Foxa1 reduces lipid accumulation in human hepatocytes and is down-regulated in nonalcoholic fatty liver

The Role of Solute Carrier Family Transporters in Hepatic Steatosis and Hepatic Fibrosis

Solute carrier (SLC) family transporters are crucial transmembrane proteins responsible for transporting various molecules, including amino acids, electrolytes, fatty acids, and nucleotides. To date, more than fifty SLC transporter subfamilies have been identified, many of which are linked to the progression of hepatic steatosis and fibrosis. These conditions are often caused by factors such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, which are major contributors to the global liver disease burden. The activity of SLC members regulates the transport of substrates across biological membranes, playing key roles in lipid synthesis and metabolism, mitochondrial function, and ferroptosis. These processes, in turn, influence the function of hepatocytes, hepatic stellate cells, and macrophages, thereby contributing to the development of hepatic steatosis and fibrosis. Additionally, some SLC transporters are involved in drug transport, acting as critical regulators of drug-induced hepatic steatosis. Beyond substrate transport, certain SLC members also exhibit additional functions. Given the pivotal role of the SLC family in hepatic steatosis and fibrosis, this review aimed to summarize the molecular mechanisms through which SLC transporters influence these conditions.

Injectable cell-laden gelatin-chondroitin sulphate hydrogels for liver in vitro models

Liver extracellular matrix-based models that precisely reproduce liver physiology and functions are required as 3D culture microenvironments for multiple applications in toxicology and metabolism, or for understanding the mechanisms implicated in liver disease. We introduced injectable gelatin-chondroitin sulphate (Gel/CS) hydrogels for culturing HepG2 cells, and evaluated the mechanical properties and functionality of cells in different Gel/CS compositions. The Gel/CS hydrogels exhibited soft mechanical properties and allowed the HepG2 culture. The characterisation and comparison of 3D cultures to standard monolayer systems revealed the regulation of key hepatic markers (i.e. CYP3A4, GSTA1) when cells were cultured in the Gel/CS hydrogels compared to 2D cultures, and also enhanced urea and albumin production, which would indicate increased cells functionality. This study underpins 3D in vitro models based on the Gel/CS hydrogels that can be used for different hepatology applications by offering increased predictivity and physiological relevance compared to current in vitro models.

Resequencing of Brazilian locally adapted cattle breeds revealed variants in candidate genes and transcription factors for meat fatty acid profile

The beef cattle industry has experienced a shift driven by a market demand for healthier meat, cost efficiency and environmental sustainability in recent years. Consequently, there has been a growing focus on the fatty acids content and functions of meat in cattle breeding programmes. Besides, a deeper understanding of the biological mechanisms influencing the expression of different phenotypes related to fatty acid profiles is crucial. In this study, we aimed to identify Single-Nucleotide Variants (SNV) and Insertion/Deletion (InDels) DNA variants in candidate genes related to fatty acid profiles described in genomic, transcriptomic and proteomic studies conducted in beef cattle breeds. Utilizing whole-genome re-sequencing data from Brazilian locally adapted bovine breeds, namely Caracu and Pantaneiro, we identified SNVs and InDels associated with 23,947 genes. From these, we identified 318 candidate genes related to fatty acid profiles that contain variants. Subsequently, we select only genes with SNVs and InDels in their promoter, 5' UTR and coding region. Through the gene-biological process network, approximately 19 genes were highlighted. Furthermore, considering the studied trait and a literature review, we selected the main transcription factors (TF). Functional analysis via gene-TF network allowed us to identify the 30 most likely candidate genes for meat fatty acid profile in cattle. LIPE, MFSD2A and SREBF1 genes were highlighted in networks due to their biological importance. Further dissection of these genes revealed 15 new variants found in promoter regions of Caracu and Pantaneiro sequences. The gene networks facilitated a better functional understanding of genes and TF, enabling the identification of variants potentially related to the expression of candidate genes for meat fatty acid profiles in cattle.

Impaired SUMOylation of FoxA1 promotes nonalcoholic fatty liver disease through down-regulation of Sirt6

Abnormal SUMOylation is implicated in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) progression. Forkhead box protein A1 (FoxA1) has been shown to protect liver from steatosis, which was down-regulated in NAFLD. This study elucidated the role of FoxA1 deSUMOylation in NAFLD. NAFLD models were established in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced mice and palmitate acid (PAL)-treated hepatocytes. Hepatic steatosis was evaluated by biochemical and histological methods. Lipid droplet formation was determined by BODIPY and Oil red O staining. Target molecule levels were analyzed by RT-qPCR, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry staining. SUMOylation of FoxA1 was determined by Ni-NTA pull-down assay and SUMOylation assay Ultra Kit. Protein interaction and ubiquitination were detected by Co-IP. Gene transcription was assessed by ChIP and dual luciferase reporter assays. Liver FoxA1 knockout mice developed severe liver steatosis, which could be ameliorated by sirtuin 6 (Sirt6) overexpression. Nutritional stresses reduced Sumo2/3-mediated FoxA1 SUMOylation at lysine residue K6, which promoted lipid droplet formation by repressing fatty acid β-oxidation. Moreover, Sirt6 was a target gene of FoxA1, and Sirt6 transcription activity was restrained by deSUMOylation of FoxA1 at site K6. Furthermore, nutritional stresses-induced deSUMOylation of FoxA1 promoted the ubiquitination and degradation of FoxA1 with assistance of murine double minute 2 (Mdm2). Finally, activating FoxA1 SUMOylation delayed the progression of NAFLD in mice. DeSUMOylation of FoxA1 at K6 promotes FoxA1 degradation and then inhibits Sirt6 transcription, thereby suppressing fatty acid β-oxidation and facilitating NAFLD development. Our findings suggest that FoxA1 SUMOylation activation might be a promising therapeutic strategy for NAFLD.

N-acetyl Cysteine Overdose Induced Acute Toxicity and Hepatic Microvesicular Steatosis by Disrupting GSH and Interfering Lipid Metabolisms in Normal Mice

N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) is a versatile drug used in various conditions, but the limitations and toxicities are not clear. The acute toxicity and toxicological mechanisms of an intraperitoneal injection of NAC in normal mice were deciphered. The LD50 for male and female BALB/cByJNarl mice were 800 mg/kg and 933 mg/kg. The toxicological mechanisms of 800 mg/kg NAC (N800) were investigated. The serum biomarkers of hepatic and renal indices dramatically increased, followed by hepatic microvesicular steatosis, renal tubular injury and necrosis, and splenic red pulp atrophy and loss. Thus, N800 resulted in mouse mortality mainly due to acute liver, kidney, and spleen damages. The safe dose (275 mg/kg) of NAC (N275) increased hepatic antioxidant capacity by increasing glutathione levels and catalase activity. N275 elevated the hepatic gene expressions of lipid transporter, lipid synthesis, β-oxidation, and ketogenesis, suggesting a balance between lipid production and consumption, and finally, increased ATP production. In contrast, N800 increased hepatic oxidative stress by decreasing glutathione levels through suppressing Gclc, and reducing catalase activity. N800 decreased the hepatic gene expressions of lipid transporter, lipid synthesis, and interferred β-oxidation, leading to lipid accumulation and increasing Cyp2E1 expression, and finally, decreased ATP production. Therefore, NAC doses are limited for normal individuals, especially via intraperitoneal injection or similar means.

CPT1A Protects Podocytes From Lipotoxicity and Apoptosis In Vitro and Alleviates Diabetic Nephropathy In Vivo

Defective fatty acid oxidation (FAO) has been implicated in diabetic kidney disease (DKD), yet little is known about the role of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1A (CPT1A), a pivotal rate-limiting enzyme of FAO, in the progression of DKD. Here, we investigate whether CPT1A is a reliable therapeutic target for DKD. We first confirmed the downregulation expression of CPT1A in glomeruli from patients with diabetes. We further evaluated the function of CPT1A in diabetic models. Overexpression of CPT1A exhibited protective effects in diabetic conditions, improving albuminuria and glomerular sclerosis as well as mitigating glomerular lipid deposits and podocyte injury in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Mechanistically, CPT1A not only fostered lipid consumption via fatty acid metabolism pathways, thereby reducing lipotoxicity, but also anchored Bcl2 to the mitochondrial membrane, thence preventing cytochrome C release and inhibiting the mitochondrial apoptotic process. Furthermore, a novel transcription factor of CPT1A, FOXA1, was identified. We elucidate the crucial role of CPT1A in mitigating podocyte injury and the progression of DKD, indicating that targeting CPT1A may be a promising avenue for DKD treatment.

