Concordance of multigene genealogy along with morphological evidence unveils five novel species and two new records of boletoid mushrooms (fungi) from India

Agaricales, Russulales and Boletales are dominant orders among the wild mushrooms in Basidiomycota. Boletaceae, one of the major functional elements in terrestrial ecosystem and mostly represented by ectomycorrhizal symbionts of trees in Indian Himalaya and adjoining hills, are extraordinarily diverse and represented by numerous genera and species which are unexplored or poorly known. Therefore, their hidden diversity is yet to be revealed. Extensive macrofungal exploration by the authors to different parts of Himalaya and surroundings, followed by through morphological studies and multigene molecular phylogeny lead to the discovery of five new species of wild mushrooms: Leccinellum bothii sp. nov., Phylloporus himalayanus sp. nov., Phylloporus smithii sp. nov., Porphyrellus uttarakhandae sp. nov., and Retiboletus pseudoater sp. nov. Present communication deals with morphological details coupled with illustrations and phylogenetic inferences. Besides, Leccinellum sinoaurantiacum and Xerocomus rugosellus are also reported for the first time from this country.

Amanitins: The Most Poisonous Molecules of the Fungal World

Among the toxic metabolites of the fungal world, those that, due to their strong biological effect, can seriously (even fatally) damage the life processes of humans (and certain groups of animals) stand out. Amatoxin-containing mushrooms and the poisonings caused by them stand out from the higher fungi, the mushrooms. There are already historical data and records about such poisonings, but scientific research on the responsible molecules began in the middle of the last century. The goals of this review work are as follows: presentation of the cosmopolitan mushroom species that produce amanitins (which are known from certain genera of four mushroom families), an overview of the chemical structure and specific properties of amanitins, a summary of the analytical methods applicable to them, a presentation of the "medical history" of poisonings, and a summary of the therapeutic methods used so far. The main responsible molecules (the amanitins) are bicyclic octapeptides, whose structure is characterized by an outer loop and an inner loop (bridge). It follows from the unusual properties of amanitins, especially their extreme stability (against heat, the acidic pH of the medium, and their resistance to human, and animal, digestive enzymes), that they are absorbed almost without hindrance and quickly transported to our vital organs. Adding to the problems is that accidental consumption causes no noticeable symptoms for a few hours (or even 24-36 h) after consumption, but the toxins already damage the metabolism of the target organs and the synthesis of nucleic acid and proteins. The biochemical catastrophe of the cells causes irreversible structural changes, which lead to necrotic damage (in the liver and kidneys) and death. The scientific topicality of the review is due to the recent publication of new data on the probable antidote molecule (ICR: indocyanine green) against amanitins. Further research can provide a new foundation for the therapeutic treatment of poisonings, and the toxicological situation, which currently still poses a deadly threat, could even be tamed into a controllable problem. We also draw attention to the review conclusions, as well as the mycological and social tasks related to amanitin poisonings (prevention of poisonings).

Phylogenetic analysis of the distribution of deadly amatoxins among the little brown mushrooms of the genus Galerina

Some but not all of the species of ’little brown mushrooms’ in the genus Galerina contain deadly amatoxins at concentrations equaling those in the death cap, Amanita phalloides. However, Galerina’s ~300 species are notoriously difficult to identify by morphology, and the identity of toxin-containing specimens has not been verified with DNA barcode sequencing. This left open the question of which Galerina species contain toxins and which do not. We selected specimens for toxin analysis using a preliminary phylogeny of the fungal DNA barcode region, the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry, we analyzed amatoxins from 70 samples of Galerina and close relatives, collected in western British Columbia, Canada. To put the presence of toxins into a phylogenetic context, we included the 70 samples in maximum likelihood analyses of 438 taxa, using ITS, RNA polymerase II second largest subunit gene (RPB2), and nuclear large subunit ribosomal RNA (LSU) gene sequences. We sequenced barcode DNA from types where possible to aid with applications of names. We detected amatoxins only in the 24 samples of the G. marginata s.l. complex in the Naucoriopsis clade. We delimited 56 putative Galerina species using Automatic Barcode Gap Detection software. Phylogenetic analysis showed moderate to strong support for Galerina infrageneric clades Naucoriopsis, Galerina, Tubariopsis, and Sideroides. Mycenopsis appeared paraphyletic and included Gymnopilus. Amatoxins were not detected in 46 samples from Galerina clades outside of Naucoriopsis or from outgroups. Our data show significant quantities of toxin in all mushrooms tested from the G. marginata s.l. complex. DNA barcoding revealed consistent accuracy in morphology-based identification of specimens to G. marginata s.l. complex. Prompt and careful morphological identification of ingested G. marginata s.l. has the potential to improve patient outcomes by leading to fast and appropriate treatment.

Wild food plants and fungi sold in the markets of Luang Prabang, Lao PDR

BACKGROUND

Open air markets hold an important position for ethnobiologists. In Southeast Asia, they are seriously understudied, in spite of their incredible biocultural diversity. In order to fill this gap we recorded plants and fungi sold in the open air markets of Luang Prabang, Lao PDR.

METHODS

The markets were visited 38 times in four seasons: the dry season, early monsoon, mid-monsoon, and end-of-monsoon, at least 8 times per season. All items were photographed and voucher specimens were collected. Fungi were identified using DNA barcoding techniques.

RESULTS

We recorded 110 species of wild edible plants and 54 species of fungi, including 49 wild-collected species. The sold plants included 86 species of green vegetables, 18 species of fruits and 3 species of flowers. Products from woody species constitute around half of all taxa sold. These include the young shoots of tree leaves, which are used for salads-an interesting feature of Lao cuisine. A large number of extremely rare Russula, with no reference sequences represented in databases or even species unknown to science is present on sale in the markets.

CONCLUSIONS

Luang Prabang markets are some of the richest in species of wild edible plants and fungi in Asia, and indeed in the whole world. It is worth pointing out the exceptionally long list of wild edible mushrooms which are sold in Luang Prabang (and probably elsewhere in Laos). We view the Morning Market of Luang Prabang as a cultural treasure that unites the traditions of eating a large number of living species with very diverse flora and fauna. Measures should be taken to strike a balance between local foraging traditions and nature conservation priorities.

Optimized rapid and reliable identification of Tuber spp. by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Intentional substitution of food ingredients and misleading or false declarations of food products can lead to large economic damage in the food sector. An example is the truffle, an edible mushroom, with different species having a similar morphology. This makes it difficult to distinguish, for example, the high-quality black Périgord truffle from Europe and the lower quality black truffle from China. To detect and prevent potential food fraud and to be able to carry out quality assurance measures, the demand for suitable, fast and cost-effective examination methods for individual foodstuffs is increasing. In this article we present a method based on matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), which can differentiate and identify commercial truffles. For this purpose, highly specific mass spectrometric fingerprints of 73 truffle tubers from eight different species were generated. These were checked and compared under the criteria of a score evaluation, their protein spectra, and cluster formation. Standard laboratory equipment was used for this purpose, so that apart from the MALDI-TOF no expensive equipment or reagents were required. The study shows that the MALDI-TOF MS method can distinguish and identify Tuber spp. reliably, quickly and efficiently and can therefore be used for quality assurance and fraud control in the truffle market.

Toxic Potential of Traditionally Consumed Mushroom Species-A Controversial Continuum with Many Unanswered Questions

Mushroom poisonings remain a significant cause of emergency medicine. While there are well-known species, such as Amanita phalloides, causing life-threatening poisonings, there is also accumulating evidence of poisonings related to species that have been considered edible and are traditionally consumed. In particular, the Tricholoma equestre group was reported to cause myotoxicity. In addition, particular wild mushrooms that are traditionally consumed especially in Asia and Eastern Europe have been subject to suspicion due to possible mutagenicity. Hitherto, the causative agents of these effects often remain to be determined, and toxicity studies have yielded contradictory results. Due to this, there is no consensus about the safety of these species. The issue is further complicated by difficulties in species identification and other possible sources of toxicity, such as microbiological contamination during storage, leading to sometimes opposite conclusions about the edibility of a species. This review focuses on existing data about these types of mushroom poisonings, including the still sparse knowledge about the causative chemical agents. In addition, the aim is to initiate a meta-discussion about the issue and to give some suggestions about how to approach the situation from the viewpoint of the collector, the researcher, and the practicing physician.

Folk classification of wild mushrooms from San Isidro Buensuceso, Tlaxcala, Central Mexico

BACKGROUND

An ethnomycological study was conducted to describe the fungus concept and the traditional fungus classification system for the Nahuas of San Isidro Buensuceso, in central Mexico. The study which provides information on the co-existence of various forms of classification, based on both cultural and biological characteristics.

