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Bell TM, Facemire P, Bearss JJ, Raymond JL, Chapman J, Zeng X, Shamblin JD, Williams JA, Grosenbach DW, Hruby DE, Damon IK, Goff AJ, Mucker EM. Smallpox lesion characterization in placebo-treated and tecovirimat-treated macaques using traditional and novel methods. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012007. [PMID: 38386661 PMCID: PMC10883539 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Smallpox was the most rampant infectious disease killer of the 20th century, yet much remains unknown about the pathogenesis of the variola virus. Using archived tissue from a study conducted at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention we characterized pathology in 18 cynomolgus macaques intravenously infected with the Harper strain of variola virus. Six macaques were placebo-treated controls, six were tecovirimat-treated beginning at 2 days post-infection, and six were tecovirimat-treated beginning at 4 days post-infection. All macaques were treated daily until day 17. Archived tissues were interrogated using immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization, immunofluorescence, and electron microscopy. Gross lesions in three placebo-treated animals that succumbed to infection primarily consisted of cutaneous vesicles, pustules, or crusts with lymphadenopathy. The only gross lesions noted at the conclusion of the study in the three surviving placebo-treated and the Day 4 treated animals consisted of resolving cutaneous pox lesions. No gross lesions attributable to poxviral infection were present in the Day 2 treated macaques. Histologic lesions in three placebo-treated macaques that succumbed to infection consisted of proliferative and necrotizing dermatitis with intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies and lymphoid depletion. The only notable histologic lesion in the Day 4 treated macaques was resolving dermatitis; no notable lesions were seen in the Day 2 treated macaques. Variola virus was detected in all three placebo-treated animals that succumbed to infection prior to the study's conclusion by all utilized methods (IHC, ISH, IFA, EM). None of the three placebo-treated animals that survived to the end of the study nor the animals in the two tecovirimat treatment groups showed evidence of variola virus by these methods. Our findings further characterize variola lesions in the macaque model and describe new molecular methods for variola detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd M. Bell
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Paul Facemire
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jeremy J. Bearss
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jo Lynne Raymond
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Chapman
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Xiankun Zeng
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Joshua D. Shamblin
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Janice A. Williams
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Dennis E. Hruby
- SIGA Technologies, Inc., Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Inger K. Damon
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Arthur J. Goff
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Eric M. Mucker
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
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2
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Nucera F, Bonina L, Cipolla A, Pirina P, Hansbro PM, Adcock IM, Caramori G. Poxviridae Pneumonia. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1451:183-204. [PMID: 38801579 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Poxviridae family includes several viruses that infecting humans usually causes skin lesions only, but in some cases their clinical course is complicated by viral pneumonia (with or without bacterial superinfections). Historically variola virus has been the poxviridae most frequently associated with the development of pneumonia with many large outbreaks worldwide before its eradication in 1980. It is still considered a biological threat for its potential in biological warfare and bioterrorism. Smallpox pneumonia can be severe with the onset of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and death. Vaccinia virus, used for vaccination against smallpox exceptionally, in immunocompromised patients, can induce generalized (with also lung involvement) severe disease after vaccination. MPXV virus occasionally can cause pneumonia particularly in immunocompromised patients. The pathophysiology of poxviridae pneumonia is still an area of active research; however, in animal models these viruses can cause both direct damage to the lower airways epithelium and a hyperinflammatory syndrome, like a cytokine storm. Multiple mechanisms of immune evasion have also been described. The treatment of poxviridae pneumonia is mainly based on careful supportive care. Despite the absence of randomized clinical trials in patients with poxviridae pneumonia there are antiviral drugs, such as tecovirimat, cidofovir and brincidofovir, FDA-approved for use in smallpox and also available under an expanded access protocol for treatment of MPXV. There are 2 (replication-deficient modified vaccinia Ankara and replication-competent vaccinia virus) smallpox vaccines FDA-approved with the first one also approved for prevention of MPXV in adults that are at high risk of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Nucera
- Pneumologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Odontoiatriche e delle Immagini Morfologiche e Funzionali (BIOMORF), Università degli Studi di Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Letterio Bonina
- Virologia, Dipartimento di Patologia delle Malattie Umane "G. Barresi", Università degli Studi di Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Antonino Cipolla
- Pneumologia, Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Università degli Studi di Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Pietro Pirina
- Pneumologia, Dipartimento di Medicina, Chirurgia e Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Philip M Hansbro
- Centre for Inflammation, Centenary Institute and University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ian M Adcock
- Airway Disease Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Gaetano Caramori
- Pulmonology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy.
