In vivo imaging of enteric neurogenesis in the deep tissue of mouse small intestine

Gastrointestinal Dysfunction and Low-Grade Inflammation Associate With Enteric Neuronal Amyloid-β in a Model for Amyloid Pathology

BACKGROUND

Patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease, a progressive neurodegenerative disorder involving cognitive decline and memory impairment, often present with gastrointestinal comorbidities. Accumulating data also indicate that alterations in the gut can modulate Alzheimer's disease pathology, highlighting the need to better understand the link between gastrointestinal abnormalities and neurodegeneration in the brain.

METHODS

To disentangle the pathophysiology of gastrointestinal dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease, we conducted a detailed pathological characterization of the gastrointestinal tract of 5xFAD mice by performing histological analyses, gene expression studies, immunofluorescence labeling and gut function assays.

RESULTS

We found that 5xFAD mice have elevated levels of intestinal amyloid precursor protein and accumulate amyloid-β in enteric neurons. Histopathology revealed that this is associated with mild intestinal inflammation and fibrosis and accompanied by increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines. While overall enteric nervous system composition and organization appeared unaffected, 5xFAD mice have faster gastrointestinal transit.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that amyloid-β accumulation in enteric neurons is associated with low-grade intestinal inflammation and altered motility and suggest that peripheral pathology may cause gastrointestinal dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease patients.

Imaging the enteric nervous system

The enteric nervous system (ENS) has garnered increasing scientific interest due to its pivotal role in digestive processes and its involvement in various gastrointestinal and central nervous system (CNS) disorders, including Crohn's disease, Parkinson's disease, and autism. Despite its significance, the ENS remains relatively underexplored by neurobiologists, primarily because its structure and function are less understood compared to the CNS. This review examines both pioneering methodologies that initially revealed the intricate layered structure of the ENS and recent advancements in studying its three-dimensional (3-D) organization, both in fixed samples and at a functional level, ex-vivo or in-vivo. Traditionally, imaging the ENS relied on histological techniques involving sequential tissue sectioning, staining, and microscopic imaging of single sections. However, this method has limitations representing the full complexity of the ENS's 3-D meshwork, which led to the development of more intact preparations, such as whole-mount preparation, as well as the use of volume imaging techniques. Advancements in 3-D imaging, particularly methods like spinning-disk confocal, 2-photon, and light-sheet microscopies, combined with tissue-clearing techniques, have revolutionized our understanding of the ENS's fine structure. These approaches offer detailed views of its cellular architecture, including interactions among various cell types, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. They have also enhanced our comprehension of ENS-related pathologies, such as inflammatory bowel disease, Hirschsprung's disease (HSCR), and the ENS's involvement in neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's (PD) and Alzheimer's diseases (AD). More recently, 2-photon or confocal in-vivo imaging, combined with transgenic approaches for calcium imaging, or confocal laser endomicroscopy, have opened new avenues for functional studies of the ENS. These methods enable real-time observation of enteric neuronal and glial activity and their interactions. While routinely used in CNS studies, their application to understanding local circuits and signals in the ENS is relatively recent and presents unique challenges, such as accommodating peristaltic movements. Advancements in 3-D in-vivo functional imaging are expected to significantly deepen our understanding of the ENS and its roles in gastrointestinal and neurological diseases, potentially leading to improved diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

Potential consequences of phototoxicity on cell function during live imaging of intestinal organoids

Live imaging visualizes the structure, dynamics, and function of cells and tissues to reveal the molecular mechanisms, and has contributed to the advancement of life science. In live imaging, it has been well known that there is a trade-off between higher-resolution analysis and cell damage caused by light illumination, i.e., phototoxicity. However, despite the risk of unknowingly distorting experimental results, phototoxicity is an unresolved issue in live imaging because overall consequences occurring inside cells due to phototoxicity remains unknown. Here, we determined the molecular process of phototoxicity-induced cell damage systematically under low- and high-dose light illumination conditions by analyzing differential gene expression using RNA-sequencing in a three-dimensional organoid of small intestinal epithelial cells, enteroid. The low-dose light illumination already induced various abnormalities in functional molecules involved in the response to reactive oxygen species generated by the excitation of fluorescent dyes, intracellular metabolism, mitosis, immune responses, etc., at mRNA expression level. Together with the behavior toward apoptosis caused by high-dose light illumination, the light dose-dependent progression of intracellular damage was revealed. About visible impairment of intestinal epithelial function, failures in both the structure-forming ability of enteroids and Paneth cell granule secretion were observed under high-dose light illumination, while the drug efflux was not disturbed despite abnormal drug efflux transporter mRNA expression. Based on the gene expression profiles, we comprehensively clarified phenomena in the cells at mRNA level that cannot be recognized both morphologically and functionally during live imaging, further providing a new insight into the risk of phototoxicity. This study warns from the aspect of mRNA expression that awareness of phototoxic artifacts is needed when analyzing cellular function and the mechanism in live imaging.