METHODS

The research included conducting community interviews and forest forays in the company of mushroom pickers. The triad technique, pile sorting, and fresh mushroom sampling methods were used. Traditional names were analyzed to describe the Nahua classification system for fungi.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The triad technique with non-utilitarian stimuli allowed the fungi to be identified as an independent group of plants and animals. The Nahua people of San Isidro classify fungi primarily based on their use, where they grow, and by humoral characteristics. The analysis of the names revealed a classification based on the criteria proposed by Brent Berlin. This study identified the detailed knowledge of fungi in this Nahua community. The criteria used for the recognition of the species are very reliable, since they use organoleptic, ecological, phenological, and morphological characteristics.

Classification of multicategory edible fungi based on the infrared spectra of caps and stalks

As a characteristic edible fungus with a high nutritional value and medicinal effect, the Bachu mushroom has a broad market. To distinguish among Bachu mushrooms with high value and other fungi effectively and accurately, as well as to explore a universal identification method, this study proposed a method to identify Bachu mushrooms by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) combined with machine learning. In this experiment, two kinds of common edible mushrooms, Lentinus edodes and club fungi, were selected and classified with Bachu mushrooms. Due to the different distribution of nutrients in the caps and stalks, the caps and stalks were studied in this experiment. By comparing the average normalized infrared spectra of the caps and stalks of the three types of fungi, we found differences in their infrared spectra, indicating that the latter can be used to classify and identify the three types of fungi. We also used machine learning to process the spectral data. The overall steps of data processing are as follows: use partial least squares (PLS) to extract spectral features, select the appropriate characteristic number, use different classification algorithms for classification, and finally determine the best algorithm according to the classification results. Among them, the basis of selecting the characteristic number was the cumulative variance interpretation rate. To improve the reliability of the experimental results, this study also used the classification results to verify the feasibility. The classification algorithms used in this study were the support vector machine (SVM), backpropagation neural network (BPNN) and k-nearest neighbors (KNN) algorithm. The results showed that the three algorithms achieved good results in the multivariate classification of the caps and stalks data. Moreover, the cumulative variance explanation rate could be used to select the characteristic number. Finally, by comparing the classification results of the three algorithms, the classification effect of KNN was found to be the best. Additionally, the classification results were as follows: according to the caps data classification, the accuracy was 99.06%; according to the stalks data classification, the accuracy was 99.82%. This study showed that infrared spectroscopy combined with a machine learning algorithm has the potential to be applied to identify Bachu mushrooms and the cumulative variance explanation rate can be used to select the characteristic number. This method can also be used to identify other types of edible fungi and has a broad application prospect.

Mineral Composition of Three Popular Wild Mushrooms from Poland

The region of Warmia and Mazury is characterized by the special diversity and richness of its natural environment, including large forest complexes, where wild mushrooms are commonly collected and consumed. This study aimed to examine the differences in mineral content (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese) of three species of mushrooms collected in north-eastern Poland. The research material consisted of dried samples of king bolete (Boletus edulis), bay bolete (Boletus badius), and chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) collected in the region of Warmia and Mazury. The content of the above-mentioned elements in mushroom fruit bodies was determined using the flame atomic absorption spectrometry (acetylene-air flame) and the emission technique (acetylene-air flame) for sodium and potassium. For the majority of micro- and macroelements, the studies confirmed the presence of significant differences in their content, depending on the species of fungi. The studied mushrooms cover a significant percentage of daily demand for many of the minerals. This concerns mainly copper, zinc, and potassium, although none of the species was a good source of calcium and sodium. Among the analyzed mushrooms, chanterelle is the best source of most minerals.

Genome sequencing and functional characterization of a Dictyopanus pusillus fungal enzymatic extract offers a promising alternative for lignocellulose pretreatment of oil palm residues

The pretreatment of biomass remains a critical requirement for bio-renewable fuel production from lignocellulose. Although current processes primarily involve chemical and physical approaches, the biological breakdown of lignin using enzymes and microorganisms is quickly becoming an interesting eco-friendly alternative to classical processes. As a result, bioprospection of wild fungi from naturally occurring lignin-rich sources remains a suitable method to uncover and isolate new species exhibiting ligninolytic activity. In this study, wild species of white rot fungi were collected from Colombian forests based on their natural wood decay ability and high capacity to secrete oxidoreductases with high affinity for phenolic polymers such as lignin. Based on high activity obtained from solid-state fermentation using a lignocellulose source from oil palm as matrix, we describe the isolation and whole-genome sequencing of Dictyopanus pusillus, a wild basidiomycete fungus exhibiting ABTS oxidation as an indication of laccase activity. Functional characterization of a crude enzymatic extract identified laccase activity as the main enzymatic contributor to fungal extracts, an observation supported by the identification of 13 putative genes encoding for homologous laccases in the genome. To the best of our knowledge, this represents the first report of an enzymatic extract exhibiting laccase activity in the Dictyopanus genera, offering means to exploit this species and its enzymes for the delignification process of lignocellulosic by-products from oil palm.

Mushroom DNA barcoding project: Sequencing a segment of the 28S rRNA gene

DNA barcoding is an important molecular methodology for species identification that was developed over the last two decades and it should be covered in the biology bachelor curriculum. Here, we present an example of DNA barcoding by sequencing a segment of the 28S nuclear ribosomal large subunit rRNA gene of wild mushrooms and framing the education in a project form for undergraduate students in biology. Students perform this project in 6-8 weeks, which also includes preparing a poster, writing a report and presenting a paper related to the work in a journal club format. First, fieldwork in the Netherlands was carried out, during which students collected mushrooms under supervision of a professional mycologist with the goal to (a) verify morphologically based identifications with a molecular method and (b) assess phylogenetic relationships of the different species collected. Next, DNA extractions and quantitation were performed, PCR amplification was done, and samples were sent out for Sanger sequencing. Students aligned and analyzed the sequences using BLAST and Geneious and subsequently created a phylogenetic tree. In case of collecting DNA barcodes of an earlier sequenced species, students could upload the data to a repository established for facilitation of future research projects. The method described is very robust, reagents and equipment are readily available, and costs are relatively low. In addition, the results can be compared to published fungal phylogenetic trees.

Bioactive Phytochemical Constituents of Wild Edible Mushrooms from Southeast Asia

Mushrooms have a long history of uses for their medicinal and nutritional properties. They have been consumed by people for thousands of years. Edible mushrooms are collected in the wild or cultivated worldwide. Recently, mushroom extracts and their secondary metabolites have acquired considerable attention due to their biological effects, which include antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and immunomodulatory activities. Thus, in addition to phytochemists, nutritionists and consumers are now deeply interested in the phytochemical constituents of mushrooms, which provide beneficial effects to humans in terms of health promotion and reduction of disease-related risks. In recent years, scientific reports on the nutritional, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of mushroom have been overwhelming. However, the bioactive compounds and biological properties of wild edible mushrooms growing in Southeast Asian countries have been rarely described. In this review, the bioactive compounds isolated from 25 selected wild edible mushrooms growing in Southeast Asia have been reviewed, together with their biological activities. Phytoconstituents with antioxidant and antimicrobial activities have been highlighted. Several evidences indicate that mushrooms are good sources for natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agents.

Ethnomycological study of edible and medicinal mushrooms in Menge District, Asossa Zone, Benshangul Gumuz Region, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Menge District has long been inhabited by people who have a long tradition of using wild mushrooms mainly as food, source of income, and medicine. Extensive utilization of wild edible mushrooms (WEM) coupled with an ever-increasing population growth, deforestation, and agricultural land expansion threatens fungal diversity and WEM in the area. Hence, this study is aimed at documenting and analyzing the ethnomycological knowledge of the people in order to preserve the dwindling WEM wealth and associated indigenous knowledge.

METHODS

Ethnomycological data were collected using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, participant observations, and walk-in-the-woods methods. Statistical tests were used to compare the indigenous knowledge and practice of wild mushroom among different informant categories using One-way ANOVA and t tests.

RESULTS

A total of 20 ethnomycologically important wild mushroom species belonging to ten genera and six families were identified, of which 15 were reported to be edible in the District. The family Lyophyllaceae was represented by the highest number of species (nine species, 45%) followed by Agaricaceae (seven species, 35%) and each of the remaining four families had single species representation. Significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed on the mean number of WEM reported among different group of respondents. Wild edible mushroom collection habit and practice was significantly (P < 0.05) influenced by gender, age, and literacy level. The output of preference ranking exercise indicated Termitomyces schimperi was ranked first followed by Termitomyces letestui, Termitomyces microcarpus, and Termitomyces eurhizusas as the most preferred edible mushrooms respectively.

CONCLUSION

The present study shows that Menge District is rich in wild mushroom diversity and associated indigenous knowledge. However, anthropogenic factors together with loss of indigenous knowledge and very poor conservation efforts threaten the survival of economically and ecologically important mushrooms in the area. Thus, complementary in situ and ex situ mushroom conservation strategy is highly recommended.