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3
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Singh S, Kumar R, Singh SK. All That We Need to Know About the Current and Past Outbreaks of Monkeypox: A Narrative Review. Cureus 2022; 14:e31109. [DOI: 10.7759/cureus.31109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
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4
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Effect of Monkeypox Virus Preparation on the Lethality of the Intravenous Cynomolgus Macaque Model. Viruses 2022; 14:v14081741. [PMID: 36016363 PMCID: PMC9413320 DOI: 10.3390/v14081741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
For over two decades, researchers have sought to improve smallpox vaccines and also develop therapies to ensure protection against smallpox or smallpox-like disease. The 2022 human monkeypox pandemic is a reminder that these efforts should persist. Advancing such therapies have involved animal models primarily using surrogate viruses such as monkeypox virus. The intravenous monkeypox model in macaques produces a disease that is clinically similar to the lesional phase of fulminant human monkeypox or smallpox. Two criticisms of the model have been the unnatural route of virus administration and the high dose required to induce severe disease. Here, we purified monkeypox virus with the goal of lowering the challenge dose by removing cellular and viral contaminants within the inoculum. We found that there are advantages to using unpurified material for intravenous exposures.
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5
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Hutson CL, Kondas AV, Ritter JM, Reed Z, Ostergaard SD, Morgan CN, Gallardo-Romero N, Tansey C, Mauldin MR, Salzer JS, Hughes CM, Goldsmith CS, Carroll D, Olson VA. Teaching a new mouse old tricks: Humanized mice as an infection model for Variola virus. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009633. [PMID: 34547055 PMCID: PMC8454956 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Smallpox, caused by the solely human pathogen Variola virus (VARV), was declared eradicated in 1980. While known VARV stocks are secure, smallpox remains a bioterrorist threat agent. Recent U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval of the first smallpox anti-viral (tecovirimat) therapeutic was a successful step forward in smallpox preparedness; however, orthopoxviruses can become resistant to treatment, suggesting a multi-therapeutic approach is necessary. Animal models are required for testing medical countermeasures (MCMs) and ideally MCMs are tested directly against the pathogen of interest. Since VARV only infects humans, a representative animal model for testing therapeutics directly against VARV remains a challenge. Here we show that three different humanized mice strains are highly susceptible to VARV infection, establishing the first small animal model using VARV. In comparison, the non-humanized, immunosuppressed background mouse was not susceptible to systemic VARV infection. Following an intranasal VARV challenge that mimics the natural route for human smallpox transmission, the virus spread systemically within the humanized mouse before mortality (~ 13 days post infection), similar to the time from exposure to symptom onset for ordinary human smallpox. Our identification of a permissive/representative VARV animal model can facilitate testing of MCMs in a manner consistent with their intended use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina L. Hutson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Ashley V. Kondas
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Jana M. Ritter
- Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Zachary Reed
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Sharon Dietz Ostergaard
- Comparative Medicine Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Clint N. Morgan
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Nadia Gallardo-Romero
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Cassandra Tansey
- Comparative Medicine Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Matthew R. Mauldin
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Johanna S. Salzer
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Christine M. Hughes
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Cynthia S. Goldsmith
- Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Darin Carroll
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Victoria A. Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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Bourquain D, Schrick L, Tischer BK, Osterrieder K, Schaade L, Nitsche A. Replication of cowpox virus in macrophages is dependent on the host range factor p28/N1R. Virol J 2021; 18:173. [PMID: 34425838 PMCID: PMC8381512 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-021-01640-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections continue to represent a threat to human health. The disease caused by distinct orthopoxviruses differs in terms of symptoms and severity, which may be explained by the unique repertoire of virus factors that modulate the host’s immune response and cellular machinery. We report here on the construction of recombinant cowpox viruses (CPXV) which either lack the host range factor p28 completely or express truncated variants of p28. We show that p28 is essential for CPXV replication in macrophages of human or mouse origin and that the C-terminal RING finger domain of p28 is necessary to allow CPXV replication in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Bourquain
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Livia Schrick
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Karsten Tischer
- Institute of Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163, Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaus Osterrieder
- Institute of Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Lars Schaade
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
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7