In vivo imaging of vagal-induced myenteric plexus responses in gastrointestinal tract with an optical window

The vagus nerve (VN) extensively innervates the gastric enteric nervous system (ENS), but its influence on gastric ENS functionality and motility in vivo remains unclear due to technical challenges. Here we describe a method for stable, long-term observation of gastric ENS activity and muscle dynamics at cellular resolution, which can also be extended to intestinal applications. This method involves ENS-specific labeling and the implantation of an abdominal wall window for optical recording in male mice. In vivo calcium imaging reveals a linear relationship between vagal stimulation frequency and myenteric neuron activation in gastric antrum. Furthermore, the motility of gastric antrum is significantly enhanced and shows a positive correlation with the intensity and number of activated myenteric neurons. While vagal stimulation also activates proximal colonic myenteric neurons, this activation is not frequency-dependent and does not induce proximal colonic motility. The method and results provide important insights into VN-ENS interactions in vivo, advancing our understanding of gastrointestinal motility regulation.

Calcium image analysis in the moving gut

BACKGROUND

The neural control of gastrointestinal muscle relies on circuit activity whose underlying motifs remain limited by small-sample calcium imaging recordings confounded by motion artifact, paralytics, and muscle dissections. We present a sequence of resources to register images from moving preparations and identify out-of-focus events in widefield fluorescent microscopy.

METHODS

Our algorithm uses piecewise rigid registration with pathfinding to correct movements associated with smooth muscle contractions. We developed methods to identify loss-of-focus events and to simulate calcium activity to evaluate registration.

KEY RESULTS

By combining our methods with principal component analysis, we found populations of neurons exhibit distinct activity patterns in response to distinct stimuli consistent with hypothesized roles. The image analysis pipeline makes deeper insights possible by capturing concurrently calcium dynamics from more neurons in larger fields of view. We provide access to the source code for our algorithms and make experimental and technical recommendations to increase data quality in calcium imaging experiments.

CONCLUSIONS

These methods make feasible large population, robust calcium imaging recordings and permit more sophisticated network analyses and insights into neural activity patterns in the gut.

Protective actions of a luminally acting 5-HT4 receptor agonist in mouse models of colitis

BACKGROUND

5-hydroxytryptamine 4 receptors (5-HT4 Rs) are expressed in the colonic epithelium, and previous studies have demonstrated that luminal administration of agonists enhances motility, suppresses nociception, and is protective in models of inflammation. We investigated whether stimulation with a luminally acting 5-HT4 R agonist is comparable to previously tested absorbable compounds.

METHODS

The dextran sodium sulfate (DSS), trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS), and interleukin 10 knockout (IL-10KO) models of colitis were used to test the protective effects of the luminally acting 5-HT4 R agonist, 5HT4-LA1, in the absence and presence of a 5-HT4 R antagonist. The compounds were delivered by enema to mice either before (prevention) or after (recovery) the onset of active colitis. Outcome measure included disease activity index (DAI) and histological evaluation of colon tissue, and effects on wound healing and fecal water content were also assessed.

KEY RESULTS

Daily enema of 5HT4-LA1 attenuated the development of, and accelerated recovery from, active colitis. Enema administration of 5HT4-LA1 did not attenuate the development of colitis in 5-HT4 R knockout mice. Stimulation of 5-HT4 Rs with 5HT4-LA1 increased Caco-2 cell migration (accelerated wound healing). Daily administration of 5HT4-LA1 did not increase fecal water content in active colitis.

CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES

Luminally restricted 5-HT4 R agonists are comparable to absorbable compounds in attenuating and accelerating recovery from active colitis. Luminally acting 5-HT4 R agonists may be useful as an adjuvant to current inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) treatments to enhance epithelial healing.

Chronic early life stress alters the neuroimmune profile and functioning of the developing zebrafish gut

Chronic early life stress (ELS) potently impacts the developing central nervous and immune systems and is associated with the onset of gastrointestinal disease in humans. Though the gut-brain axis is appreciated to be a major target of the stress response, the underlying mechanisms linking ELS to gut dysfunction later in life is incompletely understood. Zebrafish are a powerful model validated for stress research and have emerged as an important tool in delineating neuroimmune mechanisms in the developing gut. Here, we developed a novel model of ELS and utilized a comparative transcriptomics approach to assess how chronic ELS modulated expression of neuroimmune genes in the developing gut and brain. Zebrafish exposed to ELS throughout larval development exhibited anxiety-like behavior and altered expression of neuroimmune genes in a time- and tissue-dependent manner. Further, the altered gut neuroimmune profile, which included increased expression of genes associated with neuronal modulation, correlated with a reduction in enteric neuronal density and delayed gut transit. Together, these findings provide insights into the mechanisms linking ELS with gastrointestinal dysfunction and highlight the zebrafish model organism as a valuable tool in uncovering how "the body keeps the score."

The enteric nervous system

Of all the organ systems in the body, the gastrointestinal tract is the most complicated in terms of the numbers of structures involved, each with different functions, and the numbers and types of signaling molecules utilized. The digestion of food and absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, and water occurs in a hostile luminal environment that contains a large and diverse microbiota. At the core of regulatory control of the digestive and defensive functions of the gastrointestinal tract is the enteric nervous system (ENS), a complex system of neurons and glia in the gut wall. In this review, we discuss 1) the intrinsic neural control of gut functions involved in digestion and 2) how the ENS interacts with the immune system, gut microbiota, and epithelium to maintain mucosal defense and barrier function. We highlight developments that have revolutionized our understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology of enteric neural control. These include a new understanding of the molecular architecture of the ENS, the organization and function of enteric motor circuits, and the roles of enteric glia. We explore the transduction of luminal stimuli by enteroendocrine cells, the regulation of intestinal barrier function by enteric neurons and glia, local immune control by the ENS, and the role of the gut microbiota in regulating the structure and function of the ENS. Multifunctional enteric neurons work together with enteric glial cells, macrophages, interstitial cells, and enteroendocrine cells integrating an array of signals to initiate outputs that are precisely regulated in space and time to control digestion and intestinal homeostasis.

Mitochondrial dysfunction triggers the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease in neuronal C/EBPβ transgenic mice

Respiratory chain complex I deficiency elicits mitochondrial dysfunction and reactive oxidative species (ROS), which plays a crucial role in Parkinson's disease (PD) pathogenesis. However, it remains unclear whether the impairment in other complexes in the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation chain is also sufficient to trigger PD onset. Here we show that inhibition of Complex II or III in the electron transport chain (ETC) induces the motor disorder and PD pathologies in neuronal Thy1-C/EBPβ transgenic mice. Through a cell-based screening of mitochondrial respiratory chain inhibitors, we identified TTFA (complex II inhibitor) and Atovaquone (complex III inhibitor), which robustly block the oxidative phosphorylation functions, strongly escalate ROS, and activate C/EBPβ/AEP pathway that triggers dopaminergic neuronal cell death. Oral administration of these inhibitors to Thy1-C/EBPβ mice elicits constipation and motor defects, associated with Lewy body-like inclusions. Deletion of SDHD (Succinate dehydrogenase) gene from the complex II in the Substantia Nigra of Thy1-C/EBPβ mice triggers ROS and PD pathologies, resulting in motor disorders. Hence, our findings demonstrate that mitochondrial ETC inactivation triggers PD pathogenesis via activating C/EBPβ/AEP pathway.