ARTICLE HIGHLIGHTS

Drug-Induced Fatty Liver Disease (DIFLD): A Comprehensive Analysis of Clinical, Biochemical, and Histopathological Data for Mechanisms Identification and Consistency with Current Adverse Outcome Pathways

Drug induced fatty liver disease (DIFLD) is a form of drug-induced liver injury (DILI), which can also be included in the more general metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), which specifically refers to the accumulation of fat in the liver unrelated to alcohol intake. A bi-directional relationship between DILI and MASLD is likely to exist: while certain drugs can cause MASLD by acting as pro-steatogenic factors, MASLD may make hepatocytes more vulnerable to drugs. Having a pre-existing MASLD significantly heightens the likelihood of experiencing DILI from certain medications. Thus, the prevalence of steatosis within DILI may be biased by pre-existing MASLD, and it can be concluded that the genuine true incidence of DIFLD in the general population remains unknown. In certain individuals, drug-induced steatosis is often accompanied by concomitant injury mechanisms such as oxidative stress, cell death, and inflammation, which leads to the development of drug-induced steatohepatitis (DISH). DISH is much more severe from the clinical point of view, has worse prognosis and outcome, and resembles MASH (metabolic-associated steatohepatitis), as it is associated with inflammation and sometimes with fibrosis. A literature review of clinical case reports allowed us to examine and evaluate the clinical features of DIFLD and their association with specific drugs, enabling us to propose a classification of DIFLD drugs based on clinical outcomes and pathological severity: Group 1, drugs with low intrinsic toxicity (e.g., ibuprofen, naproxen, acetaminophen, irinotecan, methotrexate, and tamoxifen), but expected to promote/aggravate steatosis in patients with pre-existing MASLD; Group 2, drugs associated with steatosis and only occasionally with steatohepatitis (e.g., amiodarone, valproic acid, and tetracycline); and Group 3, drugs with a great tendency to transit to steatohepatitis and further to fibrosis. Different mechanisms may be in play when identifying drug mode of action: (1) inhibition of mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation; (2) inhibition of fatty acid transport across mitochondrial membranes; (3) increased de novo lipid synthesis; (4) reduction in lipid export by the inhibition of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein; (5) induction of mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening; (6) dissipation of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential; (7) impairment of the mitochondrial respiratory chain/oxidative phosphorylation; (8) mitochondrial DNA damage, degradation and depletion; and (9) nuclear receptors (NRs)/transcriptomic alterations. Currently, the majority of, if not all, adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) for steatosis in AOP-Wiki highlight the interaction with NRs or transcription factors as the key molecular initiating event (MIE). This perspective suggests that chemical-induced steatosis typically results from the interplay between a chemical and a NR or transcription factors, implying that this interaction represents the primary and pivotal MIE. However, upon conducting this exhaustive literature review, it became evident that the current AOPs tend to overly emphasize this interaction as the sole MIE. Some studies indeed support the involvement of NRs in steatosis, but others demonstrate that such NR interactions alone do not necessarily lead to steatosis. This view, ignoring other mitochondrial-related injury mechanisms, falls short in encapsulating the intricate biological mechanisms involved in chemically induced liver steatosis, necessitating their consideration as part of the AOP's map road as well.

Unique lipid composition maintained by extracellular blockade leads to prooncogenicity

Lipid-mediated inflammation is involved in the development and malignancy of cancer. We previously demonstrated the existence of a novel oncogenic mechanism utilizing membrane lipids of extracellular vesicles in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-positive lymphomas and found that the lipid composition of lymphoma cells is skewed toward ω-3 fatty acids, which are anti-inflammatory lipids, suggesting an alteration in systemic lipid composition. The results showed that arachidonic acid (AA), an inflammatory lipid, was significantly reduced in the infected cells but detected at high levels in the sera of EBV-positive patients lead to the finding of the blockade of extracellular AA influx by downregulating FATP2, a long-chain fatty acid transporter that mainly transports AA in EBV-infected lymphoma cells. Low AA levels in tumor cells induced by downregulation of FATP2 expression confer resistance to ferroptosis and support tumor growth. TCGA data analysis and xenograft models have demonstrated that the axis plays a critical role in several types of cancers, especially poor prognostic cancers, such as glioblastoma and melanoma. Overall, our in vitro, in vivo, in silico, and clinical data suggest that several cancers exert oncogenic activity by maintaining their special lipid composition via extracellular blockade.

FOXA1 and FOXA2: the regulatory mechanisms and therapeutic implications in cancer

FOXA1 (Forkhead Box A1) and FOXA2 (Forkhead Box A2) serve as pioneering transcription factors that build gene expression capacity and play a central role in biological processes, including organogenesis and differentiation, glycolipid metabolism, proliferation, migration and invasion, and drug resistance. Notably, FOXA1 and FOXA2 may exert antagonistic, synergistic, or complementary effects in the aforementioned biological processes. This article focuses on the molecular mechanisms and clinical relevance of FOXA1 and FOXA2 in steroid hormone-induced malignancies and highlights potential strategies for targeting FOXA1 and FOXA2 for cancer therapy. Furthermore, the article describes the prospect of targeting upstream regulators of FOXA1/FOXA2 to regulate its expression for cancer therapy because of the drug untargetability of FOXA1/FOXA2.

Trans-omic analysis reveals opposite metabolic dysregulation between feeding and fasting in liver associated with obesity

Dysregulation of liver metabolism associated with obesity during feeding and fasting leads to the breakdown of metabolic homeostasis. However, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. Here, we measured multi-omics data in the liver of wild-type and leptin-deficient obese (ob/ob) mice at ad libitum feeding and constructed a differential regulatory trans-omic network of metabolic reactions. We compared the trans-omic network at feeding with that at 16 h fasting constructed in our previous study. Intermediate metabolites in glycolytic and nucleotide metabolism decreased in ob/ob mice at feeding but increased at fasting. Allosteric regulation reversely shifted between feeding and fasting, generally showing activation at feeding while inhibition at fasting in ob/ob mice. Transcriptional regulation was similar between feeding and fasting, generally showing inhibiting transcription factor regulations and activating enzyme protein regulations in ob/ob mice. The opposite metabolic dysregulation between feeding and fasting characterizes breakdown of metabolic homeostasis associated with obesity.

Foxa2 attenuates steatosis and inhibits the NF-κB/IKK signaling pathway in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Objective

Forkhead box a2 (Foxa2) is proven to be an insulin-sensitive transcriptional regulator and affects hepatic steatosis. This study aims to investigate the mechanism by which Foxa2 affects nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

Methods

Animal and cellular models of NAFLD were constructed using high-fat diet (HFD) feeding and oleic acid (OA) stimulation, respectively. NAFLD mice received tail vein injections of either an overexpressing negative control (oe-NC) or Foxa2 (oe-Foxa2) for four weeks. HepG2 cells were transfected with oe-NC and oe-Foxa2 for 48 h before OA stimulation. Histological changes and lipid accumulation were assessed using hematoxylin-eosin staining and oil red O staining, respectively. Expression of Foxa2, NF-κB/IKK pathway proteins, lipid synthesis proteins, and fatty acid β-oxidation protein in HFD mice and OA-induced HepG2 cells was detected using western blot.

Results

Foxa2 expression was downregulated in HFD mice and OA-induced HepG2 cells. Foxa2 overexpression attenuated lipid accumulation and liver injury, and reduced the levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, total cholesterol, or triglyceride in HFD mice and OA-induced HepG2 cells. Moreover, Foxa2 overexpression decreased the expression of lipid synthesis proteins and increased fatty acid β-oxidation protein expression in the liver tissues. Furthermore, overexpression of Foxa2 downregulated the expression of p-NF-κB/NF-κB and p-IKK/IKK in OA-induced HepG2 cells. Additionally, lipopolysaccharide (NF-κB/IKK pathway activator) administration reversed the downregulation of lipid synthesis proteins and the upregulation of fatty acid β-oxidation protein.

Conclusion

Foxa2 expression is downregulated in NAFLD. Foxa2 ameliorated hepatic steatosis and inhibited the activation of the NF-κB/IKK signaling pathway.

MYC determines lineage commitment in KRAS-driven primary liver cancer development

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Primary liver cancer (PLC) comprises hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA), two frequent and lethal tumour types that differ regarding their tumour biology and responses to cancer therapies. Liver cells harbour a high degree of cellular plasticity and can give rise to either HCC or iCCA. However, little is known about the cell-intrinsic mechanisms directing an oncogenically transformed liver cell to either HCC or iCCA. The scope of this study was to identify cell-intrinsic factors determining lineage commitment in PLC.

METHODS

Cross-species transcriptomic and epigenetic profiling was applied to murine HCCs and iCCAs and to two human PLC cohorts. Integrative data analysis comprised epigenetic Landscape In Silico deletion Analysis (LISA) of transcriptomic data and Hypergeometric Optimization of Motif EnRichment (HOMER) analysis of chromatin accessibility data. Identified candidate genes were subjected to functional genetic testing in non-germline genetically engineered PLC mouse models (shRNAmir knockdown or overexpression of full-length cDNAs).

RESULTS

Integrative bioinformatic analyses of transcriptomic and epigenetic data pinpointed the Forkhead-family transcription factors FOXA1 and FOXA2 as MYC-dependent determination factors of the HCC lineage. Conversely, the ETS family transcription factor ETS1 was identified as a determinant of the iCCA lineage, which was found to be suppressed by MYC during HCC development. Strikingly, shRNA-mediated suppression of FOXA1 and FOXA2 with concomitant ETS1 expression fully switched HCC to iCCA development in PLC mouse models.