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Gallardo-Romero NF, Hutson CL, Carroll D, Kondas AV, Salzer JS, Dietz-Ostergaard S, Smith S, Hudson P, Olson V, Damon I. Use of live Variola virus to determine whether CAST/EiJ mice are a suitable surrogate animal model for human smallpox. Virus Res 2019; 275:197772. [PMID: 31593747 PMCID: PMC9533991 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2019.197772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Numerous animal models of systemic orthopoxvirus disease have been developed to evaluate therapeutics against variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox. These animal models do not resemble the disease presentation in human smallpox and most used surrogate Orthopoxviruses. A rodent model using VARV has a multitude of advantages, and previous investigations identified the CAST/EiJ mouse as highly susceptible to monkeypox virus infection, making it of interest to determine if these rodents are also susceptible to VARV infection. In this study, we inoculated CAST/EiJ mice with a range of VARV doses (102-106 plaque forming units). Some animals had detectable viable VARV from the oropharynx between days 3 and 12 post inoculation. Despite evidence of disease, the CAST/EiJ mouse does not provide a model for clinical smallpox due to mild signs of morbidity and limited skin lesions. However, in contrast to previous rodent models using VARV challenge (i.e. prairie dogs and SCID mice), a robust immune response was observed in the CAST/EiJ mice (measured by Immunoglobulin G enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). This is an advantage of this model for the study of VARV and presents a unique potential for the study of the immunomodulatory pathways following VARV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia F Gallardo-Romero
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Christina L Hutson
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Darin Carroll
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Ashley V Kondas
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Johanna S Salzer
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Sharon Dietz-Ostergaard
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of Scientific resources, Comparative Medicine Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Scott Smith
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Paul Hudson
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Victoria Olson
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Inger Damon
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
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8
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Merchlinsky M, Albright A, Olson V, Schiltz H, Merkeley T, Hughes C, Petersen B, Challberg M. The development and approval of tecoviromat (TPOXX ®), the first antiviral against smallpox. Antiviral Res 2019; 168:168-174. [PMID: 31181284 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The classification of smallpox by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as a Category A Bioterrorism threat agent has resulted in the U.S. Government investing significant funds to develop and stockpile a suite of medical countermeasures to ameliorate the consequences of a smallpox epidemic. This stockpile includes both vaccines for prophylaxis and antivirals to treat symptomatic patients. In this manuscript, we describe the path to approval for the first therapeutic against smallpox, identified during its development as ST-246, now known as tecovirimat and TPOXX®, a small-molecule antiviral compound sponsored by SIGA Technologies to treat symptomatic smallpox. Because the disease is no longer endemic, the development and approval of TPOXX® was only possible under the U.S. Food and Drug and Administration Animal Rule (FDA 2002). In this article, we describe the combination of animal model studies and clinical trials that were used to satisfy the FDA requirements for the approval of TPOXX ® under the Animal Rule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Merchlinsky
- Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, 300 C Street SW, Washington DC, 20201, USA.
| | - Andrew Albright
- Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, 300 C Street SW, Washington DC, 20201, USA
| | - Victoria Olson
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Mail Stop G-06, 1600 Clifton Road, NE, Atlanta, 30333, Georgia
| | - Helen Schiltz
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, MSC 9825, 5601 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD, 20851, USA
| | - Tyler Merkeley
- Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, 300 C Street SW, Washington DC, 20201, USA
| | - Claiborne Hughes
- Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, 300 C Street SW, Washington DC, 20201, USA
| | - Brett Petersen
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Mail Stop G-06, 1600 Clifton Road, NE, Atlanta, 30333, Georgia
| | - Mark Challberg
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, MSC 9825, 5601 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD, 20851, USA
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9
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Dynamics of Pathological and Virological Findings During Experimental Calpox Virus Infection of Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Viruses 2017; 9:v9120363. [PMID: 29182537 PMCID: PMC5744138 DOI: 10.3390/v9120363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental intranasal infection of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with calpox virus results in fatal disease. Route and dose used for viral inoculation of the test animals mimics the natural transmission of smallpox, thus representing a suitable model to study pathogenesis and to evaluate new vaccines against orthopoxvirus infection. However, the pathogenic mechanisms leading to death are still unclear. Therefore, our study aimed at investigating the kinetics of pathological alterations to clarify the pathogenesis in calpox virus infection. Following intranasal inoculation with two different viral doses, common marmosets were sacrificed on days 3, 5, 7, 10 and 12 post inoculation. Collected tissue was screened using histopathology, immunohistochemistry, transmission electron microscopy, and virological assays. Our data suggest that primary replication took place in nasal and bronchial epithelia followed by secondary replication in submandibular lymph nodes and spleen. Parallel to viremia at day 7, virus was detectable in many organs, mainly located in epithelial cells and macrophages, as well as in endothelial cells. Based on the onset of clinical signs, the histological and ultrastructural lesions and the immunohistochemical distribution pattern of the virus, the incubation period was defined to last 11 days, which resembles human smallpox. In conclusion, the data indicate that the calpox model is highly suitable for studying orthopoxvirus-induced disease.