Complementary molecular methods reveal comprehensive phylogenetic diversity integrating inconspicuous lineages of early-diverged wood-decaying mushrooms

Among terrestrial microorganisms, mushroom-forming fungi have been relatively well investigated, however the inconspicuous strains may be overlooked by conventional visual investigations causing underestimation of their phylogenetic diversity. Herein, we sought to obtain a comprehensive phylogenetic diversity profile for the early-diverging wood-decaying mushrooms Dacrymycetes, using an approach that combines fruiting-body collection, culture isolation, and environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding of decaying branches. Among the 28 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) detected during a three-year investigation, 10 each were from fruiting bodies and cultured mycelia and 27 were detected as eDNA sequences. eDNA metabarcoding revealed various lineages across the Dacrymycetes phylogeny. Alternatively, fruiting-body and culture surveys uncovered only ~50% of the OTUs detected through eDNA metabarcoding, suggesting that several inconspicuous or difficult-to-isolate strains are latent in the environment. Further, eDNA and culture surveys revealed early-diverging clades that were not identified in the fruiting-body survey. Thus, eDNA and culture-based techniques can uncover inconspicuous yet phylogenetically important mushroom lineages that may otherwise be overlooked via typical visual investigations.

Mitochondrial genome in Hypsizygus marmoreus and its evolution in Dikarya

BACKGROUND

Hypsizygus marmoreus, a high value commercialized edible mushroom is widely cultivated in East Asia, and has become one of the most popular edible mushrooms because of its rich nutritional and medicinal value. Mitochondria are vital organelles, and play various essential roles in eukaryotic cells.

RESULTS

In this study, we provide the Hypsizygus marmoreus mitochondrial (mt) genome assembly: the circular sequence is 102,752 bp in size and contains 15 putative protein-coding genes, 2 ribosomal RNAs subunits and 28 tRNAs. We compared the mt genomes of the 27 fungal species in the Pezizomycotina and Basidiomycotina subphyla, with the results revealing that H. marmoreus is a sister to Tricholoma matsutake and the phylogenetic distribution of this fungus based on the mt genome. Phylogenetic analysis shows that Ascomycetes mitochondria started to diverge earlier than that of Basidiomycetes and supported the robustness of the hyper metric tree. The fungal sequences are highly polymorphic and gene order varies significantly in the dikarya data set, suggesting a correlation between the gene order and divergence time in the fungi mt genome. To detect the mt genome variations in H. marmoreus, we analyzed the mtDNA sequences of 48 strains. The phylogeny and variation sited type statistics of H. marmoreus provide clear-cut evidence for the existence of four well-defined cultivations isolated lineages, suggesting female ancestor origin of H. marmoreus. Furthermore, variations on two loci were further identified to be molecular markers for distinguishing the subgroup containing 32 strains of other strains. Fifteen conserved protein-coding genes of mtDNAs were analyzed, with fourteen revealed to be under purifying selection in the examined fungal species, suggesting the rapid evolution was caused by positive selection of this gene.

CONCLUSIONS

Our studies have provided new reference mt genomes and comparisons between species and intraspecies with other strains, and provided future perspectives for assessing diversity and origin of H. marmoreus.

Mushroom intoxication, a fatal condition in Romanian children: Two case reports

RATIONALE

Approximately 5000 species of wild mushroom are reported worldwide, of which 100 are documented as poisonous and <10 are fatal. The clinical picture of patients with wild mushroom intoxication depends mostly on the type of ingested mushroom, ranging from mild gastrointestinal symptoms to organ failure and death.

PATIENT CONCERNS

We report 2 children, sister and brother admitted in our clinic for gastrointestinal symptoms: abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea after wild mushroom ingestion.

DIAGNOSIS

The laboratory tests revealed hepatic cytolysis syndrome, hyperbilirubinemia, impaired coagulation status, hypoalbuminemia, hypoglycemia, and electrolytic unbalances in both cases. Abdominal ultrasound showed hepatomegaly and ascites.

INTERVENTION

After admission, both cases received penicillin by vein, activated charcoal, liver protectors, glucose, and electrolytes perfusions. Nevertheless, their status worsened and required the transfer to the pediatric intensive care unit for appropriate supportive measure. Therefore, therapeutic plasma exchange was initiated along with N-acetyl cysteine and hemostatic drugs.

OUTCOMES

Despite all these therapeutic interventions, both cases developed hepatorenal syndrome and died after a couple of days from ingestion.

LESSONS

Mushroom poisoning remains a public health problem in developing countries. Preventable strategies and education regarding the consumption of wild type mushrooms are essential for decreasing the morbidity and mortality rates in these areas.

Mushroom hunting and consumption in twenty-first century post-industrial Sweden

BACKGROUND

The pre-industrial diet of the Swedish peasantry did not include mushrooms. In the 1830s, some academic mycologists started information campaigns to teach people about edible mushrooms. This propaganda met with sturdy resistance from rural people. Even at the beginning of the last century, mushrooms were still only being occasionally eaten, and mostly by the gentry. During the twentieth century, the Swedish urban middle class accepted mushrooms as food and were closely followed by the working-class people. A few individuals became connoisseurs, but most people limited themselves to one or two taxa. The chanterelle, Cantharellus cibarius Fr., was (and still is) the most popular species. It was easy to recognize, and if it was a good mushroom season and the mushroomer was industrious, considerable amounts could be harvested and preserved or, from the late 1950s, put in the freezer. The aim of this study is to review the historical background of the changes in attitude towards edible mushrooms and to record today's thriving interest in mushrooming in Sweden.

METHODS

A questionnaire was sent in October and November 2017 to record contemporary interest in and consumption of mushrooms in Sweden. In total, 100 questionnaires were returned. The qualitative analysis includes data extracted from participant and non-participant observations, including observations on activities related to mushroom foraging posted on social media platforms, revealed through open-ended interviews and in written sources. With the help of historical sources, including earlier studies and ethnographical data collections, a diachronic analysis is given to describe the changes over time.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During the last 100 to 140 years, Sweden has changed from a mycophobic to a mycophilic society with a passionate interest in the utilization of wild mushrooms. In the late twentieth century, various social institutions connected with mushroom hunting evolved. Evening classes, study circles, clubs, exhibitions, consultants, and a wide array of handbooks promoted this interest. In the early twenty-first century, mushrooming has become widely accepted, especially among the middle class, but also among Swedes in general. The so-called hipster-generation, born in the 1990s, harvests mushrooms due to their interest in producing their own food. This group often uses social media to identify edible species. Most people who go mushrooming gather only a few species. There are, however, some dedicated individuals who have become hobby specialists and who know a wide diversity of taxa. A few study participants reported that they were afraid of not being able to distinguish between poisonous fungi species and edible ones and therefore refrain from picking any wild mushrooms at all. However, they still consume cultivated mushrooms, such as Agaricus bisporus (J.E. Lange) Imbach, bought in grocery stores or served in cafes and restaurants.

CONCLUSION

Swedish society has changed rapidly during the last decades and so has the interest in mushrooming among its members. Throughout the second part of the twentieth century, the flow of information about mushrooms has continued through lecturers, courses, media, exhibitions, and even associations. Walking in forestland is also an important leisure activity for many urban Swedes, and in the early twenty-first century, mushrooming has also become a thriving pastime among people with an urban lifestyle.

Ethnomycological knowledge among Kaqchikel, indigenous Maya people of Guatemalan Highlands

BACKGROUND

The Guatemalan Highlands is a region of great but so far poorly known mycological diversity. People living in this area have long used wild fungi as a source of food and income. However, our knowledge of the ethnomycological practices of the Mayan peoples of Guatemala is still rudimental, especially if compared with information reported for the neighboring region of Mexico. Among the main indigenous groups of the Maya people inhabiting the highlands of Central Guatemala, stand the Kaqchikel, accounting for nearly 8% of the entire Guatemalan population. The main aim of this study was to record the traditional knowledge and use of edible wild mushrooms by inhabitants of the municipality of San Juan Sacatepéquez that lies at the heart of the Kaqchikel area in the central highlands of Guatemala, also describing the relevant selling practices and dynamics. A secondary aim was to compare the diversity and composition of the mushroom assemblage offered at the market with the macrofungal diversity of woods in the area.

METHODOLOGY

This study is the result of 4 years of ethnomycological research, conducted through continuous visits to the municipal market and focused interviews with collectors and vendors. Field sampling in pine-oak forested areas surrounding San Juan Sacatepéquez, from where the mushrooms sold at the market are foraged, were also conducted, in the presence of local collectors.