Neuron-Glia Interaction in the Developing and Adult Enteric Nervous System

The enteric nervous system (ENS) constitutes the largest part of the peripheral nervous system. In recent years, ENS development and its neurogenetic capacity in homeostasis and allostasishave gained increasing attention. Developmentally, the neural precursors of the ENS are mainly derived from vagal and sacral neural crest cell portions. Furthermore, Schwann cell precursors, as well as endodermal pancreatic progenitors, participate in ENS formation. Neural precursorsenherite three subpopulations: a bipotent neuron-glia, a neuronal-fated and a glial-fated subpopulation. Typically, enteric neural precursors migrate along the entire bowel to the anal end, chemoattracted by glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and endothelin 3 (EDN3) molecules. During migration, a fraction undergoes differentiation into neurons and glial cells. Differentiation is regulated by bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP), Hedgehog and Notch signalling. The fully formed adult ENS may react to injury and damage with neurogenesis and gliogenesis. Nevertheless, the origin of differentiating cells is currently under debate. Putative candidates are an embryonic-like enteric neural progenitor population, Schwann cell precursors and transdifferentiating glial cells. These cells can be isolated and propagated in culture as adult ENS progenitors and may be used for cell transplantation therapies for treating enteric aganglionosis in Chagas and Hirschsprung's diseases.

De novo enteric neurogenesis in post-embryonic zebrafish from Schwann cell precursors rather than resident cell types

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is essential for normal gastrointestinal function. Although the embryonic origin of enteric neurons from the neural crest is well established, conflicting evidence exists regarding postnatal enteric neurogenesis. Here, we address this by examining the origin of de novo neurogenesis in the post-embryonic zebrafish ENS. Although new neurons are added during growth and after injury, the larval intestine appears to lack resident neurogenic precursors or classical glia marked by sox10, plp1a, gfap or s100 Rather, lineage tracing with lipophilic dye or inducible Sox10-Cre suggests that post-embryonic enteric neurons arise from trunk neural crest-derived Schwann cell precursors that migrate from the spinal cord into the intestine. Furthermore, the 5-HT4 receptor agonist prucalopride increases enteric neurogenesis in normal development and after injury. Taken together, the results suggest that despite the lack of resident progenitors in the gut, post-embryonic enteric neurogenesis occurs via gut-extrinsic Schwann cell precursors during development and injury, and is promoted by serotonin receptor agonists. The absence of classical glia in the ENS further suggests that neural crest-derived enteric glia might have evolved after the teleost lineage.This article has an associated 'The people behind the papers' interview.

Multiphoton intravital microscopy in small animals: motion artefact challenges and technical solutions

Since its invention 29 years ago, two‐photon laser‐scanning microscopy has evolved from a promising imaging technique, to an established widely available imaging modality used throughout the biomedical research community. The establishment of two‐photon microscopy as the preferred method for imaging fluorescently labelled cells and structures in living animals can be attributed to the biophysical mechanism by which the generation of fluorescence is accomplished. The use of powerful lasers capable of delivering infrared light pulses within femtosecond intervals, facilitates the nonlinear excitation of fluorescent molecules only at the focal plane and determines by objective lens position. This offers numerous benefits for studies of biological samples at high spatial and temporal resolutions with limited photo‐damage and superior tissue penetration. Indeed, these attributes have established two‐photon microscopy as the ideal method for live‐animal imaging in several areas of biology and have led to a whole new field of study dedicated to imaging biological phenomena in intact tissues and living organisms. However, despite its appealing features, two‐photon intravital microscopy is inherently limited by tissue motion from heartbeat, respiratory cycles, peristalsis, muscle/vascular tone and physiological functions that change tissue geometry. Because these movements impede temporal and spatial resolution, they must be properly addressed to harness the full potential of two‐photon intravital microscopy and enable accurate data analysis and interpretation. In addition, the sources and features of these motion artefacts are varied, sometimes unpredictable and unique to specific organs and multiple complex strategies have previously been devised to address them. This review will discuss these motion artefacts requirement and technical solutions for their correction and after intravital two‐photon microscopy.