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Mätz-Rensing K, Yue C, Klenner J, Ellerbrok H, Stahl-Hennig C. Limited susceptibility of rhesus macaques to a cowpox virus isolated from a lethal outbreak among New World monkeys. Primate Biol 2017; 4:163-171. [PMID: 32110704 PMCID: PMC7041510 DOI: 10.5194/pb-4-163-2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was undertaken to investigate the susceptibility of
rhesus monkeys to the calpox virus, an orthopoxvirus (OPXV) of the
Cowpox virus species (CPXV), which is uniformly lethal in common marmosets. Six rhesus
monkeys were either intravenously (i.v.) or intranasally (i.n.) exposed to
the virus. Monitoring of the macaques after viral exposure included physical
examinations, the determination of viral load by real-time PCR and plaque assay, and
the analysis of humoral responses. Two i.v. inoculated animals
developed numerous classical pox lesions that started after inoculation at
days 7 and 10. Both animals became viremic and seroconverted.
They exhibited maximal numbers of lesions of approximately 50 and 140 by
day 21. One animal completely recovered, while the other one suffered from a
phlegmonous inflammation of a leg initially induced by a secondarily infected
pox lesion and was euthanized for animal welfare reasons. In contrast to
previous pathogenicity studies with the calpox virus in marmosets, none of the
four animals inoculated intranasally with doses of the calpox virus exceeding those used
in marmosets by orders of magnitude showed typical clinical symptoms. No
viral DNA was detectable in the blood of those animals, but three animals
seroconverted. In two of these three animals, infectious virus was sporadically
isolated from saliva. This indicates that rhesus monkeys are less susceptible
to calpox virus infection, which limits their use in further intervention
studies with OPXV.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Constanze Yue
- Robert Koch Institute, Highly Pathogenic Viruses (ZBS 1), Berlin, Germany.,present address: Paul Ehrlich Institute, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Jeanette Klenner
- Robert Koch Institute, Highly Pathogenic Viruses (ZBS 1), Berlin, Germany
| | - Heinz Ellerbrok
- Robert Koch Institute, Highly Pathogenic Viruses (ZBS 1), Berlin, Germany
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11
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Davies ML, Parekh NJ, Kaminsky LW, Soni C, Reider IE, Krouse TE, Fischer MA, van Rooijen N, Rahman ZSM, Norbury CC. A systemic macrophage response is required to contain a peripheral poxvirus infection. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006435. [PMID: 28614386 PMCID: PMC5484545 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The goal of the innate immune system is to reduce pathogen spread prior to the initiation of an effective adaptive immune response. Following an infection at a peripheral site, virus typically drains through the lymph to the lymph node prior to entering the blood stream and being systemically disseminated. Therefore, there are three distinct spatial checkpoints at which intervention to prevent systemic spread of virus can occur, namely: 1) the site of infection, 2) the draining lymph node via filtration of lymph or 3) the systemic level via organs that filter the blood. We have previously shown that systemic depletion of phagocytic cells allows viral spread after dermal infection with Vaccinia virus (VACV), which infects naturally through the skin. Here we use multiple depletion methodologies to define both the spatial checkpoint and the identity of the cells that prevent systemic spread of VACV. Subcapsular sinus macrophages of the draining lymph node have been implicated as critical effectors in clearance of lymph borne viruses following peripheral infection. We find that monocyte populations recruited to the site of VACV infection play a critical role in control of local pathogenesis and tissue damage, but do not prevent dissemination of virus. Following infection with virulent VACV, the subcapsular sinus macrophages within the draining lymph node become infected, but are not exclusively required to prevent systemic spread. Rather, small doses of VACV enter the bloodstream and the function of systemic macrophages, but not dendritic cells, is required to prevent further spread. The results illustrate that a systemic innate response to a peripheral virus infection may be required to prevent widespread infection and pathology following infection with virulent viruses, such as poxviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L. Davies
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Nikhil J. Parekh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Lauren W. Kaminsky
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Chetna Soni
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Irene E. Reider
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Tracy E. Krouse
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Matthew A. Fischer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Nico van Rooijen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Vrije Universiteit, BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ziaur S. M. Rahman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Christopher C. Norbury
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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12
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Volz A, Sutter G. Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara: History, Value in Basic Research, and Current Perspectives for Vaccine Development. Adv Virus Res 2016; 97:187-243. [PMID: 28057259 PMCID: PMC7112317 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Safety tested Modified Vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is licensed as third-generation vaccine against smallpox and serves as a potent vector system for development of new candidate vaccines against infectious diseases and cancer. Historically, MVA was developed by serial tissue culture passage in primary chicken cells of vaccinia virus strain Ankara, and clinically used to avoid the undesirable side effects of conventional smallpox vaccination. Adapted to growth in avian cells MVA lost the ability to replicate in mammalian hosts and lacks many of the genes orthopoxviruses use to conquer their host (cell) environment. As a biologically well-characterized mutant virus, MVA facilitates fundamental research to elucidate the functions of poxvirus host-interaction factors. As extremely safe viral vectors MVA vaccines have been found immunogenic and protective in various preclinical infection models. Multiple recombinant MVA currently undergo clinical testing for vaccination against human immunodeficiency viruses, Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Plasmodium falciparum. The versatility of the MVA vector vaccine platform is readily demonstrated by the swift development of experimental vaccines for immunization against emerging infections such as the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome. Recent advances include promising results from the clinical testing of recombinant MVA-producing antigens of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N1 or Ebola virus. This review summarizes our current knowledge about MVA as a unique strain of vaccinia virus, and discusses the prospects of exploiting this virus as research tool in poxvirus biology or as safe viral vector vaccine to challenge existing and future bottlenecks in vaccinology.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Volz
