Solsona, Spain
| | - Josu G Alday
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-AGROTECNIO, Lleida, Spain
| | - Javier Parladé
- Protecció Vegetal Sostenible, IRTA, Centre de Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Pera
- Protecció Vegetal Sostenible, IRTA, Centre de Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Antonio Bonet
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-AGROTECNIO, Lleida, Spain
- Centre Tecnològic Forestal de Catalunya, CTFC-CEMFOR, Solsona, Spain
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17
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Horton TR. Spore Dispersal in Ectomycorrhizal Fungi at Fine and Regional Scales. BIOGEOGRAPHY OF MYCORRHIZAL SYMBIOSIS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-56363-3_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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18
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Sakes A, van der Wiel M, Henselmans PWJ, van Leeuwen JL, Dodou D, Breedveld P. Shooting Mechanisms in Nature: A Systematic Review. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158277. [PMID: 27454125 PMCID: PMC4959704 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In nature, shooting mechanisms are used for a variety of purposes, including prey capture, defense, and reproduction. This review offers insight into the working principles of shooting mechanisms in fungi, plants, and animals in the light of the specific functional demands that these mechanisms fulfill. METHODS We systematically searched the literature using Scopus and Web of Knowledge to retrieve articles about solid projectiles that either are produced in the body of the organism or belong to the body and undergo a ballistic phase. The shooting mechanisms were categorized based on the energy management prior to and during shooting. RESULTS Shooting mechanisms were identified with projectile masses ranging from 1·10-9 mg in spores of the fungal phyla Ascomycota and Zygomycota to approximately 10,300 mg for the ballistic tongue of the toad Bufo alvarius. The energy for shooting is generated through osmosis in fungi, plants, and animals or muscle contraction in animals. Osmosis can be induced by water condensation on the system (in fungi), or water absorption in the system (reaching critical pressures up to 15.4 atmospheres; observed in fungi, plants, and animals), or water evaporation from the system (reaching up to -197 atmospheres; observed in plants and fungi). The generated energy is stored as elastic (potential) energy in cell walls in fungi and plants and in elastic structures in animals, with two exceptions: (1) in the momentum catapult of Basidiomycota the energy is stored in a stalk (hilum) by compression of the spore and droplets and (2) in Sphagnum energy is mainly stored in compressed air. Finally, the stored energy is transformed into kinetic energy of the projectile using a catapult mechanism delivering up to 4,137 J/kg in the osmotic shooting mechanism in cnidarians and 1,269 J/kg in the muscle-powered appendage strike of the mantis shrimp Odontodactylus scyllarus. The launch accelerations range from 6.6g in the frog Rana pipiens to 5,413,000g in cnidarians, the launch velocities from 0.1 m/s in the fungal phylum Basidiomycota to 237 m/s in the mulberry Morus alba, and the launch distances from a few thousands of a millimeter in Basidiomycota to 60 m in the rainforest tree Tetraberlinia moreliana. The mass-specific power outputs range from 0.28 W/kg in the water evaporation mechanism in Basidiomycota to 1.97·109 W/kg in cnidarians using water absorption as energy source. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The magnitude of accelerations involved in shooting is generally scale-dependent with the smaller the systems, discharging the microscale projectiles, generating the highest accelerations. The mass-specific power output is also scale dependent, with smaller mechanisms being able to release the energy for shooting faster than larger mechanisms, whereas the mass-specific work delivered by the shooting mechanism is mostly independent of the scale of the shooting mechanism. Higher mass-specific work-values are observed in osmosis-powered shooting mechanisms (≤ 4,137 J/kg) when compared to muscle-powered mechanisms (≤ 1,269 J/kg). The achieved launch parameters acceleration, velocity, and distance, as well as the associated delivered power output and work, thus depend on the working principle and scale of the shooting mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimée Sakes
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Marleen van der Wiel
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Paul W. J. Henselmans
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Johan L. van Leeuwen
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Dimitra Dodou
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Paul Breedveld
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
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19
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Abstract
Thousands of basidiomycete fungal species rely on mushroom spores to spread across landscapes. It has long been thought that spores depend on favorable winds for dispersal--that active control of spore dispersal by the parent fungus is limited to an impulse delivered to the spores to carry them clear of the gill surface. Here we show that evaporative cooling of the air surrounding the pileus creates convective airflows capable of carrying spores at speeds of centimeters per second. Convective cells can transport spores from gaps that may be only 1 cm high and lift spores 10 cm or more into the air. This work reveals how mushrooms tolerate and even benefit from crowding and explains their high water needs.