Neuronal Mitochondria Modulation of LPS-Induced Neuroinflammation

Neuronal mitochondria dysfunction and neuroinflammation are two prominent pathological features increasingly realized as important pathogenic mechanisms for neurodegenerative diseases. However, little attempt has been taken to investigate the likely interactions between them. Mitofusin2 (Mfn2) is a mitochondrial outer membrane protein regulating mitochondrial fusion, a dynamic process essential for mitochondrial function. To explore the significance of neuronal mitochondria in the regulation of neuroinflammation, male and female transgenic mice with forced overexpression of Mfn2 specifically in neurons were intraperitoneally injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a widely used approach to model neurodegeneration-associated neuroinflammation. Remarkably, LPS-induced lethality was almost completely abrogated in neuronal Mfn2 overexpression mice. Compared with nontransgenic wild-type mice, mice with neuronal Mfn2 overexpression also exhibited alleviated bodyweight loss, behavioral sickness, and myocardial dysfunction. LPS-induced release of IL-1β but not TNF-α was further found greatly inhibited in the CNS of mice with neuronal Mfn2 overexpression, whereas peripheral inflammatory responses in the blood, heart, lung, and spleen remained unchanged. At the cellular and molecular levels, neuronal Mfn2 suppressed the activation of microglia, prevented LPS-induced mitochondrial fragmentation in neurons, and importantly, upregulated the expression of CX3CL1, a unique chemokine constitutively produced by neurons to suppress microglial activation. Together, these results reveal an unrecognized possible role of neuronal mitochondria in the regulation of microglial activation, and propose neuronal Mfn2 as a likely mechanistic linker between neuronal mitochondria dysfunction and neuroinflammation in neurodegeneration.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Our study suggests that Mfn2 in neurons contributes to the regulation of neuroinflammation. Based on the remarkable suppression of LPS-induced neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration-associated mitochondrial dysfunction and dynamic abnormalities by neuronal Mfn2, this study centered on Mfn2-mediated neuroinflammation reveals novel molecular mechanisms that are involved in both mitochondrial dysfunction and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases. The pharmacological targeting of Mfn2 may present a novel treatment for neuroinflammation-associated diseases.

The Enteric Nervous System for Epithelial Researchers: Basic Anatomy, Techniques, and Interactions With the Epithelium

The intestinal epithelium does not function in isolation, but interacts with many components including the Enteric Nervous System (ENS). Understanding ENS and intestinal epithelium interactions requires multidisciplinary approaches to uncover cells involved, mechanisms used, and the ultimate influence on intestinal physiology. This review is intended to serve as a reference for epithelial biologists interested in studying these interactions. With this in mind, this review aims to summarize the basic anatomy of the epithelium and ENS, mechanisms by which they interact, and techniques used to study these interactions. We highlight in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo techniques. Additionally, ENS influence on epithelial proliferation and gene expression within stem and differentiated cells as well as gastrointestinal cancer are discussed.

Confocal and multiphoton calcium imaging of the enteric nervous system in anesthetized mice

Most imaging studies of the enteric nervous system (ENS) that regulates the function of the gastrointestinal tract are so far performed using preparations isolated from animals, thus hindering the understanding of the ENS function in vivo. Here we report a method for imaging the ENS cellular network activity in living mice using a new transgenic mouse line that co-expresses G-CaMP6 and mCherry in the ENS combined with the suction-mediated stabilization of intestinal movements. With confocal or two-photon imaging, our method can visualize spontaneous and pharmacologically-evoked ENS network activity in living animals at cellular and subcellular resolutions, demonstrating the potential usefulness for studies of the ENS function in health and disease.

Optogenetic and chemogenetic techniques for neurogastroenterology

Optogenetics and chemogenetics comprise a wide variety of applications in which genetically encoded actuators and indicators are used to modulate and monitor activity with high cellular specificity. Over the past 10 years, development of these genetically encoded tools has contributed tremendously to our understanding of integrated physiology. In concert with the continued refinement of probes, strategies to target transgene expression to specific cell types have also made much progress in the past 20 years. In addition, the successful implementation of optogenetic and chemogenetic techniques thrives thanks to ongoing advances in live imaging microscopy and optical technology. Although innovation of optogenetic and chemogenetic methods has been primarily driven by researchers studying the central nervous system, these techniques also hold great promise to boost research in neurogastroenterology. In this Review, we describe the different classes of tools that are currently available and give an overview of the strategies to target them to specific cell types in the gut wall. We discuss the possibilities and limitations of optogenetic and chemogenetic technology in the gut and provide an overview of their current use, with a focus on the enteric nervous system. Furthermore, we suggest some experiments that can advance our understanding of how the intrinsic and extrinsic neural networks of the gut control gastrointestinal function.