CONCLUSIONS

The herein reported data establish MYC as a key determinant of lineage commitment in PLC and provide a molecular explanation why common liver-damaging risk factors such as alcoholic or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis can lead to either HCC or iCCA.

IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS

Liver cancer is a major health problem and comprises hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA), two frequent and lethal tumour types that differ regarding their morphology, tumour biology, and responses to cancer therapies. We identified the transcription factor and oncogenic master regulator MYC as a switch between HCC and iCCA development. When MYC levels are high at the time point when a hepatocyte becomes a tumour cell, an HCC is growing out. Conversely, if MYC levels are low at this time point, the result is the outgrowth of an iCCA. Our study provides a molecular explanation why common liver-damaging risk factors such as alcoholic or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis can lead to either HCC or iCCA. Furthermore, our data harbour potential for the development of better PLC therapies.

Mechanistic Understanding of Idiosyncratic Drug-Induced Hepatotoxicity Using Co-Cultures of Hepatocytes and Macrophages

Hepatotoxicity or drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a major safety issue in drug development as a primary reason for drug failure in clinical trials and the main cause for post-marketing regulatory measures like drug withdrawal. Idiosyncratic DILI (iDILI) is a patient-specific, multifactorial, and multicellular process that cannot be recapitulated in current in vitro models; thus, our major goal is to develop and fully characterize a co-culture system and to evaluate its suitability for predicting iDILI. For this purpose, we used human hepatoma HepG2 cells and macrophages differentiated from a monocyte cell line (THP-1) and established the appropriate co-culture conditions for mimicking an inflammatory environment. Then, mono-cultures and co-cultures were treated with model iDILI compounds (trovafloxacin, troglitazone) and their parent non-iDILI compounds (levofloxacin, rosiglitazone), and the effects on viability and the mechanisms implicated (i.e., oxidative stress induction) were analyzed. Our results show that co-culture systems including hepatocytes (HepG2) and other cell types (THP-1-derived macrophages) help to enhance the mechanistic understanding of iDILI, providing better hepatotoxicity predictions.

The Role of GLP1-RAs in Direct Modulation of Lipid Metabolism in Hepatic Tissue as Determined Using In Vitro Models of NAFLD

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) have been shown to improve glucose and lipid homeostasis, promote weight loss, and reduce cardiovascular risk factors. They are a promising therapeutic option for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), the most common liver disease, associated with T2DM, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. GLP-1RAs have been approved for the treatment of T2DM and obesity, but not for NAFLD. Most recent clinical trials have suggested the importance of early pharmacologic intervention with GLP-1RAs in alleviating and limiting NAFLD, as well as highlighting the relative scarcity of in vitro studies on semaglutide, indicating the need for further research. However, extra-hepatic factors contribute to the GLP-1RA results of in vivo studies. Cell culture models of NAFLD can be helpful in eliminating extrahepatic effects on the alleviation of hepatic steatosis, modulation of lipid metabolism pathways, reduction of inflammation, and prevention of the progression of NAFLD to severe hepatic conditions. In this review article, we discuss the role of GLP-1 and GLP-1RA in the treatment of NAFLD using human hepatocyte models.

Acupoint Catgut Embedding Improves Lipid Metabolism in Exercise-Induced Fatigue Rats via the PPAR Signaling Pathway

To improve the phenomenon of exercise-induced fatigue that often occurs during horse racing, we previously studied the improvement in exercise tolerance by acupoint catgut embedding preconditioning in an exercise-induced fatigue rat model. We found that acupoint catgut embedding pretreatment effectively improved animal exercise tolerance. Here, by combining transcriptomics and metabolomics, we aimed to explore the underlying mechanisms of this improvement. We used blood biochemical detection combined with ELISA to detect triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and glucose (GLU), arachidonic acid (AA), and free fatty acid (FFA) content and found that acupoint embedding can correct FFA, AA, TG, LDH, and AST in the blood. We used RT-qPCR to measure the expression of genes in tissue from the quadriceps femoris muscle. We found that solute carrier family 27 member 2 (Slc27a2), fatty acid binding protein 1 (Fabp1), apolipoprotein C3 (Apoc3), and lipoprotein lipase (Lpl) genes in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathway were important. The regulation of lipid metabolism through the PPAR signaling pathway was important for improving the exercise endurance of rats in our exercise-induced fatigue model. Therefore, we conclude that acupoint catgut embedding can not only promote body fat decomposition and reduce lactic acid accumulation but also promote the repair of tissue damage and liver damage caused by exercise fatigue. Acupoint catgut embedding regulates the PPAR signaling pathway by upregulating Lpl expression and downregulating Slc27a2, Fabp1, and Apoc3 expression to further improve body fat metabolism.

Loss of liver function in chronic liver disease: An identity crisis

Adult hepatocyte identity is constructed throughout embryonic development and fine-tuned after birth. A multinodular network of transcription factors, along with pre-mRNA splicing regulators, define the transcriptome, which encodes the proteins needed to perform the complex metabolic and secretory functions of the mature liver. Transient hepatocellular dedifferentiation can occur as part of the regenerative mechanisms triggered in response to acute liver injury. However, persistent downregulation of key identity genes is now accepted as a strong determinant of organ dysfunction in chronic liver disease, a major global health burden. Therefore, the identification of core transcription factors and splicing regulators that preserve hepatocellular phenotype, and a thorough understanding of how these networks become disrupted in diseased hepatocytes, is of high clinical relevance. In this context, we review the key players in liver differentiation and discuss in detail critical factors, such as HNF4α, whose impairment mediates the breakdown of liver function. Moreover, we present compelling experimental evidence demonstrating that restoration of core transcription factor expression in a chronically injured liver can reset hepatocellular identity, improve function and ameliorate structural abnormalities. The possibility of correcting the phenotype of severely damaged and malfunctional livers may reveal new therapeutic opportunities for individuals with cirrhosis and advanced liver disease.

Thwarting Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Fatty Liver Disease (MAFLD) with Common Bean: Dose- and Sex-Dependent Protection against Hepatic Steatosis

Hepatic steatosis signifies onset of metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) caused by disrupted metabolic homeostasis compromising liver function. Regular consumption of common beans reduces the risk of metabolic impairment, but its effective dose, the impact of biological sex, and underlying mechanisms of action are unknown. We fed female and male C57BL6/J mice with obesogenic yet isocaloric diets containing 0%, 17.5%, 35%, and 70% of total dietary protein derived from cooked whole common beans. Liver tissue was collected for histopathology, lipid quantification, and RNA-seq analyses. Beans qualitatively and quantitatively diminished hepatic fat deposition at the 35% dose in female and 70% dose in male mice. Bean-induced differentially expressed genes (DEGs) most significantly mapped to hepatic steatosis and revealed dose-responsive inhibition of de novo lipogenesis markers (Acly, Acaca, Fasn, Elovl6, Scd1, etc.) and triacylglycerol biosynthesis, activation of triacylglycerol degradation, and downregulation of sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1 (SREBF1) signaling. Upregulated fatty acid β-oxidation was more prominent in females, while suppression of Cd36-mediated fatty acid uptake-in males. Sex-dependent bean effects also involved DEGs patterns downstream of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) and MLX-interacting protein-like (MLXIPL). Therefore, biological sex determines amount of common bean in the diet required to prevent hepatic lipid accumulation.

The role of FOXA family transcription factors in glucolipid metabolism and NAFLD

Abnormal glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism are common pathological processes in many metabolic diseases, such as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Many studies have shown that the forkhead box (FOX) protein subfamily FOXA has a role in regulating glucolipid metabolism and is closely related to hepatic steatosis and NAFLD. FOXA exhibits a wide range of functions ranging from the initiation steps of metabolism such as the development of the corresponding metabolic organs and the differentiation of cells, to multiple pathways of glucolipid metabolism, to end-of-life problems of metabolism such as age-related obesity. The purpose of this article is to review and discuss the currently known targets and signal transduction pathways of FOXA in glucolipid metabolism. To provide more experimental evidence and basis for further research and clinical application of FOXA in the regulation of glucolipid metabolism and the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.

