Functional synaptic projections onto subplate neurons in neonatal rat somatosensory cortex

Specific functional connectivity of molecular subtypes of subplate and layer 6b neurons

Subplate neurons (SpNs) are among the earliest generated cortical neurons that form functional cortical synapses, and aid in cortical circuit development. A fraction of SpNs survive and form layer 6b in the adult cortex. While SpNs exhibit a large variety of molecular identities, it is unclear if molecular identity correlates with functional or connectomic identities and if different SpNs have similar developmental trajectories. To resolve these questions, we here characterize the functional intracortical circuits to molecularly identified subpopulations of SpNs with SpN-specific Cre-lines (CTGF-dgCre and Drd1-Cre) in in vitro brain slices of the primary auditory cortex using whole-cell patch clamp recordings and laser-scanning photostimulation. We targeted three age groups: before (postnatal day (P)7-P9) and after (P14-P20) the ear canal opens and when circuits are mature (P60-P80). The excitatory intracortical circuits impinging on both subtypes revealed similar patterns, but not the inhibitory circuits, particularly those from subplate/layer 6b. At P7-P9, Drd1 neurons received stronger inhibition from the subplate compared to CTGF neurons. The functional circuits on SpNs prune with age. By P60-P80, the inhibitory connections from layer 6b on CTGF neurons increased and became significantly abundant than those on Drd1 neurons. However, the inhibition strength between the two subtypes remained unchanged, suggesting that inhibition on CTGF was generally weaker at each stimulation site. Thus, SpNs exhibit diverse neuronal morphologies and intracortical input patterns, independent of molecular expression. Thus, although the subplate comprises distinct molecular classes of neurons, their molecular expression is not clearly correlated with morphologies and functional circuits throughout development.Significance statement Subplate neurons pioneer cortical circuit formation and shape its maturation. Subplate neurons can be categorized into different subpopulation based on their molecular identities. However, the relationship between functional circuitry and molecular identities was unclear. Our study demonstrated that excitatory inputs on different molecular classes of subplate neurons develop similarly but not the inhibitory inputs, particularly those from within subplate/layer6b. Moreover, subplate neurons within the same molecular classes exhibit diverse patterns of intracortical circuit connections and neuronal morphologies. This diversity becomes more pronounced in adulthood. Therefore, distinguishing the functional connectivity between the two subtypes based solely on their molecular identities is impossible. Overall, the molecular expression of subplate neurons is not clearly correlated with their morphologies and functional connectivity pattern.

GABAergic integration of transient and persistent neurons in the developing mouse somatosensory cortex

GABA is an essential element in the function of neocortical circuits. The origin, migration and mechanisms of synaptogenesis of GABAergic neurons have been intensively studied. However, little information is available when GABAergic synapses are formed within the different cortical layers, neuronal cell types and subcellular compartments. To quantify the distribution of GABAergic synapses in the immature somatosensory mouse cortex, GABAergic synapses were identified by spatially coincident immunoprofiles for the pre- and postsynaptic markers vGAT and gephyrin at postnatal days (P)0-12. Between P0-5, GABAergic synapses are mainly restricted to the marginal zone, while at later developmental stages a more homogenous distribution is obtained. Cajal-Retzius neurons represent a major target of GABAergic synapses in the marginal zone with a homogeneous synapse distribution along the dendrite. The number of GABAergic synapses per pyramidal neuron increases substantially between P0 and P12, with a stable density and distribution in basal dendrites. In contrast, along apical dendrites synapses accumulate to more proximal positions after P8. Overall, the results of this study demonstrate that early GABAergic synaptogenesis is characterized by a consistent increase in the density of synapses with first a stringent overrepresentation in the marginal zone and a delayed establishment of perisomatic synapses in pyramidal neurons.

A consensus definition for deep layer 6 excitatory neurons in mouse neocortex

To understand neocortical function, we must first define its cell types. Recent studies indicate that neurons in the deepest cortical layer play roles in mediating thalamocortical interactions and modulating brain state and are implicated in neuropsychiatric disease. However, understanding the functions of deep layer 6 (L6b) neurons has been hampered by the lack of agreed upon definitions for these cell types. We compared commonly used methods for defining L6b neurons, including molecular, transcriptional and morphological approaches as well as transgenic mouse lines, and identified a core population of L6b neurons. This population does not innervate sensory thalamus, unlike layer 6 corticothalamic neurons (L6CThNs) in more superficial layer 6. Rather, single L6b neurons project ipsilaterally between cortical areas. Although L6b neurons undergo early developmental changes, we found that their intrinsic electrophysiological properties were stable after the first postnatal week. Our results provide a consensus definition for L6b neurons, enabling comparisons across studies.