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, LMU University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - G Sutter
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, LMU University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
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Mucker EM, Chapman J, Huzella LM, Huggins JW, Shamblin J, Robinson CG, Hensley LE. Susceptibility of Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) to Monkeypox Virus: A Low Dose Prospective Model for Monkeypox and Smallpox Disease. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131742. [PMID: 26147658 PMCID: PMC4492619 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Although current nonhuman primate models of monkeypox and smallpox diseases provide some insight into disease pathogenesis, they require a high titer inoculum, use an unnatural route of infection, and/or do not accurately represent the entire disease course. This is a concern when developing smallpox and/or monkeypox countermeasures or trying to understand host pathogen relationships. In our studies, we altered half of the test system by using a New World nonhuman primate host, the common marmoset. Based on dose finding studies, we found that marmosets are susceptible to monkeypox virus infection, produce a high viremia, and have pathological features consistent with smallpox and monkeypox in humans. The low dose (48 plaque forming units) required to elicit a uniformly lethal disease and the extended incubation (preclinical signs) are unique features among nonhuman primate models utilizing monkeypox virus. The uniform lethality, hemorrhagic rash, high viremia, decrease in platelets, pathology, and abbreviated acute phase are reflective of early-type hemorrhagic smallpox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric M. Mucker
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
- Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisianna, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Chapman
- Joint Pathology Center, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Louis M. Huzella
- Integrated Research Facility, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - John W. Huggins
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Joshua Shamblin
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Camenzind G. Robinson
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Lisa E. Hensley
- Integrated Research Facility, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
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Titova KA, Sergeev AA, Zamedyanskaya AS, Galahova DO, Kabanov AS, Morozova AA, Bulychev LE, Sergeev AA, Glotova TI, Shishkina LN, Taranov OS, Omigov VV, Zavjalov EL, Agafonov AP, Sergeev AN. Using ICR and SCID mice as animal models for smallpox to assess antiviral drug efficacy. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:2832-2843. [PMID: 26067292 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The possibility of using immunocompetent ICR mice and immunodeficient SCID mice as model animals for smallpox to assess antiviral drug efficacy was investigated. Clinical signs of the disease did not appear following intranasal (i.n.) challenge of mice with strain Ind-3a of variola virus (VARV), even when using the highest possible dose of the virus (5.2 log10 p.f.u.). The 50 % infective doses (ID50) of VARV, estimated by the virus presence or absence in the lungs 3 and 4 days post-infection, were 2.7 ± 0.4 log10 p.f.u. for ICR mice and 3.5 ± 0.7 log10 p.f.u. for SCID mice. After i.n. challenge of ICR and SCID mice with VARV 30 and 50 ID50, respectively, steady reproduction of the virus occurred only in the respiratory tract (lungs and nose). Pathological inflammatory destructive changes were revealed in the respiratory tract and the primary target cells for VARV (macrophages and epithelial cells) in mice, similar to those in humans and cynomolgus macaques. The use of mice to assess antiviral efficacies of NIOCH-14 and ST-246 demonstrated the compliance of results with those described in scientific literature, which opens up the prospect of their use as an animal model for smallpox to develop anti-smallpox drugs intended for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ksenya A Titova
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Alexander A Sergeev
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Alena S Zamedyanskaya
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Darya O Galahova
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Alexey S Kabanov
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Anastasia A Morozova
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Leonid E Bulychev
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Artemiy A Sergeev
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Tanyana I Glotova
- State Scientific Establishment - Institute of Experimental Veterinary Science of Siberia and the Far East Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Krasnoobsk, Novosibirsk Region, Russian Federation
| | - Larisa N Shishkina
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Oleg S Taranov
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Vladimir V Omigov
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Evgenii L Zavjalov
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Lavrentyeva 10, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
| | - Alexander P Agafonov
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
| | - Alexander N Sergeev
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution - State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-being, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russian Federation
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15