FOXA1/2 depletion drives global reprogramming of differentiation state and metabolism in a human liver cell line and inhibits differentiation of human stem cell-derived hepatic progenitor cells

FOXA factors are critical members of the developmental gene regulatory network (GRN) composed of master transcription factors (TF) which regulate murine cell fate and metabolism in the gut and liver. How FOXA factors dictate human liver cell fate, differentiation, and simultaneously regulate metabolic pathways is poorly understood. Here, we aimed to determine the role of FOXA2 (and FOXA1 which is believed to compensate for FOXA2) in controlling hepatic differentiation and cell metabolism in a human hepatic cell line (HepG2). siRNA mediated knockdown of FOXA1/2 in HepG2 cells significantly downregulated albumin (p < .05) and GRN TF gene expression (HNF4α, HEX, HNF1ß, TBX3) (p < .05) and significantly upregulated endoderm/gut/hepatic endoderm markers (goosecoid [GSC], FOXA3, and GATA4), gut TF (CDX2), pluripotent TF (NANOG), and neuroectodermal TF (PAX6) (p < .05), all consistent with partial/transient reprograming. shFOXA1/2 targeting resulted in similar findings and demonstrated evidence of reversibility of phenotype. RNA-seq followed by bioinformatic analysis of shFOXA1/2 knockdown HepG2 cells demonstrated 235 significant downregulated genes and 448 upregulated genes, including upregulation of markers for alternate germ layers lineages (cardiac, endothelial, muscle) and neurectoderm (eye, neural). We found widespread downregulation of glycolysis, citric acid cycle, mitochondrial genes, and alterations in lipid metabolism, pentose phosphate pathway, and ketogenesis. Functional metabolic analysis agreed with these findings, demonstrating significantly diminished glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration, with concomitant accumulation of lipid droplets. We hypothesized that FOXA1/2 inhibit the initiation of human liver differentiation in vitro. During human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC)-hepatic differentiation, siRNA knockdown demonstrated de-differentiation and unexpectedly, activation of pluripotency factors and neuroectoderm. shRNA knockdown demonstrated similar results and activation of SOX9 (hepatobiliary). These results demonstrate that FOXA1/2 controls hepatic and developmental GRN, and their knockdown leads to reprogramming of both differentiation and metabolism, with applications in studies of cancer, differentiation, and organogenesis.

Liver RBFOX2 regulates cholesterol homeostasis via Scarb1 alternative splicing in mice

RNA alternative splicing (AS) expands the regulatory potential of eukaryotic genomes. The mechanisms regulating liver-specific AS profiles and their contribution to liver function are poorly understood. Here, we identify a key role for the splicing factor RNA-binding Fox protein 2 (RBFOX2) in maintaining cholesterol homeostasis in a lipogenic environment in the liver. Using enhanced individual-nucleotide-resolution ultra-violet cross-linking and immunoprecipitation, we identify physiologically relevant targets of RBFOX2 in mouse liver, including the scavenger receptor class B type I (Scarb1). RBFOX2 function is decreased in the liver in diet-induced obesity, causing a Scarb1 isoform switch and alteration of hepatocyte lipid homeostasis. Our findings demonstrate that specific AS programmes actively maintain liver physiology, and underlie the lipotoxic effects of obesogenic diets when dysregulated. Splice-switching oligonucleotides targeting this network alleviate obesity-induced inflammation in the liver and promote an anti-atherogenic lipoprotein profile in the blood, underscoring the potential of isoform-specific RNA therapeutics for treating metabolism-associated diseases.

Prolactin and Maternal Metabolism in Women With a Recent GDM Pregnancy and Links to Future T2D: The SWIFT Study

CONTEXT

Prolactin is a multifaceted hormone known to regulate lactation. In women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) history, intensive lactation has been associated with lower relative risk of future type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, the role of prolactin in T2D development and maternal metabolism in women with a recent GDM pregnancy has not been ascertained.

OBJECTIVE

We examined the relationships among prolactin, future T2D risk, and key clinical and metabolic parameters.

METHODS

We utilized a prospective GDM research cohort (the SWIFT study) and followed T2D onset by performing 2-hour 75-g research oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at study baseline (6-9 weeks postpartum) and again annually for 2 years, and also by retrieving clinical diagnoses of T2D from 2 years through 10 years of follow up from electronic medical records. Targeted metabolomics and lipidomics were applied on fasting plasma samples collected at study baseline from 2-hour 75-g research OGTTs in a nested case-control study (100 future incident T2D cases vs 100 no T2D controls).

RESULTS

Decreasing prolactin quartiles were associated with increased future T2D risk (adjusted odds ratio 2.48; 95% CI, 0.81-7.58; P = 0.05). In women who maintained normoglycemia during the 10-year follow-up period, higher prolactin at baseline was associated with higher insulin sensitivity (P = 0.038) and HDL-cholesterol (P = 0.01), but lower BMI (P = 0.001) and leptin (P = 0.002). Remarkably, among women who developed future T2D, prolactin was not correlated with a favorable metabolic status (all P > 0.05). Metabolomics and lipidomics showed that lower circulating prolactin strongly correlated with a T2D-high risk lipid profile, with elevated circulating neutral lipids and lower concentrations of specific phospholipids/sphingolipids.

CONCLUSION

In women with recent GDM pregnancy, low circulating prolactin is associated with specific clinical and metabolic parameters and lipid metabolites linked to a high risk of developing T2D.

Quantitative Prediction of Steatosis in Patients with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver by Means of Hepatic MicroRNAs Present in Serum and Correlating with Hepatic Fat

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most prevalent form of chronic liver disease worldwide, but a reliable non-invasive method to quantify liver steatosis in primary healthcare is not available. Circulating microRNAs have been proposed as biomarkers of severe/advanced NAFLD (steatohepatitis and fibrosis). However, the use of circulating miRNAs to quantitatively assess the % of liver fat in suspected NAFLD patients has not been investigated. We performed global miRNA sequencing in two sets of samples: human livers from organ donors (n = 20), and human sera from biopsy-proven NAFLD patients (n = 23), both with a wide range of steatosis quantified in their liver biopsies. Partial least squares (PLS) regression combined with recursive feature elimination (RFE) was used to select miRNAs associated with steatosis. Moreover, regression models with only 2 or 3 miRNAs, with high biological relevance, were built. Comprehensive microRNA sequencing of liver and serum samples resulted in two sets of abundantly expressed miRNAs (418 in liver and 351 in serum). Pearson correlation analyses indicated that 18% of miRNAs in liver and 14.5% in serum were significantly associated with the amount of liver fat. PLS-RFE models demonstrated that 50 was the number of miRNAs providing the lowest error in both liver and serum models predicting steatosis. Comparison of the two miRNA subsets showed 19 coincident miRNAs that were ranked according to biological significance (guide/passenger strand, relative abundance in liver and serum, number of predicted lipid metabolism target genes, correlation significance, etc.). Among them, miR-10a-5p, miR-98-5p, miR-19a-3p, miR-30e-5p, miR-32-5p and miR-145-5p showed the highest biological relevance. PLS regression models with serum levels of 2−3 of these miRNAs predicted the % of liver fat with errors <5%.

PGC1α Cooperates with FOXA1 to Regulate Epithelial Mesenchymal Transition through the TCF4-TWIST1

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1α) is a critical transcriptional coactivator that maintains metabolic homeostasis and energy expenditure by cooperating with various transcription factors. Recent studies have shown that PGC1α deficiency promotes lung cancer metastasis to the bone through activation of TCF4 and TWIST1-mediated epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is suppressed by the inhibitor of DNA binding 1 (ID1); however, it is not clear which transcription factor participates in PGC1α-mediated EMT and lung cancer metastasis. Here, we identified forkhead box A1 (FOXA1) as a potential transcription factor that coordinates with PGC1α and ID1 for EMT gene expression using transcriptome analysis. Cooperation between FOXA1 and PGC1α inhibits promoter occupancy of TCF4 and TWIST1 on CDH1 and CDH2 proximal promoter regions due to increased ID1, consequently regulating the expression of EMT-related genes such as CDH1, CDH2, VIM, and PTHLH. Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1), a major EMT-promoting factor, was found to decrease ID1 due to the suppression of FOXA1 and PGC1α. In addition, ectopic expression of ID1, FOXA1, and PGC1α reversed TGFβ1-induced EMT gene expression. Our findings suggest that FOXA1- and PGC1α-mediated ID1 expression involves EMT by suppressing TCF4 and TWIST1 in response to TGFβ1. Taken together, this transcriptional framework is a promising molecular target for the development of therapeutic strategies for lung cancer metastasis.

Regulation of mitochondrial function by forkhead transcription factors

Mitochondria play a central role in several important cellular processes such as energy production, apoptosis, fatty acid catabolism, calcium regulation, and cellular stress response. Multiple nuclear transcription factors have been reported for their role in the regulation of mitochondrial gene expression. More recently, the role of the forkhead family of transcription factors in various mitochondrial pathways has been reported. Among them, FOXO1, FOXO3a, FOXG1, and FOXM1 have been reported to localize to the mitochondria, of which the first two have been observed to bind to the mitochondrial D-loop. This suggests an important role for forkhead transcription factors in the direct regulation of the mitochondrial genome and function. Forkheads such as FOXO3a, FOXO1, and FOXM1 are involved in the cellular response to oxidative stress, hypoxia, and nutrient limitation. Several members of the forkhead family of transcription factors are also involved in the regulation of nuclear-encoded genes associated with the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, respiration, mitochondrial dynamics, and homeostasis.