Correlation between the number of interstitial neurons of the white matter and number of neurons within cortical layers: Histological analyses in postnatal macaque

We have examined the number and distribution of NeuN-immunoreactive cortical white matter interstitial cells (WMICs) and compared them to the neurons in layers 1-6 across the overlying cortex in coronal sections from postnatal macaques. The data have been gathered from over 300 selected regions at gyral crowns, at sulci, and at linear regions of the cortex where we also determined cortical layer thicknesses: standard thicknesses and tangential thicknesses. Cortical thicknesses and cell numbers showed variability according to gyral, linear, or sulcal regions. In spite of these variations, our standardized cell numbers in layers 1 to 6b and interstitial cells underlying layer 6b-white matter boundary have shown a consistent correlation between the number of WMICs and the number of layer 5 and 6a cortical neurons on all cortical regions studied: for each WMIC, there are on the order of five cortical neurons in layer 5 and approximately three cortical neurons in layer 6a, irrespective of the origins of the selected cortical area or whether they are from gyral, linear, or sulcal regions. We propose that the number of interstitial neurons in the postnatal macaque cortex is correlated to the density of neurons within layers 5 and 6a and, from a clinical perspective, the change in density or distribution of interstitial neurons in schizophrenia or epilepsy may in fact be linked to the number of layers 5 and 6a neurons.

Axonal connections between S1 barrel, M1, and S2 cortex in the newborn mouse

The development of functionally interconnected networks between primary (S1), secondary somatosensory (S2), and motor (M1) cortical areas requires coherent neuronal activity via corticocortical projections. However, the anatomical substrate of functional connections between S1 and M1 or S2 during early development remains elusive. In the present study, we used ex vivo carbocyanine dye (DiI) tracing in paraformaldehyde-fixed newborn mouse brain to investigate axonal projections of neurons in different layers of S1 barrel field (S1Bf), M1, and S2 toward the subplate (SP), a hub layer for sensory information transfer in the immature cortex. In addition, we performed extracellular recordings in neocortical slices to unravel the functional connectivity between these areas. Our experiments demonstrate that already at P0 neurons from the cortical plate (CP), layer 5/6 (L5/6), and the SP of both M1 and S2 send projections through the SP of S1Bf. Reciprocally, neurons from CP to SP of S1Bf send projections through the SP of M1 and S2. Electrophysiological recordings with multi-electrode arrays in cortical slices revealed weak, but functional synaptic connections between SP and L5/6 within and between S1 and M1. An even lower functional connectivity was observed between S1 and S2. In summary, our findings demonstrate that functional connections between SP and upper cortical layers are not confined to the same cortical area, but corticocortical connection between adjacent cortical areas exist already at the day of birth. Hereby, SP can integrate early cortical activity of M1, S1, and S2 and shape the development of sensorimotor integration at an early stage.

Changing subplate circuits: Early activity dependent circuit plasticity

Early neural activity in the developing sensory system comprises spontaneous bursts of patterned activity, which is fundamental for sculpting and refinement of immature cortical connections. The crude early connections that are initially refined by spontaneous activity, are further elaborated by sensory-driven activity from the periphery such that orderly and mature connections are established for the proper functioning of the cortices. Subplate neurons (SPNs) are one of the first-born mature neurons that are transiently present during early development, the period of heightened activity-dependent plasticity. SPNs are well integrated within the developing sensory cortices. Their structural and functional properties such as relative mature intrinsic membrane properties, heightened connectivity via chemical and electrical synapses, robust activation by neuromodulatory inputs-place them in an ideal position to serve as crucial elements in monitoring and regulating spontaneous endogenous network activity. Moreover, SPNs are the earliest substrates to receive early sensory-driven activity from the periphery and are involved in its modulation, amplification, and transmission before the maturation of the direct adult-like thalamocortical connectivity. Consequently, SPNs are vulnerable to sensory manipulations in the periphery. A broad range of early sensory deprivations alters SPN circuit organization and functions that might be associated with long term neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. Here we provide a comprehensive overview of SPN function in activity-dependent development during early life and integrate recent findings on the impact of early sensory deprivation on SPNs that could eventually lead to neurodevelopmental disorders.