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20
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Hassett MO, Fischer MWF, Money NP. Mushrooms as Rainmakers: How Spores Act as Nuclei for Raindrops. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140407. [PMID: 26509436 PMCID: PMC4624964 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Millions of tons of fungal spores are dispersed in the atmosphere every year. These living cells, along with plant spores and pollen grains, may act as nuclei for condensation of water in clouds. Basidiospores released by mushrooms form a significant proportion of these aerosols, particularly above tropical forests. Mushroom spores are discharged from gills by the rapid displacement of a droplet of fluid on the cell surface. This droplet is formed by the condensation of water on the spore surface stimulated by the secretion of mannitol and other hygroscopic sugars. This fluid is carried with the spore during discharge, but evaporates once the spore is airborne. Using environmental electron microscopy, we have demonstrated that droplets reform on spores in humid air. The kinetics of this process suggest that basidiospores are especially effective as nuclei for the formation of large water drops in clouds. Through this mechanism, mushroom spores may promote rainfall in ecosystems that support large populations of ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic basidiomycetes. Our research heightens interest in the global significance of the fungi and raises additional concerns about the sustainability of forests that depend on heavy precipitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maribeth O. Hassett
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056, United States of America
| | - Mark W. F. Fischer
- Department of Chemistry and Physical Science, Mount St. Joseph University, Cincinnati, Ohio 45233, United States of America
| | - Nicholas P. Money
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056, United States of America
- Western Program, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056, United States of America
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21
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Ianiri G, Abhyankar R, Kihara A, Idnurm A. Phs1 and the synthesis of very long chain Fatty acids are required for ballistospore formation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e105147. [PMID: 25148260 PMCID: PMC4141788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The production and dissemination of spores by members of the fungal kingdom is a major reason for the success of this eukaryotic lineage in colonizing most terrestrial ecosystems. Ballistospores are a type of spore produced by basidiomycete fungi, such as the mushrooms and plant pathogenic rusts. These spores are forcefully discharged through a unique liquid-drop fusion mechanism, enabling the aerosolization of these particles that can contribute to plant disease and human allergies. The genes responsible for this process are unknown due to technical challenges in studying many of the fungi that produce ballistospores. Here, we applied newly-developed techniques in a forward genetic screen to identify genes required for ballistospore formation or function in a tractable red yeast, a species of Sporobolomyces. One strain bearing a mutation in the PHS1 gene was identified as a mirror mutant. PHS1 encodes 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratase required for the third step in very long chain fatty acid biosynthesis. The Sporobolomyces PHS1 gene complements the essential functions of a S. cerevisiae phs1 mutant. The Sporobolomyces phs1 mutant strain has less dehydratase activity and a reduction in very long chain fatty acids compared to wild type. The mutant strain also exhibits sensitivity to cell wall stress agents and loss of shooting due to a delay in ballistospore formation, indicating that the role of Phs1 in spore dissemination may be primarily in cellular integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Ianiri
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
- Dipartimento di Agricoltura, Ambiente e Alimenti, Facoltà di Agraria, Università degli Studi del Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Ritika Abhyankar
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
- Pembroke Hill School, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Akio Kihara
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Alexander Idnurm
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
- School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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22
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Davidson FA, Boswell GP, Fischer MWF, Heaton L, Hofstadler D, Roper M. Mathematical modelling of fungal growth and function. IMA Fungus 2011; 2:33-7. [PMID: 22679586 PMCID: PMC3317364 DOI: 10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This contribution is based on the six presentations given at the Special Interest Group meeting on Mathematical modelling of fungal growth and function held during IMC9. The topics covered aspects of fungal growth ranging across several orders of magnitude of spatial and temporal scales from the bio-mechanics of spore ejection, vesicle trafficking and hyphal tip growth to the form and function of mycelial networks. Each contribution demonstrated an interdisciplinary approach to questions at specific scales. Collectively, they represented a significant advance in the multi-scale understanding of fungal biology.