Recombinant humanized IgG1 maintain liver triglyceride homeostasis through Arylacetamide deacetylase in ApoE-/- mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Hyperlipidemia is a lipid metabolism disorder associated with elevated serum triglyceride (TG) and/or cholesterol. Over the years, studies have shown that hyperlipidemia is associated with combordities, incluing diabetes and obesity, gradually becoming a public health concern. Current treatment approaches remain limited due to the lack of effective drugs. Here we investigated the function of recombinant humanized IgG1 in maintaining liver TG homeostasis and the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

ApoE^-/- mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 20 weeks to induce hyperlipidemia. RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) was performed to identify differences in gene expression in different groups of ApoE^-/- mice liver. In vitro lipid accumulation in primary mouse hepatocytes was induced using a free fatty acid (FFA) mixture. Gene and protein expression were assessed in primary mouse hepatocytes by qPCR and Western blot. Gene reporter assays and ChIP-PCR were used to determine arylacetamide deacetylase (Aadac) promoter activity.

RESULTS

Recombinant humanized IgG1 could significantly decrease the serum level of TG and low-density lipoproteins (LDL-C). Moreover, hepatic TG and lipid droplets were also reduced compared to the HFD group. Mouse liver RNA-Seq revealed that administration of recombinant humanized IgG1 significantly elevated the expression of Aadac. In vitro, knock-down of Aadac could nullify the effect of recombinant humanized IgG1 on decreasing the lipid droplets induced by FFA in primary mouse hepatocytes. Gene Reporter assays and ChIP-PCR demonstrated that the foxa1 response element in the Aadac promoter played a key role in Aadac expression induced by recombinant humanized IgG1. Moreover, recombinant humanized IgG1 repressed phosphorylation of PKCδ and resulted in foxa1 elevation. Finally, neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) knock-down reversed the effect of recombinant humanized IgG1 on the expression of PKCδ phosphorylation, foxa1 and Aadac.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that recombinant humanized IgG1 plays an important role in maintaining liver TG homeostasis via the FcRn/PKCδ/foxa1/Aadac pathway.

Oxidative-stress and long-term hepatotoxicity: comparative study in Upcyte human hepatocytes and hepaRG cells

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is one of the most common and serious adverse drug reactions and a major cause of drug development failure and withdrawal. Although different molecular mechanisms are implicated in DILI, enhanced ROS levels have been described as a major mechanism. Human-derived cell models are increasingly used in preclinical safety assessment because they provide quick and relatively inexpensive information in early stages of drug development. We have analyzed and compared the phenotype and functionality of two liver cell models (Upcyte human hepatocytes and HepaRG cells) to demonstrate their suitability for long-term hepatotoxicity assessments and mechanistic studies. The transcriptomic and functional analysis revealed the maintenance of phase I and phase II enzymes, and antioxidant enzymes along time in culture, although the differences found between both test systems underlie the differential sensitivity to hepatotoxins. The evaluation of several mechanisms of cell toxicity, including oxidative stress, by high-content screening, demonstrated that, by combining the stable phenotype of liver cells and repeated-dose exposure regimes to 12 test compounds at clinically relevant concentrations, both Upcyte hepatocytes and HepaRG offer suitable properties to be used in routine screening assays for toxicological assessments during drug preclinical testing.

Exendin-4 alleviates steatosis in an in vitro cell model by lowering FABP1 and FOXA1 expression via the Wnt/-catenin signaling pathway

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the leading chronic liver disease worldwide. Agonists of the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R), currently approved to treat type 2 diabetes, hold promise to improve steatosis and even steatohepatitis. However, due to their pleiotropic effects, the mechanisms underlying their protective effect on NAFLD remain elusive. We aimed to investigate these mechanisms using an in vitro model of steatosis treated with the GLP-1R agonist Exendin-4 (Ex-4). We established steatotic HepG2 cells by incubating the cells with 400 µM oleic acid (OA) overnight. Further treatment with 200 nM Ex-4 for 3 h significantly reduced the OA-induced lipid accumulation (p < 0.05). Concomitantly, Ex-4 substantially reduced the expression levels of Fatty Acid-Binding Protein 1 (FABP1) and its primary activator, Forkhead box protein A1 (FOXA1). Interestingly, the silencing of β-catenin with siRNA abolished the effect of Ex-4 on these genes, suggesting dependency on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Additionally, after β-catenin silencing, OA treatment significantly increased the expression of nuclear transcription factors SREBP-1 and TCF4, whereas Ex-4 significantly decreased this upregulation. Our findings suggest that direct activation of GLP-1R by Ex-4 reduces OA-induced steatosis in HepG2 cells by reducing fatty acid uptake and transport via FABP1 downregulation.

GWAS in Africans identifies novel lipids loci and demonstrates heterogenous association within Africa

Serum lipids are biomarkers of cardiometabolic disease risk, and understanding genomic factors contributing to their distribution is of interest. Studies of lipids in Africans are rare, though it is expected that such studies could identify novel loci. We conducted a GWAS of 4317 Africans enrolled from Nigeria, Ghana and Kenya. We evaluated linear mixed models of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLC), total cholesterol (CHOL), triglycerides (TG) and TG/HDLC. Replication was attempted in 9542 African Americans (AA). In our main analysis, we identified 28 novel associations in Africans. Of the 18 of these that could be tested in AA, three associations replicated (GPNMB-TG, ENPP1-TG and SMARCA4-LDLC). Five additional novel loci were discovered upon meta-analysis with AA (rs138282551-TG, PGBD5-HDLC, CD80-TG/HDLC, SLC44A1-CHOL and TLL2-CHOL). Analyses considering only those with predominantly West African ancestry (Nigeria, Ghana and AA) yielded new insights: ORC5-LDLC and chr20:60973327-CHOL. Among our novel findings are some loci with known connections to lipids pathways. For instance, rs147706369 (TLL2) alters a regulatory motif for sterol regulatory element-binding proteins, a family of transcription factors that control the expression of a range of enzymes involved in cholesterol, fatty acid and TG synthesis, and rs115749422 (SMARCA4), an independent association near the known LDLR locus that is rare or absent in populations without African ancestry. These findings demonstrate the utility of conducting genomic analyses in Africans for discovering novel loci and provide some preliminary evidence for caution against treating 'African ancestry' as a monolithic category.

The Impact of Maternal and Piglet Low Protein Diet and Their Interaction on the Porcine Liver Transcriptome around the Time of Weaning

Maternal diet during early gestation affects offspring phenotype, but it is unclear whether maternal diet during late gestation influences piglet metabolism. We evaluated the impact of two dietary protein levels in sow late gestation diet and piglet nursery diet on piglet metabolism. Diets met or exceeded the crude protein and amino acid requirements. Sows received either 12% (Lower, L) or 17% (Higher, H) crude protein (CP) during the last five weeks of gestation, and piglets received 16.5% (L) or 21% (H) CP from weaning at age 3.5 weeks. This resulted in a 2 × 2 factorial design with four sow/piglet diet treatment groups: HH and LL (match), HL and LH (mismatch). Piglet hepatic tissues were sampled and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were determined by RNA sequencing. At age 4.5 weeks, 25 genes were downregulated and 22 genes were upregulated in the mismatch compared to match groups. Several genes involved in catabolic pathways were upregulated in the mismatch compared to match groups, as were genes involved in lipid metabolism and inflammation. The results show a distinct interaction effect between maternal and nursery diets, implying that sow late gestation diet could be used to optimize piglet metabolism.

The effect of homocysteine on the expression of CD36, PPARγ, and C/EBPα in adipose tissue of normal and obese mice

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of homocysteine (Hcy) on CD36, PPARγ, and C/EBPα gene and protein expression in adipose tissue obtained from normal and high-calorie diet obesity models. CD36, PPARγ, and C/EBPα gene expression and protein levels in adipose tissue specimens were determined using the RT-PCR and ELISA methods, respectively. Significantly increased CD36 gene expression was observed in adipose tissue from obese mice, while Hcy significantly reduced CD36 gene expression in adipose tissue from normal and obese mice. PPARγ and C/EBPα gene expression levels decreased significantly in all groups compared to the normal group. In addition, levels of both PPARγ and C/EBPα gene expression were lower with Hcy supplementation compared to their own controls. In conclusion, Hcy's reduction of CD36 gene expression in adipose tissue may be one probable factor in hyperhomocysteinemia representing an independent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.

The Forkhead Box Transcription Factor FoxP4 Regulates Thermogenic Programs in Adipocytes

Forkhead box transcription factors have been shown to be involved in various developmental and differentiation processes. In particular, members of the FoxP family have been previously characterized in depth for their participation in the regulation of lung and neuronal cell differentiation and T-cell development and function; however, their role in adipocyte functionality has not yet been investigated. Here, we report for the first time that Forkhead box P4 (FoxP4) is expressed at high levels in subcutaneous fat depots and mature thermogenic adipocytes. Through molecular and gene expression analyses, we revealed that FoxP4 is induced in response to thermogenic stimuli, both in vivo and in isolated cells, and is regulated directly by the heat shock factor protein 1 through a heat shock response element identified in the proximal promoter region of FoxP4. Further detailed analysis involving chromatin immunoprecipitation and luciferase assays demonstrated that FoxP4 directly controls the levels of uncoupling protein 1, a key regulator of thermogenesis that uncouples fatty acid oxidation from ATP production. In addition, through our gain-of-function and loss-of-function studies, we showed that FoxP4 regulates the expression of a number of classic brown and beige fat genes and affects oxygen consumption in isolated adipocytes. Overall, our data demonstrate for the first time the novel role of FoxP4 in the regulation of thermogenic adipocyte functionality.