RESULTS

The results show a significant richness of species sold in the market, a network of commerce of purchase, sale, and resale of several species, with relatively stable prices, and knowledge about edible and inedible species that is transmitted mainly within the family nucleus. The business of selling mushrooms in the market is an exclusive activity of women, who are supplied by collectors or by other vendors. Fungi are sold and bought only as food, while no consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms or medicinal mushrooms was recorded. Several species of Amanita, Cantharellus, Boletus, Lactarius, and Russula were those most commercialized in the 4 years of the study, but we also spotted fungi never reported before as consumed in the country, including Gastropila aff. fumosa (= Calvatia fumosa) and several species of Cortinarius. Field sampling in nearby pine-oak forests confirmed an elevated local macrofungal diversity.

CONCLUSION

Our study unveiled the contemporary wealth of Kaqchikel culture for what concerns mushrooms, demonstrating that mushrooms continue to be culturally and economically important for these communities despite the erosion of traditional knowledge. Our results also confirmed the need to investigate in greater detail the Guatemalan mycodiversity that is vast and poorly known.

Variation of heavy metal contamination between mushroom species in the Copperbelt province, Zambia: are the people at risk?

BACKGROUND

Heavy metal contamination in mushrooms and the associated health risk are unknown in Zambia. We studied seven heavy metals and 23 mushroom species and interviewed 400 people.

RESULTS

Mushrooms were found to contain substantial concentrations of Cu (894.4 ± 267.9 µg g^-1 ) and Fe (998.4 ± 454.0 µg g^-1 ). Significant differences in transfer factors of metals occurred between mushroom species (F_11,66  = 5.36, P < 0.001). The most efficient were L. kabansus (for Zn and Ni), A. miomboensis (for Cu and Fe) and T. clypeatus (for Mn, Pb and Co). These species were also among the most preferred mushrooms for consumption based on the interviews conducted. Although 60% of the mushrooms observed were edible, only 20% were frequently consumed during the mushroom season. High positive correlations observed between soils and mushrooms suggest that contamination in mushrooms increases with soil pollution. The estimated daily intake of metals and the target hazard quotient through mushroom consumption were found to be significantly influenced by mushroom species (F_11,66  = 38.8, P < 0.001) suggesting that the level of exposure to heavy metals depends on the species of mushroom consumed.

CONCLUSIONS

The study has revealed that heavy metal concentrations in mushrooms exceed permissible limits and vary between species. Transfer efficiency also varies between mushroom species and contamination in mushrooms increases with soil pollution. The fact that concentrations of metals in soil were significantly high, the risk of exposure through mushroom consumption and possibly soil ingestion is even higher. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Genome Sequencing Illustrates the Genetic Basis of the Pharmacological Properties of Gloeostereum incarnatum

Gloeostereum incarnatum is a precious edible mushroom that is widely grown in Asia and known for its useful medicinal properties. Here, we present a high-quality genome of G. incarnatum using the single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing platform. The G. incarnatum genome, which is the first complete genome to be sequenced in the family Cyphellaceae, was 38.67 Mbp, with an N50 of 3.5 Mbp, encoding 15,251 proteins. Based on our phylogenetic analysis, the Cyphellaceae diverged ~174 million years ago. Several genes and gene clusters associated with lignocellulose degradation, secondary metabolites, and polysaccharide biosynthesis were identified in G. incarnatum, and compared with other medicinal mushrooms. In particular, we identified two terpenoid-associated gene clusters, each containing a gene encoding a sesterterpenoid synthase adjacent to a gene encoding a cytochrome P450 enzyme. These clusters might participate in the biosynthesis of incarnal, a known bioactive sesterterpenoid produced by G. incarnatum. Through a transcriptomic analysis comparing the G. incarnatum mycelium and fruiting body, we also demonstrated that the genes associated with terpenoid biosynthesis were generally upregulated in the mycelium, while those associated with polysaccharide biosynthesis were generally upregulated in the fruiting body. This study provides insights into the genetic basis of the medicinal properties of G. incarnatum, laying a framework for future characterization of bioactive proteins and pharmaceutical uses of this fungus.

Extreme levels of mycophilia documented in Mazovia, a region of Poland

BACKGROUND

The paper presents documentation of the traditional use of wild edible mushrooms in Mazovia (33,900 km²), a region of Poland.

METHODS

A total of 695 semi-structured interviews were carried out among local informants in 38 localities proportionally distributed throughout the study area (one locality approximately every 30 km), asking which mushrooms they collected and how. The species utilized were identified using visual props, morphological identification of voucher specimens, and DNA barcoding.

RESULTS

Altogether, 92 taxa identified to the species or genus level were recorded, among them 76 species used as food, 21 taxa known as toxic, and 11 taxa used for non-culinary purposes. Out of 76 identified edible fungi species, 47% (36 species) were identified using ITS DNA barcode method. Eleven of them were identified exclusively by molecular analysis. The mean number of edible taxa mentioned per interview was 9.5. Two species new to the mycobiota of Poland, Hydnum ellipsosporum and Paxillus cuprinus, were found. Frequent interaction with mushroom collectors enabled the transcription of local folk taxonomy into proper taxonomic classification and the definition of changes in local preferences concerning wild fungi collection.

CONCLUSIONS

The list of species utilized is the longest regional list of edible mushrooms ever recorded during ethnomycological field research, putting the inhabitants of the studied region at the top of the mycophilia spectrum.

Morphological and molecular characterization of coprinoid fungi newly recorded for the mycobiota of Iran

Twenty-five specimens of coprinoid fungi were collected during an ongoing survey of agaric fungi in Kermanshah Province, western Iran. The specimens were identified based on morphological characteristics and molecular analysis of internal transcribed spacer sequences. Five species of Coprinellus viz C. disseminates, C. flocculosus, C. micaceus, C. radians and C. xanthothrix, three species of Coprinopsis viz C. atramentaria, C. insignis and C. semitalis and two species of Coprinus viz C. pinetorum and C. sterquilinus were identified. Among the species identified in this research, three unreported species from Iran namely C. insignis, C. semitalis and C. pinetorum are reported. Detailed morphological descriptions and illustrations of this three newly-recorded species were provided here and their evolutionary relationships were presented by the constructing of a phylogenetic tree.

Cultural, economic, and ecological factors influencing management of wild plants and mushrooms interchanged in Purépecha markets of Mexico

BACKGROUND

Traditional markets outstandingly contribute to conservation of biocultural diversity, social relations, and cultural values. These markets reflect life strategies and forms people of a region interact with their biodiversity and territories, as well as traditional ecological knowledge and management practices. To understand the factors motivating plant and mushroom management, we analyzed the resources cultural and economic values, their role in people's subsistence, and the relation of these values with the resources spatial and temporal availability. Our study based on the supposition that traditional markets are settings of interchange of resources with the highest importance for people's life in a region. Also, that the cultural, economic, and ecological factors influence values of the resources, and the demand on them determine pressures on the most valuable resources which, when scarce, motivate management innovation, otherwise become extinct.

METHODS

We documented cultural, economic, and ecological aspects, as well as management techniques of wild and weedy plants and mushrooms interchanged in three traditional markets of the Pátzcuaro Lake region, in central-western Mexico. For doing that, from February 2015 to March 2018, we conducted 175 visits to markets and 89 semi-structured interviews to producers, gatherers, and sellers of wild and weedy plants and mushrooms. Based on participant observation and interviews, we identified variables related to culture, economic, and ecological aspects, as well as management regimes of resources and management systems, which were documented and used as indicators for quantitative analyses. Through principal components analyses (PCA), we determined the indexes of cultural and economic importance (ICEI), management intensity (IMI), and ecological risk (IR) of the resources studied. For conducting that, we classified plant and mushroom species according to their cultural, economic, ecological, and technological indicators, respectively. The score of the first principal component was considered as the index for each group of variables, respectively. To identify relations between cultural importance and risk, we performed linear regression analyses between ICEI and IR indexes.

RESULTS

We recorded 57 species of wild and weedy plants used as food, medicine, and ornamental, and 17 species of edible mushrooms. The variables with the highest weight in the ICEI are related to the need of a resource according to people, its recognizing, the number of communities and markets offering it in markets, its explicit preference expressed by people, the effort invested in obtaining it, and the form it is interchanged. Gathering is practiced in all mushrooms and wild and weedy plants from forests and agricultural areas; 11 species in addition receive 1 or more forms of management (enhancing, selective let standing, propagation through seeds or vegetative parts, transplantation, and/or protection). The management intensity and complexity are explained by variables related to management practices and systems. Plants receiving selective management have the higher management intensity. Silvicultural management (in situ management in forests) was recorded in all species of mushrooms, as well as in more than 80% of medicinal, ceremonial and ornamental plants, and in more than 50% of the edible plants. In agricultural systems, people manage more than 90% of the edible plants recorded to be under a management regime, 25% of the managed medicinal plants, and 30.7% of the managed ceremonial and ornamental plants. In homegardens, people manage 41.6% of the medicinal plants recorded and 26.6% of the edible plants, to have them available near home. Nearly 63% of the species interchanged in the markets studied are gathered in forests without any other management form. In this group are included all mushroom species, 61.5% of ceremonial/ornamental plants, 50% of medicinal, and 33.3% of edible plants. The linear regression between ICEI an IER is significantly negative for edible species with high management intensity R² = 0.505 (p = 0.0316), because of their management. But in medicinal and ornamental plants, the risk is high if the cultural importance increases, even when management practices like transplanting and propagation in homegardens are carried out.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional markets are settings of interchange of products, knowledge, and experiences, where the ongoing factors and processes motivating management innovation can be identified and documented. This approach allows documenting processes occurring at regional level but would be benefited from deeper studies at local level in communities.