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Rehfeld IS, Guedes MIMC, Fraiha ALS, Costa AG, Matos ACD, Fiúza ATL, Lobato ZIP. Vaccinia virus Transmission through Experimentally Contaminated Milk Using a Murine Model. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0127350. [PMID: 26000966 PMCID: PMC4441451 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine vaccinia (BV) is a zoonosis caused by Vaccinia virus (VACV), which affects dairy cattle and humans. Previous studies have detected the presence of viable virus particles in bovine milk samples naturally and experimentally contaminated with VACV. However, it is not known whether milk contaminated with VACV could be a route of viral transmission. However, anti-Orthopoxvirus antibodies were detected in humans from BV endemic areas, whom had no contact with affected cows, which suggest that other VACV transmission routes are possible, such as consumption of contaminated milk and dairy products. Therefore, it is important to study the possibility of VACV transmission by contaminated milk. This study aimed to examine VACV transmission, pathogenesis and shedding in mice orally inoculated with experimentally contaminated milk. Thirty mice were orally inoculated with milk containing 107 PFU/ml of VACV, and ten mice were orally inoculated with uncontaminated milk. Clinical examinations were performed for 30 consecutive days, and fecal samples and oral swabs (OSs) were collected every other day. Mice were euthanized on predetermined days, and tissue and blood samples were collected. Nested-PCR, plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), viral isolation, histopathology, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) methods were performed on the collected samples. No clinical changes were observed in the animals. Viral DNA was detected in feces, blood, OSs and tissues, at least in one of the times tested. The lungs displayed moderate to severe interstitial lymphohistiocytic infiltrates, and only the heart, tonsils, tongue, and stomach did not show immunostaining at the IHC analysis. Neutralizing antibodies were detected at the 20th and 30th days post infection in 50% of infected mice. The results revealed that VACV contaminated milk could be a route of viral transmission in mice experimentally infected, showing systemic distribution and shedding through feces and oral mucosa, albeit without exhibiting any clinical signs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izabelle Silva Rehfeld
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Virologia Animal (LPVA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Maria Isabel Maldonado Coelho Guedes
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Virologia Animal (LPVA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ana Luiza Soares Fraiha
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Virologia Animal (LPVA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Aristóteles Gomes Costa
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Virologia Animal (LPVA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Diniz Matos
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Virologia Animal (LPVA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Aparecida Tatiane Lino Fiúza
- Laboratório de Patologia Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinárias, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Zélia Inês Portela Lobato
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Virologia Animal (LPVA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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17
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Primary human macrophages serve as vehicles for vaccinia virus replication and dissemination. J Virol 2014; 88:6819-31. [PMID: 24696488 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03726-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Human monocytic and professional antigen-presenting cells have been reported only to exhibit abortive infections with vaccinia virus (VACV). We found that monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs), including granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-polarized M1 and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)-polarized M2, but not human AB serum-derived cells, were permissive to VACV replication. The titers of infectious virions in both cell-free supernatants and cellular lysates of infected M1 and M2 markedly increased in a time-dependent manner. The majority of virions produced in permissive MDMs were extracellular enveloped virions (EEV), a secreted form of VACV associated with long-range virus dissemination, and were mainly found in the culture supernatant. Infected MDMs formed VACV factories, actin tails, virion-associated branching structures, and cell linkages, indicating that MDMs are able to initiate de novo synthesis of viral DNA and promote virus release. VACV replication was sensitive to inhibitors against the Akt and Erk1/2 pathways that can be activated by VACV infection and M-CSF stimulation. Classical activation of MDMs by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plus gamma interferon (IFN-γ) stimulation caused no effect on VACV replication, while alternative activation of MDMs by interleukin-10 (IL-10) or LPS-plus-IL-1β treatment significantly decreased VACV production. The IL-10-mediated suppression of VACV replication was largely due to Stat3 activation, as a Stat3 inhibitor restored virus production to levels observed without IL-10 stimulation. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that primary human macrophages are permissive to VACV replication. After infection, these cells produce EEV for long-range dissemination and also form structures associated with virions which may contribute to cell-cell spread. IMPORTANCE Our results provide critical information to the burgeoning fields of cancer-killing (oncolytic) virus therapy with vaccinia virus (VACV). One type of macrophage (M2) is considered a common presence in tumors and is associated with poor prognosis. Our results demonstrate a preference for VACV replication in M2 macrophages and could assist in designing treatments and engineering poxviruses with special considerations for their effect on M2 macrophage-containing tumors. Additionally, this work highlights the importance of macrophages in the field of vaccine development using poxviruses as vectors. The understanding of the dynamics of poxvirus-infected foci is central in understanding the effectiveness of the immune response to poxvirus-mediated vaccine vectors. Monocytic cells have been found to be an important part of VACV skin lesions in mice in controlling the infection as well as mediating virus transport out of infected foci.