Fatty acids and evolving roles of their proteins in neurological, cardiovascular disorders and cancers

The dysregulation of fat metabolism is involved in various disorders, including neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, and cancers. The uptake of long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) with 14 or more carbons plays a pivotal role in cellular metabolic homeostasis. Therefore, the uptake and metabolism of LCFAs must constantly be in tune with the cellular, metabolic, and structural requirements of cells. Many metabolic diseases are thought to be driven by the abnormal flow of fatty acids either from the dietary origin and/or released from adipose stores. Cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking of fatty acids are facilitated ubiquitously with unique combinations of fatty acid transport proteins and cytoplasmic fatty acid-binding proteins in every tissue. Extensive data are emerging on the defective transporters and metabolism of LCFAs and their clinical implications. Uptake and metabolism of LCFAs are crucial for the brain's functional development and cardiovascular health and maintenance. In addition, data suggest fatty acid metabolic transporter can normalize activated inflammatory response by reprogramming lipid metabolism in cancers. Here we review the current understanding of how LCFAs and their proteins contribute to the pathophysiology of three crucial diseases and the mechanisms involved in the processes.

FOXA3 induction under endoplasmic reticulum stress contributes to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Chronic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the liver has been shown to play a causative role in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) progression, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Forkhead box A3 (FOXA3), a member of the FOX family, plays critical roles in metabolic homeostasis, although its possible functions in ER stress and fatty liver progression are unknown.

METHODS

Adenoviral delivery, siRNA delivery, and genetic knockout mice were used to crease FOXA3 gain- or loss-of-function models. Tunicamycin (TM) and a high-fat diet (HFD) were used to induce acute or chronic ER stress in mice. Chromatin immunoprecipiation (ChIP)-seq, luciferase assay, and adenoviral-mediated downstream gene manipulations were performed to reveal the transcriptional axis involved. Key axis protein levels in livers from healthy donors and patients with NAFLD were assessed via immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

FOXA3 transcription is specifically induced by XBP1s upon ER stress. FOXA3 exacerbates the excessive lipid accumulation caused by the acute ER-inducer TM, whereas FOXA3 deficiency in hepatocytes and mice alleviates it. Importantly, FOXA3 deficiency in mice reduced diet-induced chronic ER stress, fatty liver, and insulin resistance. In addition, FOXA3 suppression via siRNA or adeno-associated virus delivery ameliorated the fatty liver phenotype in HFD-fed and db/db mice. Mechanistically, ChIP-Seq analysis revealed that FOXA3 directly regulates Period1 (Per1) transcription, which in turn promotes the expression of lipogenic genes, including Srebp1c, thus enhancing lipid synthesis. Of pathophysiological significance, FOXA3, PER1, and SREBP1c levels were increased in livers of obese mice and patients with NAFLD.

CONCLUSION

The present study identified FOXA3 as the bridging molecule that links ER stress and NAFLD progression. Our results highlighted the role of the XBP1s-FOXA3-PER1/Srebp1c transcriptional axis in the development of NAFLD and identified FOXA3 as a potential therapeutic target for fatty liver disease.

LAY SUMMARY

The molecular mechanisms linking endoplasmic reticulum stress to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) progression remain undefined. Herein, via in vitro and in vivo analysis, we identified Forkhead box A3 (FOXA3) as a key bridging molecule. Of pathophysiological significance, FOXA3 protein levels were increased in livers of obese mice and patients with NAFLD, indicating that FOXA3 could be a potential therapeutic target in fatty liver disease.

Toxicity Screening of Bisphenol A Replacement Compounds: Cytotoxicity and mRNA Expression in Primary Hepatocytes of Chicken and Double-Crested Cormorant

A market for bisphenol A (BPA) replacement compounds has emerged as a result of restrictions on the use of BPA. Some of these compounds have been detected in the environment; however, little is known about their toxicological properties. In the present study, an avian in vitro toxicogenomic approach was used to compare the effects of 5 BPA alternatives. Cell viability and mRNA expression were compared in primary embryonic hepatocytes of chicken (CEH) and double-crested cormorant (DCEH) exposed to 4,4'-(propane-2,2-diyl) diphenol (BPA), bis (4-hydroxyphenyl) methane (BPF), bis (3-allyl-4-hydroxyphenyl) sulfone (TGSH), 7-bis (4-hydroxyphenylthio)-3,5-dioxaheptane (DD-70), 2,2-bis (4-hydroxyphenyl) hexafluoropropane (BPAF), and 4-hydroxyphenyl 4-isoprooxyphenylsulfone (BPSIP). Changes in gene expression were determined using 2 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) arrays: 1) species-specific ToxChips that contain genes representing toxicologically relevant pathways, and 2) chicken-specific AestroChip that measures estrogen responsive genes. In CEH and DCEH, BPA alternatives TGSH, DD-70, and BPAF were most cytotoxic. Some of the replacement compounds changed the expression of genes related to xenobiotic metabolism, bile acid, and cholesterol regulation. The rank order based on the number of genes altered on the chicken ToxChip array was TGSH > DD-70 > BPAF = BPF > 17β estradiol (E2) > BPSIP > BPA. On the cormorant ToxChip array, BPSIP altered the greatest number of genes. Based on the chicken AestroChip data, BPSIP and BPF were slightly estrogenic. These results suggest that the replacement compounds have comparable or even greater toxicity than BPA and act via different mechanisms. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:1368-1378. © 2021 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Environment and Climate Change Canada.

The Influence of Coumestrol on Sphingolipid Signaling Pathway and Insulin Resistance Development in Primary Rat Hepatocytes

Coumestrol is a phytoestrogen widely known for its anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. Thus, it gets a lot of attention as a potential agent in the nutritional therapy of diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. In our study, we evaluated whether coumestrol affects insulin resistance development via the sphingolipid signaling pathway in primary rat hepatocytes. The cells were isolated from the male Wistar rat's liver with the use of collagenase perfusion. Next, we incubated the cells with the presence or absence of palmitic acid and/or coumestrol. Additionally, some groups were incubated with insulin. The sphingolipid concentrations were assessed by HPLC whereas the expression of all the proteins was evaluated by Western blot. Coumestrol markedly reduced the accumulation of sphingolipids, namely, ceramide and sphinganine through noticeable inhibition of the ceramide de novo synthesis pathway in insulin-resistant hepatocytes. Moreover, coumestrol augmented the expression of fatty acid transport proteins, especially FATP5 and FAT/CD36, which also were responsible for excessive sphingolipid accumulation. Furthermore, coumestrol altered the sphingolipid salvage pathway, which was observed as the excessive deposition of the sphingosine-1-phosphate and sphingosine. Our study clearly showed that coumestrol ameliorated hepatic insulin resistance in primary rat hepatocytes. Thus, we believe that our study may contribute to the discovery of novel preventive and therapeutic methods for metabolic disorders.

Identification of ribavirin-responsive cis-elements for GPAM suppression in the GPAM genome

Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase, mitochondrial (GPAM) is a rate-limiting enzyme catalyzing triglyceride synthesis. Recently, we demonstrated that the anti-viral drug ribavirin (RBV) reduces GPAM expression by downregulating CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα). However, the precise mechanisms of GPAM suppression have remained unclear. Here, we found that RBV suppressed GPAM expression by downregulating not only C/EBPα, but also sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c). We also found that cis-elements regulated by C/EBPα and SREBP-1c functioned as distal and proximal enhancers, respectively, to express hepatocyte- and adipocytes-specific GPAM variants. These results imply that RBV disrupts formation of the enhancer machineries on the GPAM genome by downregulating both transcription factors. Our findings may contribute to the development of treatments for fatty liver diseases caused by aberrant triglyceride synthesis.

FATP2-targeted therapies - A role beyond fatty liver disease

Fatty acid transport protein 2 (FATP2) is a multifunctional protein whose specific function is determined by the type of located cell, its intracellular location, or organelle-specific interactions. In the different diseases setting, a newfound appreciation for the biological function of FATP2 has come into view. Two main functions of FATP2 are to activate long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) as a very long-chain acyl-coenzyme A (CoA) synthetase (ACSVL) and to transport LCFAs as a fatty acid transporter. FATP2 is not only involved in the occurrence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), but also plays an important role in lithogenic diet-induced cholelithiasis, the formation of cancer tumor immunity, the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD), and the regulation of zoledronate-induced nephrotoxicity. Herein, we review the updated information on the role of FATP2 in related diseases. In particular, we discuss the new functions of FATP2 and propose that FATP2 is a potential clinical biomarker and therapeutic target. In conclusion, regulatory strategies for FATP2 may bring new treatment options for cancer and lipid metabolism-related disorders.

Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Hepatocellular Carcinoma Induction by Aberrant NRF2 Activation-Mediated Transcription Networks: Interaction of NRF2-KEAP1 Controls the Fate of Hepatocarcinogenesis

NF-E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) is a basic leucine zipper transcription factor, a master regulator of redox homeostasis regulating a variety of genes for antioxidant and detoxification enzymes. NRF2 was, therefore, initially thought to protect the liver from oxidative stress. Recent studies, however, have revealed that mutations in NRF2 cause aberrant accumulation of NRF2 in the nucleus and exert the upregulation of NRF2 target genes. Moreover, among all molecular changes in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), NRF2 activation has been revealed as a more prominent pathway contributing to the progression of precancerous lesions to malignancy. Nevertheless, how its activation leads to poor prognosis in HCC patients remains unclear. In this review, we provide an overview of how aberrant activation of NRF2 triggers HCC development. We also summarize the emerging roles of other NRF family members in liver cancer development.

Collapse of the hepatic gene regulatory network in the absence of FoxA factors

Here, Reizel et al. investigated the FoxA factor's role in maintaining the regulatory network needed for liver development, and ablated all FoxA genes in the adult mouse liver. They found that loss of FoxA caused rapid and massive reduction in the expression of critical liver genes, and that FoxA proteins are be required for maintaining enhancer activity, chromatin accessibility, nucleosome positioning, and binding of HNF4α.

The FoxA transcription factors are critical for liver development through their pioneering activity, which initiates a highly complex regulatory network thought to become progressively resistant to the loss of any individual hepatic transcription factor via mutual redundancy. To investigate the dispensability of FoxA factors for maintaining this regulatory network, we ablated all FoxA genes in the adult mouse liver. Remarkably, loss of FoxA caused rapid and massive reduction in the expression of critical liver genes. Activity of these genes was reduced back to the low levels of the fetal prehepatic endoderm stage, leading to necrosis and lethality within days. Mechanistically, we found FoxA proteins to be required for maintaining enhancer activity, chromatin accessibility, nucleosome positioning, and binding of HNF4α. Thus, the FoxA factors act continuously, guarding hepatic enhancer activity throughout adult life.

Deletion of fatty acid transport protein 2 (FATP2) in the mouse liver changes the metabolic landscape by increasing the expression of PPARα-regulated genes

Fatty acid transport protein 2 (FATP2) is highly expressed in the liver, small intestine, and kidney, where it functions in both the transport of exogenous long-chain fatty acids and the activation of very-long-chain fatty acids. Here, using a murine model, we investigated the phenotypic impacts of deleting FATP2, followed by a transcriptomic analysis using unbiased RNA-Seq to identify concomitant changes in the liver transcriptome. WT and FATP2-null (Fatp2-/-) mice (5 weeks) were maintained on a standard chow diet for 6 weeks. The Fatp2-/- mice had reduced weight gain, lowered serum triglyceride, and increased serum cholesterol levels and attenuated dietary fatty acid absorption. Transcriptomic analysis of the liver revealed 258 differentially expressed genes in male Fatp2-/- mice and a total of 91 in female Fatp2-/- mice. These genes mapped to the following gene ontology categories: fatty acid degradation, peroxisome biogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and retinol and arachidonic acid metabolism. Targeted RT-quantitative PCR verified the altered expression of selected genes. Of note, most of the genes with increased expression were known to be regulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα), suggesting that FATP2 activity is linked to a PPARα-specific proximal ligand. Targeted metabolomic experiments in the Fatp2-/- liver revealed increases of total C16:0, C16:1, and C18:1 fatty acids; increases in lipoxin A4 and prostaglandin J2; and a decrease in 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. We conclude that the expression of FATP2 in the liver broadly affects the metabolic landscape through PPARα, indicating that FATP2 provides an important role in liver lipid metabolism through its transport or activation activities.

Functionally analyzing the important roles of hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 (FoxA) in tumorigenesis

Transcriptional factors (TFs) play a central role in governing gene expression under physiological conditions including the processes of embryonic development, metabolic homeostasis and response to extracellular stimuli. Conceivably, the aberrant dysregulations of TFs would dominantly result in various human disorders including tumorigenesis, diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases. Serving as the most evolutionarily reserved TFs, Fox family TFs have been explored to exert distinct biological functions in neoplastic development, by manipulating diverse gene expression. Recently, among the Fox family members, the pilot roles of FoxAs attract more attention due to their functions as both pioneer factor and transcriptional factor in human tumorigenesis, particularly in the sex-dimorphism tumors. Therefore, the pathological roles of FoxAs in tumorigenesis have been well-explored in modulating inflammation, immune response and metabolic homeostasis. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the impressive progression of FoxA functional annotation, clinical relevance, upstream regulators and downstream effectors, as well as valuable animal models, and highlight the potential strategies to target FoxAs for cancer therapies.

EMT Factors and Metabolic Pathways in Cancer

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) represents a biological program during which epithelial cells lose their cell identity and acquire a mesenchymal phenotype. EMT is normally observed during organismal development, wound healing and tissue fibrosis. However, this process can be hijacked by cancer cells and is often associated with resistance to apoptosis, acquisition of tissue invasiveness, cancer stem cell characteristics, and cancer treatment resistance. It is becoming evident that EMT is a complex, multifactorial spectrum, often involving episodic, transient or partial events. Multiple factors have been causally implicated in EMT including transcription factors (e.g., SNAIL, TWIST, ZEB), epigenetic modifications, microRNAs (e.g., miR-200 family) and more recently, long non-coding RNAs. However, the relevance of metabolic pathways in EMT is only recently being recognized. Importantly, alterations in key metabolic pathways affect cancer development and progression. In this review, we report the roles of key EMT factors and describe their interactions and interconnectedness. We introduce metabolic pathways that are involved in EMT, including glycolysis, the TCA cycle, lipid and amino acid metabolism, and characterize the relationship between EMT factors and cancer metabolism. Finally, we present therapeutic opportunities involving EMT, with particular focus on cancer metabolic pathways.

Drug-Induced Steatosis and Steatohepatitis: The Search for Novel Serum Biomarkers Among Potential Biomarkers for Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis

Drug-induced steatosis (DIS) and drug-induced steatohepatitis (DISH) are two of several types of drug-induced liver injury (DILI). They can be caused by various drugs and may present as acute, potentially lethal disorders or as chronic slowly progressive liver injury. Despite the fact that they are distinct disorders, the slow progressive forms of DIS and DISH are often confused with or misdiagnosed as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which are much more common and, by definition, not caused by drugs. Currently the only way to identify DIS is via imaging studies or a liver biopsy, while DISH can be identified only through liver biopsy. In addition, diagnosis of either DIS or DISH requires an exhaustive clinical evaluation and comprehensive causality assessment to rule out other possible causes and determine the association with the suspected drug. Furthermore, it is difficult, using existing methods, to monitor the progression of DIS and DISH and to determine the underlying mechanism. Therefore, there is a great unmet need for non-invasive biomarkers that will be able to identify the development of DIS or DISH during drug development and to monitor for progression or regression of the disorder during treatment or following drug discontinuation. Recent developments in the fields of NAFLD and NASH have introduced several novel biomarkers that show promise for the diagnosis, monitoring, and severity assessment of these common diseases. Given the significant overlap in possible underlying mechanisms and histological pattern between NAFLD/NASH and DIS/DISH, these postulated NAFLD and NASH biomarkers may have a potential application to DIS and DISH. This article reviews the existing medical literature and other publically available information pertaining to novel serum biomarkers for NAFLD and NASH, and explores the concurrent identification of these biomarkers for DIS and DISH.

rs953413 Regulates Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Metabolism by Modulating ELOVL2 Expression

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) influence human health in several areas, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, fatty liver disease, and cancer. ELOVL2 encodes one of the key enzymes in the in vivo synthesis of LC-PUFAs from their precursors. Variants near ELOVL2 have repeatedly been associated with levels of LC-PUFA-derived metabolites in genome-wide association studies (GWAS), but the mechanisms behind these observations remain poorly defined. In this study, we found that rs953413, located in the first intron of ELOVL2, lies within a functional FOXA and HNF4α cooperative binding site. The G allele of rs953413 increases binding of FOXA1/FOXA2 and HNF4α to an evolutionarily conserved enhancer element, conferring allele-specific upregulation of the rs953413-associated gene ELOVL2. The expression of ELOVL2 was significantly downregulated by both FOXA1 and HNF4α knockdown and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated direct mutation to the enhancer element. Our results suggest that rs953413 regulates LC-PUFAs metabolism by altering ELOVL2 expression through FOXA1/FOXA2 and HNF4α cooperation.