Genetic diversity of Lepista nuda (Agaricales, Basidiomycota) in Northeast China as indicated by SRAP and ISSR markers

Lepista nuda is a popular wild edible mushroom that grows in China. In this study, we used ISSR and SRAP molecular markers to analyze the genetic diversity of 72 samples of L. nuda from eight populations in Northeast China. In total, six ISSR primers and five pairs of SRAP primers that produced clear and polymorphic banding profiles were selected for assessing L. nuda genetic diversity. The results revealed a high level of genetic variation among the 72 samples (94.4% polymorphism) but a low degree of gene flow among the populations. Among L. nuda populations, genetic distance was not correlated significantly with geographic distance. The antioxidant activity of the samples from each population was also tested and the result showed that all the selected samples had more than 60% DPPH scavenging activities. Nonetheless, the antioxidant activity diversity is not coincident with both the genetic diversity and the geographic distribution. The results indicate that ISSR and SRAP molecular markers are useful for studying the genetic diversity of L. nuda. The results also suggest that L. nuda populations in Northeast China require protection.

Sociodemographic differences in the cultural significance of edible and toxic mushrooms among Tsotsil towns in the Highlands of Chiapas, Mexico

BACKGROUND

Mushrooms are important forest resources, mostly as food, despite the serious health threat posed by toxic species. In the Highlands of Chiapas, numerous wild mushroom intoxications have been registered. While Chiapas has been vastly studied from an ethnomycological perspective, no certainty exists as to how nomenclature systems differentiate edible and toxic species, which species are most culturally significant, and whether sociodemographic factors relate to how well-known they are in the Highlands of Chiapas. This paper evaluates which are the most culturally significant edible and toxic wild mushroom species in seven Tsotsil communities from this region and whether differences exist in their knowledge relating to different sociodemographic subsets (gender, schooling, and occupation). The hypothesis that there is a difference in the number of species that people mention, as well as the number of times each ethno-taxon is mentioned, between people from different social groups was tested.

METHODS

With consent, 133 Tsotsil people from seven communities were interviewed. Interviews focused on local systematics and free listings of edible and toxic mushrooms. Qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed, including multivariate methods and non-parametric statistics.

RESULTS

Twenty-five edible and 15 toxic taxa were mentioned. Some directly correspond to Linneanean species, while others are subdifferentiated or supradifferentiated. Only 62% of the interviewees named toxic mushrooms. The most frequently mentioned edible taxa were Amanita hayalyuy and A. jacksoniii, Agaricus spp., and Armillaria mellea. The most frequently mentioned toxic species were Amanita muscaria, Suillellus luridus, and Russula emetica. Significant differences in the number of mentioned edible ethnotaxa were found only among different occupations and schooling. The models including schooling interacting with either gender or occupation are better supported. Significant differences in the number of times toxic ethnotaxa are mentioned were found only between men and women.

CONCLUSIONS

The Tsotsil region of the Highlands of Chiapas is where the most average mushroom species are recognized state-wide. Schooling and occupation seem most determinant for people to know more or less species of mushrooms, while gender appears irrelevant. People with no studies and field-related occupations name more species. Identification criteria to distinguish edible from toxic species seem to rest not on detailed recognition of the second set but precise knowledge of the first.

Traceability of Boletaceae mushrooms using data fusion of UV-visible and FTIR combined with chemometrics methods

BACKGROUND

Boletaceae mushrooms are wild-grown edible mushrooms that have high nutrition, delicious flavor and large economic value distributing in Yunnan Province, China. Traceability is important for the authentication and quality assessment of Boletaceae mushrooms. In this study, UV-visible and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopies were applied for traceability of 247 Boletaceae mushroom samples in combination with chemometrics.

RESULTS

Compared with a single spectroscopy technique, data fusion strategy can obviously improve the classification performance in partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and grid-search support vector machine (GS-SVM) models, for both species and geographical origin traceability. In addition, PLS-DA and GS-SVM models can provide 100.00% accuracy for species traceability and have reliable evaluation parameters. For geographical origin traceability, the accuracy of prediction in the PLS-DA model by data fusion was just 64.63%, but the GS-SVM model based on data fusion was 100.00%.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrated that the data fusion strategy of UV-visible and FTIR combined with GS-SVM could provide a higher synergic effect for traceability of Boletaceae mushrooms and have a good generalization ability for the comprehensive quality control and evaluation of similar foods. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

The genome and microbiome of a dikaryotic fungus (Inocybe terrigena, Inocybaceae) revealed by metagenomics

Recent advances in molecular methods have increased our understanding of various fungal symbioses. However, little is known about genomic and microbiome features of most uncultured symbiotic fungal clades. Here, we analysed the genome and microbiome of Inocybaceae (Agaricales, Basidiomycota), a largely uncultured ectomycorrhizal clade known to form symbiotic associations with a wide variety of plant species. We used metagenomic sequencing and assembly of dikaryotic fruiting-body tissues from Inocybe terrigena (Fr.) Kuyper, to classify fungal and bacterial genomic sequences, and obtained a nearly complete fungal genome containing 93% of core eukaryotic genes. Comparative genomics reveals that I. terrigena is more similar to ectomycorrhizal and brown rot fungi than to white rot fungi. The reduction in lignin degradation capacity has been independent from and significantly faster than in closely related ectomycorrhizal clades supporting that ectomycorrhizal symbiosis evolved independently in Inocybe. The microbiome of I. terrigena fruiting-bodies includes bacteria with known symbiotic functions in other fungal and non-fungal host environments, suggesting potential symbiotic functions of these bacteria in fungal tissues regardless of habitat conditions. Our study demonstrates the usefulness of direct metagenomics analysis of fruiting-body tissues for characterizing fungal genomes and microbiome.

Population structure of an orchid mycorrhizal fungus with genus-wide specificity

Fundamental life history processes of mycorrhizal fungi with inconspicuous fruiting bodies can be difficult to elucidate. In this study we investigated the species identities and life history of the orchid mycorrhizal Tulasnella fungi, which associate with the south eastern Australia orchid genus Chiloglottis. Tulasnella prima was the primary partner and was found to be associated with all 17 Chiloglottis species across a range of >1000 km, and to occur in the two edaphic conditions investigated (soil and sphagnum hammocks). Another Tulasnella species (T. sphagneti) appears to be restricted to moist conditions of alpine sphagnum hammocks. The population genetic structure of the widespread species T. prima, was investigated at 10 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers and at four cross-amplified SSR loci for T. sphagneti. For both taxa, no sharing of multilocus genotypes was found between sites, but clones were found within sites. Evidence for inbreeding within T. prima was found at 3 of 5 sites. Significant genetic differentiation was found within and between taxa. Significant local positive spatial genetic autocorrelation was detected among non-clonal isolates at the scale of two metres. Overall, the population genetic patterns indicated that in Tulasnella mating occurs by inbreeding and dispersal is typically restricted to short-distances.

Mushroom Emergence Detected by Combining Spore Trapping with Molecular Techniques

Obtaining reliable and representative mushroom production data requires time-consuming sampling schemes. In this paper, we assessed a simple methodology to detect mushroom emergence by trapping the fungal spores of the fruiting body community in plots where mushroom production was determined weekly. We compared the performance of filter paper traps with that of funnel traps and combined these spore trapping methods with species-specific quantitative real-time PCR and Illumina MiSeq to determine the spore abundance. Significantly more MiSeq proportional reads were generated for both ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungal species using filter traps than were obtained using funnel traps. The spores of 37 fungal species that produced fruiting bodies in the study plots were identified. Spore community composition changed considerably over time due to the emergence of ephemeral fruiting bodies and rapid spore deposition (lasting from 1 to 2 weeks), which occurred in the absence of rainfall events. For many species, the emergence of epigeous fruiting bodies was followed by a peak in the relative abundance of their airborne spores. There were significant positive relationships between fruiting body yields and spore abundance in time for five of seven fungal species. There was no relationship between fruiting body yields and their spore abundance at plot level, indicating that some of the spores captured in each plot were arriving from the surrounding areas. Differences in fungal detection capacity by spore trapping may indicate different dispersal ability between fungal species. Further research can help to identify the spore rain patterns for most common fungal species.IMPORTANCE Mushroom monitoring represents a serious challenge in economic and logistical terms because sampling approaches demand extensive field work at both the spatial and temporal scales. In addition, the identification of fungal taxa depends on the expertise of experienced fungal taxonomists. Similarly, the study of fungal dispersal has been constrained by technological limitations, especially because the morphological identification of spores is a challenging and time-consuming task. Here, we demonstrate that spores from ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungal species can be identified using simple spore traps together with either MiSeq fungus-specific amplicon sequencing or species-specific quantitative real-time PCR. In addition, the proposed methodology can be used to characterize the airborne fungal community and to detect mushroom emergence in forest ecosystems.