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18
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Efficacy of tecovirimat (ST-246) in nonhuman primates infected with variola virus (Smallpox). Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:6246-53. [PMID: 24100494 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00977-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Naturally occurring smallpox has been eradicated but remains a considerable threat as a biowarfare/bioterrorist weapon (F. Fleck, Bull. World Health Organ. 81:917-918, 2003). While effective, the smallpox vaccine is currently not recommended for routine use in the general public due to safety concerns (http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/vaccination). Safe and effective countermeasures, particularly those effective after exposure to smallpox, are needed. Currently, SIGA Technologies is developing the small-molecule oral drug, tecovirimat (previously known as ST-246), as a postexposure therapeutic treatment of orthopoxvirus disease, including smallpox. Tecovirimat has been shown to be efficacious in preventing lethal orthopoxviral disease in numerous animal models (G. Yang, D. C. Pevear, M. H. Davies, M. S. Collett, T. Bailey, et al., J. Virol. 79:13139-13149, 2005; D. C. Quenelle, R. M. Buller, S. Parker, K. A. Keith, D. E. Hruby, et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 51:689-695, 2007; E. Sbrana, R. Jordan, D. E. Hruby, R. I. Mateo, S. Y. Xiao, et al., Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 76:768-773, 2007). Furthermore, in clinical trials thus far, the drug appears to be safe, with a good pharmacokinetic profile. In this study, the efficacy of tecovirimat was evaluated in both a prelesional and postlesional setting in nonhuman primates challenged intravenously with 1 × 10(8) PFU of Variola virus (VARV; the causative agent of smallpox), a model for smallpox disease in humans. Following challenge, 50% of placebo-treated controls succumbed to infection, while all tecovirimat-treated animals survived regardless of whether treatment was started at 2 or 4 days postinfection. In addition, tecovirimat treatment resulted in dramatic reductions in dermal lesion counts, oropharyngeal virus shedding, and viral DNA circulating in the blood. Although clinical disease was evident in tecovirimat-treated animals, it was generally very mild and appeared to resolve earlier than in placebo-treated controls that survived infection. Tecovirimat appears to be an effective smallpox therapeutic in nonhuman primates, suggesting that it is reasonably likely to provide therapeutic benefit in smallpox-infected humans.
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19
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Leeds JM, Fenneteau F, Gosselin NH, Mouksassi MS, Kassir N, Marier JF, Chen Y, Grosenbach D, Frimm AE, Honeychurch KM, Chinsangaram J, Tyavanagimatt SR, Hruby DE, Jordan R. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic modeling to determine the dose of ST-246 to protect against smallpox in humans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:1136-43. [PMID: 23254433 PMCID: PMC3591874 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00959-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although smallpox has been eradicated, the United States government considers it a "material threat" and has funded the discovery and development of potential therapeutic compounds. As reported here, the human efficacious dose for one of these compounds, ST-246, was determined using efficacy studies in nonhuman primates (NHPs), together with pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis that predicted the appropriate dose and exposure levels to provide therapeutic benefit in humans. The efficacy analysis combined the data from studies conducted at three separate facilities that evaluated treatment following infection with a closely related virus, monkeypox virus (MPXV), in a total of 96 NHPs. The effect of infection on ST-246 pharmacokinetics in NHPs was applied to humans using population pharmacokinetic models. Exposure at the selected human dose of 600 mg is more than 4-fold higher than the lowest efficacious dose in NHPs and is predicted to provide protection to more than 95% of the population.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Nastya Kassir
- Pharsight Consulting Services, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - J. F. Marier
- Pharsight Consulting Services, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Yali Chen
- SIGA Technologies, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
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Bourquain D, Dabrowski PW, Nitsche A. Comparison of host cell gene expression in cowpox, monkeypox or vaccinia virus-infected cells reveals virus-specific regulation of immune response genes. Virol J 2013; 10:61. [PMID: 23425254 PMCID: PMC3599072 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Accepted: 02/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Animal-borne orthopoxviruses, like monkeypox, vaccinia and the closely related cowpox virus, are all capable of causing zoonotic infections in humans, representing a potential threat to human health. The disease caused by each virus differs in terms of symptoms and severity, but little is yet know about the reasons for these varying phenotypes. They may be explained by the unique repertoire of immune and host cell modulating factors encoded by each virus. In this study, we analysed the specific modulation of the host cell’s gene expression profile by cowpox, monkeypox and vaccinia virus infection. We aimed to identify mechanisms that are either common to orthopoxvirus infection or specific to certain orthopoxvirus species, allowing a more detailed description of differences in virus-host cell interactions between individual orthopoxviruses. To this end, we analysed changes in host cell gene expression of HeLa cells in response to infection with cowpox, monkeypox and vaccinia virus, using whole-genome gene expression microarrays, and compared these to each other and to non-infected cells. Results Despite a dominating non-responsiveness of cellular transcription towards orthopoxvirus infection, we could identify several clusters of infection-modulated genes. These clusters are either commonly regulated by orthopoxvirus infection or are uniquely regulated by infection with a specific orthopoxvirus, with major differences being observed in immune response genes. Most noticeable was an induction of genes involved in leukocyte migration and activation in cowpox and monkeypox virus-infected cells, which was not observed following vaccinia virus infection. Conclusion Despite their close genetic relationship, the expression profiles induced by infection with different orthopoxviruses vary significantly. It may be speculated that these differences at the cellular level contribute to the individual characteristics of cowpox, monkeypox and vaccinia virus infections in certain host species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Bourquain
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Robert Koch Institute, Nordufer 20, Berlin, Germany.