Intravital imaging of neutrophil recruitment in intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

Neutrophils are known to be key players in innate immunity. Activated neutrophils induce local inflammation, which results in pathophysiologic changes during intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). However, most studies have been based on static assessments, and few have examined real-time intravital neutrophil recruitment. We herein report a method for imaging and evaluating dynamic changes in the neutrophil recruitment in intestinal IRI using two-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM).

METHODS

LysM-eGFP mice were subjected to 45 min of warm intestinal ischemia followed by reperfusion. Mice received an intravenous injection of tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate-labeled albumin to visualize the microvasculature. Using a time-lapse TPLSM technique, we directly observed the behavior of neutrophils in intestinal IRI.

RESULTS

We were able to image all layers of the intestine without invasive surgical stress. At low-magnification, the number of neutrophils per field of view continued to increase for 4 h after reperfusion. High-magnification images revealed the presence or absence of blood circulation. At 0-2 h after reperfusion, rolling and adhesive neutrophils increased along the vasculature. At 2-4 h after reperfusion, the irregularity of crypt architecture and transmigration of neutrophils were observed in the lamina propria. Furthermore, TPLSM imaging revealed the villus height, the diameters of the crypt, and the number of infiltrating neutrophils in the crypt. In the IRI group, the villus height 4 h after reperfusion was significantly shorter than in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

TPLSM imaging revealed the real-time neutrophil recruitment in intestinal IRI. Z-stack imaging was useful for evaluating pathophysiological changes in the intestinal wall.

Optogenetic manipulation of ENS - The brain in the gut

Optogenetics has emerged as an important tool in neuroscience, especially in central nervous system research. It allows for the study of the brain's highly complex network with high temporal and spatial resolution. The enteric nervous system (ENS), the brain in the gut, plays critical roles for life. Although advanced progress has been made, the neural circuits of the ENS remain only partly understood because the appropriate research tools are lacking. In this review, I highlight the potential application of optogenetics in ENS research. Firstly, I describe the development of optogenetics with focusing on its three main components. I discuss the applications in vitro and in vivo, and summarize current findings in the ENS research field obtained by optogenetics. Finally, the challenges for the application of optogenetics to the ENS research will be discussed.

Combination of exogenous cell transplantation and 5-HT4 receptor agonism induce endogenous enteric neural crest-derived cells in a rat hypoganglionosis model

Enteric neural crest-derived cells (ENCCs) can migrate into endogenous ganglia and differentiate into progeny cells, and have even partially rescued bowel function; however, poor reliability and limited functional recovery after ENCC transplantation have yet to be addressed. Here, we investigated the induction of endogenous ENCCs by combining exogenous ENCC transplantation with a 5-HT₄ receptor agonist mosapride in a rat model of hypoganglionosis, established by benzalkonium chloride treatment. ENCCs, isolated from the gut of newborn rats, were labeled with a lentiviral eGFP reporter. ENCCs and rats were treated with the 5-HT₄ receptor agonist/antagonist. The labeled ENCCs were then transplanted into the muscular layer of benzalkonium chloride-treated colons. At given days post-intervention, colonic tissue samples were removed for histological analysis. ENCCs and neurons were detected by eGFP expression and immunoreactivity to p75^NTR and peripherin, respectively. eGFP-positive ENCCs and neurons could survive and maintain levels of fluorescence after transplantation. With longer times post-intervention, the number of peripherin-positive cells gradually increased in all groups. Significantly more peripherin-positive cells were found following ENCCs plus mosapride treatment, compared with the other groups. These results show that exogenous ENCCs combined with the 5-HT₄ receptor agonist effectively induced endogenous ENCCs proliferation and differentiation in a rat hypoganglionosis model.