Comparison of Free Total Amino Acid Compositions and Their Functional Classifications in 13 Wild Edible Mushrooms

Thirteen popular wild edible mushroom species in Yunnan Province, Boletus bicolor, Boletus speciosus, Boletus sinicus, Boletus craspedius, Boletus griseus, Boletus ornatipes, Xerocomus, Suillus placidus, Boletinus pinetorus, Tricholoma terreum, Tricholomopsis lividipileata, Termitomyces microcarpus, and Amanita hemibapha, were analyzed for their free amino acid compositions by online pre-column derivazation reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) analysis. Twenty free amino acids, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, serine, glycine, alanine, praline, cysteine, valine, methionine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, histidine, threonine, asparagines, glutamine, arginine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, were determined. The total free amino acid (TAA) contents ranged from 1462.6 mg/100 g in B. craspedius to 13,106.2 mg/100 g in T. microcarpus. The different species showed distinct free amino acid profiles. The ratio of total essential amino acids (EAA) to TAA was 0.13–0.41. All of the analyzed species showed high contents of hydrophobic amino acids, at 33%–54% of TAA. Alanine, cysteine, glutamine, and glutamic acid were among the most abundant amino acids present in all species. The results showed that the analyzed mushrooms possessed significant free amino acid contents, which may be important compounds contributing to the typical mushroom taste, nutritional value, and potent antioxidant properties of these wild edible mushrooms. Furthermore, the principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the accumulative variance contribution rate of the first four principal components reached 94.39%. Cluster analysis revealed EAA composition and content might be an important parameter to separate the mushroom species, and T. microcarpus and A. hemibapha showed remarkable EAA content among the 13 species.

Quantitative evaluation of 1,3,1,6 β-D-glucan contents in wild-growing species of edible Polish mushrooms

BACKGROUND

Macrofungal β-glucans are mainly represented by compounds with β-1,3- and β-1,6 glycosidic bonds. They have been shown to have immunomodulatory, anticancer, and antioxidant properties. Although there are many reports on the bioactivity and structure of fungal glucans, studies on the quantitative assessment of these compounds are sparse.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to determine total β-glucans and 1,3-1,6-β-D-glucan contents in selected species of wild-growing edible Polish mushrooms.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Eight species of wild-growing edible mushrooms Boletus pinophilus, Hydnum repandum, Craterellus cornucopioides, Suillus variegatus, Suillus granulatus, Gyroporus cyanescens, Tricholomopsis rutilans, and Auricularia auricula-judae and one species of cultivated mushroom for comparison purposes Agaricus bisporus, were analyzed. Quantitative analysis of 1,3-1,6-β-D-glucans was done using a colorimetric method in accordance with Nitschke et al.

RESULT

Mean total β-glucan content varied from 13.5 g/100 g dry mass in A. bisporus (portobello variety) to 40.9 g/100 g dry mass in T. rutilans. Mean 1,3-1,6-β-D-glucan content in the analyzed fruiting bodies ranged from 3.9 g/100 g dry mass in Agaricus bisporus (cremini) to 16.8 g/100 g dry mass in Auricularia auricula-judae (wood ear). The following mushrooms demonstrated the greatest percentage of 1,3-1,6-β-D-glucan contents in relation to the total β-glucan content: Gyroporus cyanescens (54%), Suillus granulatus (49.8%), Auricularia auricula-judae (47.9%), and Suillus variegatus (40.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Among the analyzed species, wild-growing mushrooms had a generally higher average 1,3-1,6-β-Dglucan content compared with cultivated mushrooms such as A. bisporus. The highest average content of these polysaccharides was observed in medicinal mushroom Auricularia auricula-judae. Comparable 1,3-1,6-β-D-glucan content, in relation to this mushroom species, was found in Gyroporus cyanescens, Suillus granulatus and Suillus variegatus, which points to the possibility of the use of these species of mushrooms as medicinal foods.

Introducing Mushroom Fruiting Patterns from the Swiss National Poisons Information Centre

Changes in the ecology of macrofungi are poorly understood, not only because much of their life cycle is hidden belowground, but also because experiments often miss real-world complexity and most fruitbody inventories are limited in space and time. The National Poisons Information Centre ‘Tox Info Suisse’ provides countrywide 24hours/7days medical advice in case of poisonings since 1966. Here, we introduce a total of 12,126 mushroom-related phone calls that were received by Tox Info Suisse between 1966 and 2014. This indirect source of mycological information is dominated by the families of Boletaceae (11%), Agaricaceae (10%) and Amanitaceae (8%), which account for ~30% of all cases. Mushroom fruiting patterns revealed by the Poisons Centre inventory statistically resemble changes in fungal phenology, productivity and diversity as reflected by the Swiss National Data Centre ‘SwissFungi’. Although the newly developed Tox Info Suisse dataset provides an innovative basis for timely environmental research, caution is advised when interpreting some of the observed long-term changes and autumnal extremes. Uncertainty of the new record relates to possible data incompleteness, imprecise species description and/or identification, as well as the inclusion of cultivated and non-indigenous mushrooms. Nevertheless, we hope that the Tox Info Suisse inventory will stimulate and enable a variety of ecological-oriented follow-up studies.

Bacterial selection by mycospheres of Atlantic Rainforest mushrooms

This study focuses on the selection exerted on bacterial communities in the mycospheres of mushrooms collected in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest. A total of 24 paired samples (bulk soil vs. mycosphere) were assessed to investigate potential interactions between fungi and bacteria present in fungal mycospheres. Prevalent fungal families were identified as Marasmiaceae and Lepiotaceae (both Basidiomycota) based on ITS partial sequencing. We used culture-independent techniques to analyze bacterial DNA from soil and mycosphere samples. Bacterial communities in the samples were distinguished based on overall bacterial, alphaproteobacterial, and betaproteobacterial PCR-DGGE patterns, which were different in fungi belonging to different taxa. These results were confirmed by pyrosequencing the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene (based on five bulk soil vs. mycosphere pairs), which revealed the most responsive bacterial families in the different conditions generated beneath the mushrooms, identified as Bradyrhizobiaceae, Burkholderiaceae, and Pseudomonadaceae. The bacterial families Acetobacteraceae, Chrhoniobacteraceae, Planctomycetaceae, Conexibacteraceae, and Burkholderiaceae were found in all mycosphere samples, composing the core mycosphere microbiome. Similarly, some bacterial groups identified as Koribacteriaceae, Acidobacteria (Solibacteriaceae) and an unclassified group of Acidobacteria were preferentially present in the bulk soil samples (found in all of them). In this study we depict the mycosphere effect exerted by mushrooms inhabiting the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest, and identify the bacteria with highest response to such a specific niche, possibly indicating the role bacteria play in mushroom development and dissemination within this yet-unexplored environment.

Multilocus phylogenetic analyses reveal unexpected abundant diversity and significant disjunct distribution pattern of the Hedgehog Mushrooms (Hydnum L.)

Hydnum is a fungal genus proposed by Linnaeus in the early time of modern taxonomy. It contains several ectomycorrhizal species which are commonly consumed worldwide. However, Hydnum is one of the most understudied fungal genera, especially from a molecular phylogenetic view. In this study, we extensively gathered specimens of Hydnum from Asia, Europe, America and Australasia, and analyzed them by using sequences of four gene fragments (ITS, nrLSU, tef1α and rpb1). Our phylogenetic analyses recognized at least 31 phylogenetic species within Hydnum, 15 of which were reported for the first time. Most Australasian species were recognized as strongly divergent old relics, but recent migration between Australasia and the Northern Hemisphere was also detected. Within the Northern Hemisphere, frequent historical biota exchanges between the Old World and the New World via both the North Atlantic Land Bridge and the Bering Land Bridge could be elucidated. Our study also revealed that most Hydnum species found in subalpine areas of the Hengduan Mountains in southwestern China occur in northeastern/northern China and Europe, indicating that the composition of the mycobiota in the Hengduan Mountains reigion is more complicated than what we have known before.