•

rs953413 resides in an evolutionarily conserved enhancer region

•

rs953413 mediates the cooperative binding of FOXA and HNF4α to the enhancer region

•

The rs953413 locus plays a key role in regulating ELOVL2 expression

•

rs953413 is implicated in PUFA metabolism by regulating ELOVL2 expression

Epistane, an anabolic steroid used for recreational purposes, causes cholestasis with elevated levels of cholic acid conjugates, by upregulating bile acid synthesis (CYP8B1) and cross-talking with nuclear receptors in human hepatocytes

Anabolic-androgenic steroids are testosterone derivatives, used by body-builders to increase muscle mass. Epistane (EPI) is an orally administered 17α-alkylated testosterone derivative with 2a-3a epithio ring. We identified four individuals who, after EPI consumption, developed long-lasting cholestasis. The bile acid (BA) profile of three patients was characterized, as well the molecular mechanisms involved in this pathology. The serum BA pool was increased from 14 to 61-fold, basically on account of primary conjugated BA (cholic acid (CA) conjugates), whereas secondary BA were very low. In in vitro experiments with cultured human hepatocytes, EPI caused the accumulation of glycoCA in the medium. Moreover, as low as 0.01 μM EPI upregulated the expression of key BA synthesis genes (CYP7A1, by 65% and CYP8B1, by 67%) and BA transporters (NTCP, OSTA and BSEP), and downregulated FGF19. EPI increased the uptake/accumulation of a fluorescent BA analogue in hepatocytes by 50-70%. Results also evidenced, that 40 μM EPI trans-activated the nuclear receptors LXR and PXR. More importantly, 0.01 μM EPI activated AR in hepatocytes, leading to an increase in the expression of CYP8B1. In samples from a human liver bank, we proved that the expression of AR was positively correlated with that of CYP8B1 in men. Taken together, we conclude that EPI could cause cholestasis by inducing BA synthesis and favouring BA accumulation in hepatocytes, at least in part by AR activation. We anticipate that the large phenotypic variability of BA synthesis enzymes and transport genes in man provide a putative explanation for the idiosyncratic nature of EPI-induced cholestasis.

Potential Therapeutic Application of Estrogen in Gender Disparity of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease/Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) caused by fat accumulation in the liver is globally the most common cause of chronic liver disease. Simple steatosis can progress to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), a more severe form of NAFLD. The most potent driver for NASH is hepatocyte death induced by lipotoxicity, which triggers inflammation and fibrosis, leading to cirrhosis and/or liver cancer. Despite the significant burden of NAFLD, there is no therapy for NAFLD/NASH. Accumulating evidence indicates gender-related NAFLD progression. A higher incidence of NAFLD is found in men and postmenopausal women than premenopausal women, and the experimental results, showing protective actions of estradiol in liver diseases, suggest that estrogen, as the main female hormone, is associated with the progression of NAFLD/NASH. However, the mechanism explaining the functions of estrogen in NAFLD remains unclear because of the lack of reliable animal models for NASH, the imbalance between the sexes in animal experiments, and subsequent insufficient results. Herein, we reviewed the pathogenesis of NAFLD/NASH focused on gender and proposed a feasible association of estradiol with NAFLD/NASH based on the findings reported thus far. This review would help to expand our knowledge of the gender differences in NAFLD and for developing gender-based treatment strategies for NAFLD/NASH.

Current Status in Testing for Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) and Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH)

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease in Western countries with almost 25% affected adults worldwide. The growing public health burden is getting evident when considering that NAFLD-related liver transplantations are predicted to almost double within the next 20 years. Typically, hepatic alterations start with simple steatosis, which easily progresses to more advanced stages such as nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibrosis and cirrhosis. This course of disease finally leads to end-stage liver disease such as hepatocellular carcinoma, which is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Although clinical trials show promising results, there is actually no pharmacological agent approved to treat NASH. Another important problem associated with NASH is that presently the liver biopsy is still the gold standard in diagnosis and for disease staging and grading. Because of its invasiveness, this technique is not well accepted by patients and the method is prone to sampling error. Therefore, an urgent need exists to find reliable, accurate and noninvasive biomarkers discriminating between different disease stages or to develop innovative imaging techniques to quantify steatosis.

Transcriptional Regulation of Acyl-CoA:Glycerol-sn-3-Phosphate Acyltransferases

Acyl-CoA:glycerol-sn-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) is an enzyme responsible for the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of glycerophospholipids and triacylglycerol (TAG). The enzymes of mammalian species are classified into four isoforms; GPAT1 and GPAT2 are localized in the mitochondrial outer membrane, whereas GPAT3 and GPAT4 are localized in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. The activity of each enzyme expressed is associated with physiological and pathological functions. The transcriptional regulation is well known, particularly in GPAT1. GPAT1 mRNA expression is mainly regulated by the binding of the transcriptional factor SREBP-1c to the specific element (the sterol regulatory element) flanking the GPAT1 promoter. The TAG level is controlled by the insulin-induced transcriptional expression of GPAT1, which occupies most of the GPAT activity in the liver. The transcriptional regulation of the other three GPAT isoforms remains undetermined in detail. It is predicted that retinoic acid serves as a transcription factor in the GPAT2 promoter. PPARγ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ) increases the mRNA expression of GPAT3, which is associated with TAG synthesis in adipose tissues. Although GPAT has been considered to be a key enzyme in the production of TAG, unexpected functions have recently been reported, particularly in GPAT2. It is likely that GPAT2 is associated with tumorigenesis and normal spermatogenesis. In this review, the physiological and pathophysiological roles of the four GPAT isoforms are described, alongside the transcriptional regulation of these enzymes.

Tobacco Heating System 2.2 has a limited impact on DNA methylation of candidate enhancers in mouse lung compared with cigarette smoke

Cigarette smoke (CS) exposure has been shown to correlate with changes in DNA methylation levels, however, the impact of CS on DNA methylation at genome-wide scale is missing. Here, we used whole-genome bisulfite sequencing to assess the effects of CS extract and aerosol from the Tobacco Heating System (THS) 2.2, a candidate modified risk tobacco product, on DNA methylation in lung and liver tissues from apolipoprotein E-deficient mice during an eight-month period of exposure. We found that in lung tissue, CS mainly induced hypermethylation of candidate enhancers at late time points, while promoters were less affected. This effect was strongly reduced upon cessation or switching to THS 2.2. By contrast, chronic exposure to THS 2.2 had a limited effect on DNA methylation at both promoters and enhancers. We also identified members of the Ets and Fox families of transcription factors as potential players in the epigenetic response to CS exposure in lung tissue. In contrast to the lung, DNA methylation in the liver was largely insensitive to all investigated exposures. In summary, our investigations indicate that CS-related DNA methylation alterations are tissue-specific, occur mainly at enhancers and are strongly reduced upon smoking cessation or switching to THS2.2.

Genomics of lipid-laden human hepatocyte cultures enables drug target screening for the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

BACKGROUND

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a major health burden in need for new medication. To identify potential drug targets a genomic study was performed in lipid-laden primary human hepatocyte (PHH) and human hepatoma cell cultures.

METHODS

PHH, HuH7 and HepG2 hepatoma cell cultures were treated with lipids and/or TNFα. Intracellular lipid load was quantified with the ORO assay. The Affymetrix HG-U133+ array system was employed to perform transcriptome analysis. The lipid droplet (LD) growth and fusion was determined by fluorescence microscopy. LD associated proteins were imaged by confocal immunofluorescence microscopy and confirmed by Western immunoblotting. Bioinformatics defined perturbed metabolic pathways.

RESULTS

Whole genome expression profiling identified 227, 1031 and 571 significant regulated genes. Likewise, the combined lipid and TNFα treatment of PHH, HuH7 and HepG2 cell cultures revealed 154, 1238 and 278 differentially expressed genes. Although genomic responses differed among in-vitro systems, commonalities were ascertained by filtering the data for LD associated gene regulations. Among others the LD-growth and fusion associated cell death inducing DFFA like effector C (CIDEC), perilipins (PLIN2, PLIN3), the synaptosome-associated-protein 23 and the vesicle associated membrane protein 3 were strongly up-regulated. Likewise, the PPAR targets pyruvate-dehydrogenase-kinase-4 and angiopoietin-like-4 were up-regulated as was hypoxia-inducible lipid droplet-associated (HILPDA), flotilin and FGF21. Their inhibition ameliorates triglyceride and cholesterol accumulation. TNFα treatment elicited strong induction of the chemokine CXCL8, the kinases MAP3K8, MAP4K4 and negative regulators of cytokine signaling, i.e. SOCS2&SOCS3. Live cell imaging of DsRED calreticulin plasmid transfected HuH7 cells permitted an assessment of LD growth and fusion and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy evidenced induced LD-associated PLIN2, CIDEC, HIF1α, HILPDA, JAK1, PDK4 and ROCK2 expression. Notwithstanding, CPT1A protein was repressed to protect mitochondria from lipid overload. Pharmacological inhibition of the GTPase-dynamin and the fatty acid transporter-2 reduced lipid uptake by 28.5 and 35%, respectively. Finally, a comparisons of in-vitro/NAFLD patient biopsy findings confirmed common gene regulations thus demonstrating clinical relevance.

CONCLUSION

The genomics of fat-laden hepatocytes revealed LD-associated gene regulations and perturbed metabolic pathways. Immunofluorescence microscopy confirmed expression of coded proteins to provide a rationale for therapeutic intervention strategies. Collectively, the in-vitro system permits testing of drug candidates.