Suppression of c-Kit signaling induces adult neurogenesis in the mouse intestine after myenteric plexus ablation with benzalkonium chloride

Adult neurogenesis rarely occurs in the enteric nervous system (ENS). In this study, we demonstrated that, after intestinal myenteric plexus (MP) ablation with benzalkonium chloride (BAC), adult neurogenesis in the ENS was significantly induced in c-kit loss-of-function mutant mice (W/W^v). Almost all neurons and fibers in the MP disappeared after BAC treatment. However, 1 week after ablation, substantial penetration of nerve fibers from the non-damaged area was observed in the MP, longitudinal muscle and subserosal layers in both wildtype and W/W^v mice. Two weeks after BAC treatment, in addition to the penetrating fibers, a substantial number of ectopic neurons appeared in the subserosal and longitudinal muscle layers of W/W^v mice, whereas only a few ectopic neurons appeared in wildtype mice. Such ectopic neurons expressed either excitatory or inhibitory intrinsic motor neuron markers and formed ganglion-like structures, including glial cells, synaptic vesicles and basal lamina. Furthermore, oral administration of imatinib, an inhibitor of c-Kit and an anticancer agent for gastrointestinal stromal tumors, markedly induced appearance of ectopic neurons after BAC treatment, even in wildtype mice. These results suggest that adult neurogenesis in the ENS is negatively regulated by c-Kit signaling in vivo.

Simultaneous optical and electrical in vivo analysis of the enteric nervous system

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a major division of the nervous system and vital to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and its communication with the rest of the body. Unlike the brain and spinal cord, relatively little is known about the ENS in part because of the inability to directly monitor its activity in live animals. Here, we integrate a transparent graphene sensor with a customized abdominal window for simultaneous optical and electrical recording of the ENS in vivo. The implanted device captures ENS responses to neurotransmitters, drugs and optogenetic manipulation in real time.

The enteric nervous system (ENS) plays a key role in regulating gut motility and homeostasis yet it remains a challenging system to record from. Here, the authors develop a novel abdominal window permitting simultaneous optical and electrical recording of mouse ENS system activity over prolonged time periods.

Activation of 5-HT4 receptors facilitates neurogenesis of injured enteric neurons at an anastomosis in the lower gut

Two-photon microscopy (2PM) can enable high-resolution deep imaging of thick tissue by exciting a fluorescent dye and protein at anastomotic sites in the mouse small intestine in vivo. We performed gut surgery and transplanted neural stem cells (NSC) from the embryonic central nervous system after marking them with the fluorescent cell linker, PKH26. We found that neurons differentiated from transplanted NSC (PKH [+]) and newborn enteric neurons differentiated from mobilized (host) NSC (YFP [+]) could be localized within the granulation tissue of anastomoses. A 5-HT₄-receptor agonist, mosapride citrate (MOS), significantly increased the number of PKH (+) and YFP (+) neurons by 2.5-fold (P<0.005). The distribution patterns of PKH (+) neurons were similar to those of YFP (+) neurons. On the other hand, the 5-HT₄-receptor antagonist, SB-207266 abolished these effects of MOS. These results indicate that neurogenesis from transplanted NSC is facilitated by activation of 5-HT₄-receptors. Thus, a combination of drug administration and cell transplantation could be more beneficial than exclusive cell transplantation in treating Hirschsprung's disease and related disorders including post rectal cancer surgery. The underlying mechanisms for its action were explored using immunohistochemistry of the longitudinal mouse ileum and rat rectal preparations including an anastomosis. MOS significantly increased the number of new neurons, but not when co-administered with either of a protein tyrosine kinase receptor, c-RET two inhibitors. The c-RET signaling pathway contributes to enteric neurogenesis facilitated by MOS. In the future, we would perform functional studies of new neurons over the thick granulation tissue at anastomoses, using in vivo imaging with 2PM and double transgenic mice expressing a calcium indicator such as GCaMP6 and channelrhodopsin.

Activation of 5-HT4 receptors facilitates neurogenesis from transplanted neural stem cells in the anastomotic ileum

An orally administered serotonin-4 (5-HT4) receptor agonist, mosapride citrate (MOS), promotes enteric neurogenesis in anastomoses after gut surgery. We performed gut surgery and transplanted 2 × 10(5) neural stem cells (NSCs) from the embryonic central nervous system after marking them with the cell linker, PKH26. We found that neurons differentiated from transplanted NSCs (PKH [+]) and newborn enteric neurons differentiated from mobilized (host) NSCs (YFP [+]) in the deep granulation tissue of the anastomotic ileum. MOS significantly increased the number of PKH (+) and YFP (+) neurons by 2.5-fold (P < 0.005) (n = 4). The distribution patterns of PKH (+) neurons and YFP (+) neurons were similar along the depth of the anastomosis. A 5-HT4 receptor antagonist, SB-207266, abolished these effects of MOS (n = 4). Our results indicate that neurogenesis from transplanted NSCs is potentiated by activation of 5-HT4 receptors. Thus, a combination of drug administration and cell transplantation could be more beneficial than cell transplantation alone in treating Hirschsprung's disease and related disorders.