The ectomycorrhizal status of a tropical black bolete, Phlebopus portentosus, assessed using mycorrhizal synthesis and isotopic analysis

Phlebopus portentosus is one of the most popular wild edible mushrooms in Thailand and can produce sporocarps in the culture without a host plant. However, it is still unclear whether Phlebopus portentosus is a saprotrophic, parasitic, or ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungus. In this study, Phlebopus portentosus sporocarps were collected from northern Thailand and identified based on morphological and molecular characteristics. We combined mycorrhizal synthesis and stable isotopic analysis to investigate the trophic status of this fungus. In a greenhouse experiment, ECM-like structures were observed in Pinus kesiya at 1 year after inoculation with fungal mycelium, and the association of Phlebopus portentosus and other plant species showed superficial growth over the root surface. Fungus-colonized root tips were described morphologically and colonization confirmed by molecular methods. In stable isotope measurements, the δ(13)C and δ(15)N of natural samples of Phlebopus portentosus differed from saprotrophic fungi. Based on the isotopic patterns of Phlebopus portentosus and its ability to form ECM-like structures in greenhouse experiments, we conclude that Phlebopus portentosus could be an ECM fungus.

Characterisation of seven Inocybe ectomycorrhizal morphotypes from a semiarid woody steppe

Ectomycorrhizas (ECM) of Inocybe species (Inocybaceae, Basidiomycota) formed by three host plant species (Populus alba, Salix rosmarinifolia and Pinus nigra) in a semiarid woody steppe of Hungary were studied. To identify the fungal partners, we performed phylogenetic analyses of nucleotide sequences for the internal transcribed spacer region of nuclear DNA (nrDNA ITS) together with sequences gained from public databases. Seven Inocybe ectomycorrhiza morphotypes were morpho-anatomically characterised. Five morphotypes were identified (I. phaeoleuca, I. psammophila, I. semifulva, I. splendens and I. subporospora), whereas two morphotypes represented unidentified Inocybe species. Differences were discernible among the morphotypes, and they showed general anatomical characteristics of Inocybe ECM, such as the slightly organised plectenchymatic mantle (types A, B and E and the gelatinous C). The ECM of I. subporospora and I. phaeoleuca were detected from the introduced Pinus nigra. These two fungi are probably native to the area but capable of forming a novel ectomycorrhizal association with the invasive host.

Translocation of mercury from substrate to fruit bodies of Panellus stipticus, Psilocybe cubensis, Schizophyllum commune and Stropharia rugosoannulata on oat flakes

The cultivation and fructification of 15 saprotrophic and wood-rotting fungal strains were tested on three various semi-natural medium. The formation of fruit bodies was observed for Panellus stipticus, Psilocybe cubensis, Schizophyllum commune and Stropharia rugosoannulata in the frame of 1-2 months. Mercury translocation from the substrate to the fruit bodies was then followed in oat flakes medium. Translocation was followed for treatments of 0, 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20ppm Hg in the substrate. All four fungi formed fruit bodies in almost all replicates. The fruit body yield varied from 0.5 to 15.3g dry weight. The highest bioconcentration factor (BCF) of 2.99 was found for P. cubensis at 1.25ppm Hg. The BCF decreased with increasing Hg concentration in the substrate: 2.49, 0, 2.38, 1.71 and 1.82 for P. stipticus; 3.00, 2.78, 2.48, 1.81 and 2.15 for P. cubensis; 2.47, 1.81, 1.78, 1.07 and 0.96 for S. commune; and 1.96, 1.84, 1.21, 1.71 and 0.96 for S. rugosoannulata. The Hg contents in the fruit bodies reflected the Hg contents in the substrate; the highest contents in the fruit bodies were found in P. cubensis (43.08±7.36ppm Hg) and P. stipticus (36.42±3.39ppm).

Nitrate content in a collection of higher mushrooms

BACKGROUND

Data of mushroom nitrate content from scientific studies is limited. There have been two such recent investigations (mainly regarding certain cultivated species). To obtain comparable analytical data, we analyzed 134 samples of 54 taxa gathered and prepared by our department.

RESULTS

The mushroom species were evaluated according to their nutritional types: saprotrophic, mycorrhizal and wood-decaying groups. Low and relatively invariable contents were found in the mycorrhizal (216.5 mg kg(-1) dry matter (DM) and wood-decaying groups (228.6 mg kg(-1) DM), but in the saprotrophic group we observed a wide variability (151.4-12 715 mg kg(-1) DM).

CONCLUSION

A considerable nitrate content was found in samples of seven 'accumulator' species (Clitocybe nebularis, C. odora, Lepista nuda, L. personata, L. irina, Macrolepiota rachodes and M. procera). The toxicological relevance of daily uptake of acceptable nitrate content via mushrooms only is not presumable, but the 'accumulator' saprotrophic species can be 'contributors' to our nitrate intake in foods.

Widespread Polycistronic Transcripts in Fungi Revealed by Single-Molecule mRNA Sequencing

Genes in prokaryotic genomes are often arranged into clusters and co-transcribed into polycistronic RNAs. Isolated examples of polycistronic RNAs were also reported in some higher eukaryotes but their presence was generally considered rare. Here we developed a long-read sequencing strategy to identify polycistronic transcripts in several mushroom forming fungal species including Plicaturopsis crispa, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Trametes versicolor, and Gloeophyllum trabeum. We found genome-wide prevalence of polycistronic transcription in these Agaricomycetes, involving up to 8% of the transcribed genes. Unlike polycistronic mRNAs in prokaryotes, these co-transcribed genes are also independently transcribed. We show that polycistronic transcription may interfere with expression of the downstream tandem gene. Further comparative genomic analysis indicates that polycistronic transcription is conserved among a wide range of mushroom forming fungi. In summary, our study revealed, for the first time, the genome prevalence of polycistronic transcription in a phylogenetic range of higher fungi. Furthermore, we systematically show that our long-read sequencing approach and combined bioinformatics pipeline is a generic powerful tool for precise characterization of complex transcriptomes that enables identification of mRNA isoforms not recovered via short-read assembly.

From economic survival to recreation: contemporary uses of wild food and medicine in rural Sweden, Ukraine and NW Russia

BACKGROUND

There are many ethnobotanical studies on the use of wild plants and mushrooms for food and medicinal treatment in Europe. However, there is a lack of comparative ethnobotanical research on the role of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) as wild food and medicine in local livelihoods in countries with different socio-economic conditions. The aim of this study was to compare the present use of wild food and medicine in three places representing different stages of socio-economic development in Europe. Specifically we explore which plant and fungi species people use for food and medicine in three selected rural regions of Sweden, Ukraine and the Russian Federation.

METHODS

We studied the current use of NWFPs for food and medicine in three rural areas that represent a gradient in economic development (as indicated by the World Bank), i.e., Småland high plain (south Sweden), Roztochya (western Ukraine), and Kortkeros (Komi Republic in North West Russia). All areas were characterised by (a) predominating rural residency, (b) high forest coverage, and (c) free access to NWFPs. A total of 205 in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with local residents in the three study areas. The collected NWFPs data included (1) the species that are used; (2) the amount harvested, (3) uses and practices (4) changes over time, (5) sources of knowledge regarding the use of NWFPs as wild food and medicine and (6) traditional recipes.

RESULTS

In Sweden 11 species of wild plant and fungi species were used as food, and no plant species were used for medicinal purposes. In Ukraine the present use of NWFPs included 26 wild foods and 60 medicinal species, while in Russia 36 food and 44 medicinal species were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

In the economically less developed rural areas of Ukraine and Russia, the use of NWFPs continues to be an important part of livelihoods, both as a source of income and for domestic use as food and medicine. In Sweden the collection of wild food has become mainly a recreational activity and the use of medicinal plants is no longer prevalent among our respondents. This leads us to suggest that the consumption of wild food and medicine is influenced by the socio-economic situation in a country.

A novel artificial bee colony based clustering algorithm for categorical data

Data with categorical attributes are ubiquitous in the real world. However, existing partitional clustering algorithms for categorical data are prone to fall into local optima. To address this issue, in this paper we propose a novel clustering algorithm, ABC-K-Modes (Artificial Bee Colony clustering based on K-Modes), based on the traditional k-modes clustering algorithm and the artificial bee colony approach. In our approach, we first introduce a one-step k-modes procedure, and then integrate this procedure with the artificial bee colony approach to deal with categorical data. In the search process performed by scout bees, we adopt the multi-source search inspired by the idea of batch processing to accelerate the convergence of ABC-K-Modes. The performance of ABC-K-Modes is evaluated by a series of experiments in comparison with that of the other popular algorithms for categorical data.