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23
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Peintner U, Dämmrich F. Tomentella alpina and other tomentelloid taxa fruiting in a glacier valley. Mycol Prog 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s11557-010-0734-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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24
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Solving the aerodynamics of fungal flight: how air viscosity slows spore motion. Fungal Biol 2010; 114:943-8. [PMID: 21036338 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2010.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 08/31/2010] [Accepted: 09/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Viscous drag causes the rapid deceleration of fungal spores after high-speed launches and limits discharge distance. Stokes' law posits a linear relationship between drag force and velocity. It provides an excellent fit to experimental measurements of the terminal velocity of free-falling spores and other instances of low Reynolds number motion (Re<1). More complex, non-linear drag models have been devised for movements characterized by higher Re, but their effectiveness for modeling the launch of fast-moving fungal spores has not been tested. In this paper, we use data on spore discharge processes obtained from ultra-high-speed video recordings to evaluate the effects of air viscosity predicted by Stokes' law and a commonly used non-linear drag model. We find that discharge distances predicted from launch speeds by Stokes' model provide a much better match to measured distances than estimates from the more complex drag model. Stokes' model works better over a wide range projectile sizes, launch speeds, and discharge distances, from microscopic mushroom ballistospores discharged at <1 m s(-1) over a distance of <0.1mm (Re<1.0), to macroscopic sporangia of Pilobolus that are launched at >10 m s(-1) and travel as far as 2.5m (Re>100).
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25
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Fischer MWF, Stolze-Rybczynski JL, Cui Y, Money NP. How far and how fast can mushroom spores fly? Physical limits on ballistospore size and discharge distance in the Basidiomycota. Fungal Biol 2010; 114:669-75. [PMID: 20835365 PMCID: PMC2936274 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2010.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Active discharge of basidiospores in most species of Basidiomycota is powered by the rapid movement of a droplet of fluid, called Buller's drop, over the spore surface. This paper is concerned with the operation of the launch mechanism in species with the largest and smallest ballistospores. Aleurodiscus gigasporus (Russulales) produces the largest basidiospores on record. The maximum dimensions of the spores, 34 × 28 µm, correspond to a volume of 14 pL and to an estimated mass of 17 ng. The smallest recorded basidiospores are produced by Hyphodontia latitans (Hymenochaetales). Minimum spore dimensions in this species, 3.5 × 0.5 µm, correspond to a volume of 0.5 fL and mass of 0.6 pg. Neither species has been studied using high-speed video microscopy, but this technique was used to examine ballistospore discharge in species with spores of similar sizes (slightly smaller than A. gigasporus and slightly larger than those of H. latitans). Extrapolation of velocity measurements from these fungi provided estimates of discharge distances ranging from a maximum of almost 2 mm in A. gigasporus to a minimum of 4 µm in H. latitans. These are, respectively, the longest and shortest predicted discharge distances for ballistospores. Limitations to the distances traveled by basidiospores are discussed in relation to the mechanics of the discharge process and the types of fruit-bodies from which the spores are released.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W F Fischer
- Department of Chemistry and Physical Science, College of Mount St Joseph, Cincinnati, OH 45233, USA
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26
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Fischer MWF, Money NP. Why mushrooms form gills: efficiency of the lamellate morphology. Fungal Biol 2009; 114:57-63. [PMID: 20965062 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycres.2009.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Accepted: 10/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Gilled mushrooms are produced by multiple orders within the Agaricomycetes. Some species form a single array of unbranched radial gills beneath their caps, many others produce multiple files of lamellulae between the primary gills, and branched gills are also common. In this largely theoretical study we modeled the effects of different gill arrangements on the total surface area for spore production. Relative to spore production over a flat surface, gills achieve a maximum 20-fold increase in surface area. The branching of gills produces the same increase in surface area as the formation of free-standing lamellulae (short gills). The addition of lamellulae between every second gill would offer a slightly greater increase in surface area in comparison to the addition of lamellulae between every pair of opposing gills, but this morphology does not appear in nature. Analysis of photographs of mushrooms demonstrates an excellent match between natural gill arrangements and configurations predicted by our model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W F Fischer
- Department of Chemistry and Physical Science, College of Mount St Joseph, Cincinnati, OH 45233, USA
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