A protein tyrosine kinase receptor, c-RET signaling pathway contributes to the enteric neurogenesis induced by a 5-HT4 receptor agonist at an anastomosis after transection of the gut in rodents

We previously reported that a serotonin 4 (5-HT4) receptor agonist, mosapride citrate (MOS), increased the number of c-RET-positive cells and levels of c-RET mRNA in gel sponge implanted in the necks of rats. The 5-HT4 receptor is a G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) coupled to G protein Gs-cAMP cascades. We investigated the possibility that 5-HT4 receptor activation induced c-RET activation and/or PKA activation by elevating cAMP levels. Rodents were orally administered MOS by adding it to drinking water for 2 weeks after enteric nerve circuit insult via gut transection and anastomosis, together with the RET inhibitors withaferin A (WA) and RPI-1 or the PKA inhibitor H89. We then examined PGP9.5-positive cells in the newly formed granulation tissue at the anastomotic site. MOS significantly increased the number of new neurons, but not when co-administered with WA or RPI-1. Co-administration of H89 failed to alter MOS-induced increases in neurogenesis. In conclusion, the c-RET signaling pathway contributes to enteric neurogenesis facilitated by MOS, though the contribution of PKA activation seems unlikely.

The 5-hydroxytryptamine 4 Receptor Agonist-induced Actions and Enteric Neurogenesis in the Gut

We explored a novel effect of 5-hydroxytryptamine 4 receptor (5-HT4R) agonists in vivo to reconstruct the enteric neural circuitry that mediates a fundamental distal gut reflex. The neural circuit insult was performed in guinea pigs and rats by rectal transection and anastomosis. A 5-HT4R-agonist, mosapride citrate (MOS) applied orally and locally at the anastomotic site for 2 weeks promoted the regeneration of the impaired neural circuit or the recovery of the distal gut reflex. MOS generated neurofilament-, 5-HT4R- and 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine-positive cells and formed neural network in the granulation tissue at the anastomosis. Possible neural stem cell markers increased during the same time period. These novel actions by MOS were inhibited by specific 5-HT4R-antagonist such as GR113808 (GR) or SB-207266. The activation of enteric neural 5-HT4R promotes reconstruction of an enteric neural circuit that involves possibly neural stem cells. We also succeeded in forming dense enteric neural networks by MOS in a gut differentiated from mouse embryonic stem cells. GR abolished the formation of enteric neural networks. MOS up-regulated the expression of mRNA of 5-HT4R, and GR abolished this upregulation, suggesting MOS differentiated enteric neural networks, mediated via activation of 5-HT4R. In the small intestine in H-line: Thy1 promoter green fluorescent protein (GFP) mice, we obtained clear 3-dimensional imaging of enteric neurons that were newly generated by oral application of MOS after gut transection and anastomosis. All findings indicate that treatment with 5-HT4R-agonists could be a novel therapy for generating new enteric neurons to rescue aganglionic disorders in the whole gut.

Novel functions of GABA signaling in adult neurogenesis

Neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutiric acid (GABA) through ionotropic GABA_A and metabotropic GABA_B receptors plays key roles in modulating the development, plasticity and function of neuronal networks. GABA is inhibitory in mature neurons but excitatory in immature neurons, neuroblasts and neural stem/progenitor cells (NSCs/NPCs). The switch from excitatory to inhibitory occurs following the development of glutamatergic synaptic input and results from the dynamic changes in the expression of Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- co-transporter NKCC1 driving Cl^- influx and neuron-specific K⁺/Cl^- co-transporter KCC2 driving Cl^- efflux. The developmental transition of KCC2 expression is regulated by Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling. The excitatory GABA signaling during early neurogenesis is important to the activity/experience-induced regulation of NSC quiescence, NPC proliferation, neuroblast migration and newborn neuronal maturation/functional integration. The inhibitory GABA signaling allows for the sparse and static functional networking essential for learning/memory development and maintenance.