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21
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Cann JA, Jahrling PB, Hensley LE, Wahl-Jensen V. Comparative pathology of smallpox and monkeypox in man and macaques. J Comp Pathol 2013; 148:6-21. [PMID: 22884034 PMCID: PMC3498598 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2012.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Revised: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In the three decades since the eradication of smallpox and cessation of routine vaccination, the collective memory of the devastating epidemics caused by this orthopoxvirus has waned, and the human population has become increasingly susceptible to a disease that remains high on the list of possible bioterrorism agents. Research using surrogate orthopoxviruses in their natural hosts, as well as limited variola virus research in animal models, continues worldwide; however, interpretation of findings is often limited by our relative lack of knowledge about the naturally occurring disease. For modern comparative pathologists, many of whom have no first-hand knowledge of naturally occurring smallpox, this work provides a contemporary review of this historical disease, as well as discussion of how it compares with human monkeypox and the corresponding diseases in macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Cann
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, Division of Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD, USA.
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22
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Rivetti AV, Guedes MIMC, Rehfeld IS, Oliveira TML, Matos ACD, Abrahão JS, Kroon EG, Lobato ZIP. Bovine vaccinia, a systemic infection: evidence of fecal shedding, viremia and detection in lymphoid organs. Vet Microbiol 2012; 162:103-11. [PMID: 23021861 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Revised: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Bovine vaccinia (BV) is a zoonosis caused by Vaccinia virus (VACV) that affects dairy cattle and milkers, causing economic losses and impacting animal and human health. Based on the clinical presentation, BV appears to be a localized disease, with lesions restricted to the skin of affected individuals. However, there are no studies on the pathogenesis of the disease in cows to determine if there is a systemic spread of the virus and if there are different ways of VACV shedding. The objective of this work was to study if there is a systemic spread of VACV in experimentally infected cows and to study the kinetics of VACV circulation in the blood and shedding in the feces of these animals. To this end, eight crossbred lactating cows were used. Three teats of each cow were inoculated with the GP2V strain of VACV. All animals were monitored daily, and blood and fecal samples were collected for 67 days post-infection (dpi). After this period, four of these previously infected cows were immunosuppressed using dexamethasone. Viral DNA was continuously detected and quantified in the blood and feces of these animals in an intermittent way, even after the resolution of the lesions. At slaughter, tissues were collected, and viral DNA was detected and quantified in the mesenteric and retromammary lymph nodes, ileum, spleen and liver. The detection of VACV DNA in the feces for a longer period (67 dpi) and in the lymphatic organs provides new evidence about VACV elimination and suggests that BV could be a systemic infection with a chronic course and viral shedding through the feces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anselmo V Rivetti
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG) - Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Caixa Postal 567, Campus da UFMG, CEP 30123-970, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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Reynolds MG, Carroll DS, Karem KL. Factors affecting the likelihood of monkeypox's emergence and spread in the post-smallpox era. Curr Opin Virol 2012; 2:335-43. [PMID: 22709519 PMCID: PMC9533834 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2012.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Accepted: 02/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In 1980, the World Health Assembly announced that smallpox had been successfully eradicated as a disease of humans. The disease clinically and immunologically most similar to smallpox is monkeypox, a zoonosis endemic to moist forested regions in West and Central Africa. Smallpox vaccine provided protection against both infections. Monkeypox virus is a less efficient human pathogen than the agent of smallpox, but absent smallpox and the population-wide immunity engendered during eradication efforts, could monkeypox now gain a foothold in human communities? We discuss possible ecologic and epidemiologic limitations that could impede monkeypox's emergence as a significant pathogen of humans, and evaluate whether genetic constrains are sufficient to diminish monkeypox virus' capacity for enhanced specificity as a parasite of humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary G Reynolds
- US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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