Influence of productivity and processing method on physicochemical characteristics of white button mushrooms in Brazil

BACKGROUND

The white button mushroom is the edible fungus most commonly cultivated and commercialized in Brazil and worldwide. This work assesses the productivity of the different strains ABI 07/06 and ABI 06/05 of Agaricus bisporus grown under the conditions normally employed by growers in the southeast of Brazil, and the influence of four different chemical conservation methods on the physicochemical characteristics and storage properties of the fruit bodies.

RESULTS

The productivities of strains ABI 07/06 and ABI 06/05 of white button mushrooms were found to be comparable. The colorimetric characteristics and chemical compositions (fat, fiber and protein contents) of the mushroom strains were similar, and these parameters were not influenced significantly by the conservation processes. Texture was negatively affected by all processing methods employed.

CONCLUSION

It was concluded that chemical methods of processing mushrooms were not fully effective and novel alternative technologies should be considered by mushroom processors in Brazil. Some methods of mushroom storage using chemicals such as sodium metabisulfite are harmful to the human organism, so processing using autoclaving may be the best form of conservation of canned mushrooms.

Detection of the edible ectomycorrhizal fungus Lyophyllum shimeji colonising seedlings of cultivated conifer species in New Zealand

Lyophyllum shimeji is an edible ectomycorrhizal fungus that is widely distributed in East Asia and also present in the northern regions of Europe. In Japan, L. shimeji is a culinary delicacy, considered amongst all edible mushrooms to have the best taste and to be second only to Tricholoma matsutake in price. Traditionally, fruiting bodies of L. shimeji have been collected from the wild but fruiting of L. shimeji is now relatively uncommon and cannot keep up with increasing consumer demand. As a result, methods for its cultivation are being developed for commercial production in Japan and other countries. In this work, techniques were developed to cultivate L. shimeji on coniferous seedlings using a pure culture inoculum. They resulted in successful mycorrhization of Pinus pinaster and Picea abies in only 8 to 10 months. As ectomycorrhizae of L. shimeji are difficult to identify morphologically, mycorrhization was confirmed using an L. shimeji-specific PCR diagnostic, which was designed following a phylogenetic analysis of the Lyophyllum section Difformia using DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), intergenic spacer (IGS) and elongation factor 1-α (EF1-α) gene. L. shimeji is a member of the Lyophyllum decastes complex in section Difformia, which also includes Lyophyllum fumosum and L. decastes. This analysis confirmed the separation of L. shimeji from closely related Lyophyllum spp. and enabled its unambiguous detection using an IGS-based PCR diagnostic. This is the first report of successful mycorrhization of L. shimeji on P. pinaster and P. abies and provides an opportunity for its commercial cultivation on conifers in New Zealand.

Stereopsidales--a new order of mushroom-forming fungi

One new order, one new family, and one new combination are presented, as the result of molecular phylogenetic analyses. The new order Stereopsidales and the new family Stereopsidaceae are described incorporating Stereopsis radicans and S. globosa, formerly Clavulicium globosum. We show that not only do these species represent an old overlooked lineage, but both species harbor cryptic diversity. In addition, a third species, C. macounii, appears as a plausible sister to the new lineage, but there is conflict in the data. All specimens of S. radicans and S. globosa analysed here are from the South and Central Americas; several records of S. radicans have been made also from tropical Asia. We expect the true diversity in this group to be a lot higher than presented in this paper. Stereopsis radicans was formerly included in Polyporales, but a placement within that order is rejected by our data through SH tests. The dataset consisted of four nuclear markers: rpb2, tef1, LSU and SSU, each of which was analysed separately using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. Recombination detection tests indicate no plausible recombinations. The potential of S. radicans, S. globosa and C. macounii being amphitallic is briefly discussed.

Structure, gene flow, and recombination among geographic populations of a Russula virescens ally from Southwestern China

Mushrooms that are morphologically indistinguishable from Russula virescens (Schaeff.) Fr. are among the most popular wild edible mushrooms in Yunnan province, southwestern China. However, almost nothing is known about their biology. This study investigated the diversity and population genetics of a R. virescens ally from Yunnan. A total of 210 samples were collected from 13 geographical locations throughout the main distribution range in Yunnan. The patterns of genetic variation within and among these geographic populations were analyzed using sequences from three nuclear and two mitochondrial DNA fragments. Analysis of the ITS sequences revealed that samples from Yunnan showed 3–6% sequence difference from R. virescens samples from North America and Europe and formed a distinct clade. Our multilocus population genetic analyses suggested frequent gene flow among geographic populations of the R. virescens ally in Yunnan. Interestingly, the nuclear and mitochondrial genes exhibited different levels of gene flow and recombination. We discuss the implications of our results for understanding speciation, reproduction and conservation of this important biological resource.

Identification and symbiotic ability of Psathyrellaceae fungi isolated from a photosynthetic orchid, Cremastra appendiculata (Orchidaceae)

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Photosynthetic orchids found in highly shaded forests are often mixotrophic, receiving part of their carbon energy via ectomycorrhizal fungi that had originally received carbohydrate from trees. A photosynthetic orchid, Cremastra appendiculata, is also found under highly shaded forest, but our preliminary data suggested that its associated fungi were not ectomycorrhizal. We tested whether their relation is an unusual example of a mixotrophic orchid associating with saprotrophic fungi by direct detection of fungal DNAs in conjunction with isolation of the fungus in pure culture and experimental inoculation of orchid seeds with the fungus. •

METHODS

For isolated mycobionts of C. appendiculata plants, two regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and the large subunit (LSU), were sequenced, and fruiting bodies of the one isolate, SI1-1 were induced. In addition, two fungal isolates, SI1-1 and KI1-1, were grown in symbiotic cultures with C. appendiculata to verify their status as mycobionts. •

KEY RESULTS

In phylogenetic analyses, all isolates clustered with fungi belonging to Coprinellus in Psathyrellaceae of Agaricales. Phylogenetic analyses of these DNA sequences showed that five fungal isolates from C. appendiculata, including SI1-1 and two mycobionts isolated from the mycoheterotrophic orchid Epipogium roseum, have very similar ITS sequences. Isolate SI1-1 was identified as Coprinellus domesticus based on the morphological characteristics of the fruiting body. Isolates SI1-1 and KI1-1 induced seed germination of C. appendiculata as mycobionts. •

CONCLUSIONS

This report is the first of a mycorrhizal symbiosis between a fungus in Psathyrellaceae and a photosynthetic orchid, revealing a new pathway to full mycoheterotrophy and contributing to our understanding of the evolution of mycoheterotrophy.

Wild mushroom--an underutilized healthy food resource and income generator: experience from Tanzania rural areas

BACKGROUND

This study documents the use of a wild edible mushroom (WEM) in Tanzania rural areas and assesses its significance as a source of healthy food and income for the disadvantaged rural dwellers.

METHODOLOGY

The data was gathered through local market surveys in order to conventionally identify different common WEM taxa using a semi-structured interview and it involved 160 people comprised of WEM hunters, traders and consumers. The collected data covered the information on where, how, when and who was the principal transmitter of the mycological knowledge learned and the general information on their market and values.

RESULTS

Results show that mushroom gathering is gender oriented, dominated by women (76.25%) whereas men account for 23.75%. Women possess vast knowledge of mushroom folk taxonomy, biology and ecology and are therefore the principal knowledge transmitters. It was also found that learning about WEM began at an early age and is family tradition based. The knowledge is acquired and imparted by practices and is mostly transmitted vertically through family dissemination. The results also revealed that 75 WEM species belong to 14 families sold in fresh or dry form. The common sold species belonged to the family Cantharellaceae (19) followed by Rusullaceae (16) and Lyophyllaceae (13), respectively. Collectors residing near miombo woodland may harvest 20-30 buckets (capacity 20 liters) and the business may earn a person about $400-900 annually.

CONCLUSION

This finding envisages the purposeful strengthening of WEM exploitation, which would contribute significantly in boosting the rural income/economy and reduce conflicts between community and forest conservers. The activity would also provide alternative employment, improve food security to rural disadvantaged groups especially women and old people hence improve their livelihood.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)-based method for rapid mushroom species identification

Toxic mushroom species, such as the death cap ( Amanita phalloides ), are responsible for most mushroom poisonings. In the present work, novel loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays were used for the differentiation of even closely related edible and toxic mushroom species. The applicability of these methods was tested by cross-reaction studies and analysis of spiked mushroom samples (raw and fried material). Contaminations at the level of 2% (w/w) could be detected in different mushroom blends. Three detection methods were used: agarose gel analysis, fluorimetric real-time detection, and visual detection by lateral flow dipsticks (LFD). The LAMP assay combined with LFD detection allows the identification of A. phalloides in about 2 h (including DNA extraction) at a very low level of technical equipment (micropestle, water bath, and mobile centrifuge), which makes this technique perfectly suited for on-site applications.