Early brain activity: Translations between bedside and laboratory

Neural activity is both a driver of brain development and a readout of developmental processes. Changes in neuronal activity are therefore both the cause and consequence of neurodevelopmental compromises. Here, we review the assessment of neuronal activities in both preclinical models and clinical situations. We focus on issues that require urgent translational research, the challenges and bottlenecks preventing translation of biomedical research into new clinical diagnostics or treatments, and possibilities to overcome these barriers. The key questions are (i) what can be measured in clinical settings versus animal experiments, (ii) how do measurements relate to particular stages of development, and (iii) how can we balance practical and ethical realities with methodological compromises in measurements and treatments.

Dynamic interplay between thalamic activity and Cajal-Retzius cells regulates the wiring of cortical layer 1

Cortical wiring relies on guidepost cells and activity-dependent processes that are thought to act sequentially. Here, we show that the construction of layer 1 (L1), a main site of top-down integration, is regulated by crosstalk between transient Cajal-Retzius cells (CRc) and spontaneous activity of the thalamus, a main driver of bottom-up information. While activity was known to regulate CRc migration and elimination, we found that prenatal spontaneous thalamic activity and NMDA receptors selectively control CRc early density, without affecting their demise. CRc density, in turn, regulates the distribution of upper layer interneurons and excitatory synapses, thereby drastically impairing the apical dendrite activity of output pyramidal neurons. In contrast, postnatal sensory-evoked activity had a limited impact on L1 and selectively perturbed basal dendrites synaptogenesis. Collectively, our study highlights a remarkable interplay between thalamic activity and CRc in L1 functional wiring, with major implications for our understanding of cortical development.

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Prenatal thalamic waves of activity regulate CRc density in L1

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Prenatal and postnatal CRc manipulations alter specific interneuron populations

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Postnatal CRc shape L5 apical dendrite structural and functional properties

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Early sensory activity selectively regulates L5 basal dendrite spine formation

When Are Depolarizing GABAergic Responses Excitatory?

The membrane responses upon activation of GABA(A) receptors critically depend on the intracellular Cl⁻ concentration ([Cl⁻]_i), which is maintained by a set of transmembrane transporters for Cl⁻. During neuronal development, but also under several pathophysiological conditions, the prevailing expression of the Cl⁻ loader NKCC1 and the low expression of the Cl⁻ extruder KCC2 causes elevated [Cl⁻]_i, which result in depolarizing GABAergic membrane responses. However, depolarizing GABAergic responses are not necessarily excitatory, as GABA(A) receptors also reduces the input resistance of neurons and thereby shunt excitatory inputs. To summarize our knowledge on the effect of depolarizing GABA responses on neuronal excitability, this review discusses theoretical considerations and experimental studies illustrating the relation between GABA conductances, GABA reversal potential and neuronal excitability. In addition, evidences for the complex spatiotemporal interaction between depolarizing GABAergic and glutamatergic inputs are described. Moreover, mechanisms that influence [Cl⁻]_i beyond the expression of Cl⁻ transporters are presented. And finally, several in vitro and in vivo studies that directly investigated whether GABA mediates excitation or inhibition during early developmental stages are summarized. In summary, these theoretical considerations and experimental evidences suggest that GABA can act as inhibitory neurotransmitter even under conditions that maintain substantial depolarizing membrane responses.

Modelling the spatial and temporal constrains of the GABAergic influence on neuronal excitability

GABA (γ-amino butyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult brain that can mediate depolarizing responses during development or after neuropathological insults. Under which conditions GABAergic membrane depolarizations are sufficient to impose excitatory effects is hard to predict, as shunting inhibition and GABAergic effects on spatiotemporal filtering of excitatory inputs must be considered. To evaluate at which reversal potential a net excitatory effect was imposed by GABA (E_GABA^Thr), we performed a detailed in-silico study using simple neuronal topologies and distinct spatiotemporal relations between GABAergic and glutamatergic inputs.

These simulations revealed for GABAergic synapses located at the soma an E_GABA^Thr close to action potential threshold (E_AP^Thr), while with increasing dendritic distance E_GABA^Thr shifted to positive values. The impact of GABA on AMPA-mediated inputs revealed a complex temporal and spatial dependency. E_GABA^Thr depends on the temporal relation between GABA and AMPA inputs, with a striking negative shift in E_GABA^Thr for AMPA inputs appearing after the GABA input. The spatial dependency between GABA and AMPA inputs revealed a complex profile, with E_GABA^Thr being shifted to values negative to E_AP^Thr for AMPA synapses located proximally to the GABA input, while for distally located AMPA synapses the dendritic distance had only a minor effect on E_GABA^Thr. For tonic GABAergic conductances E_GABA^Thr was negative to E_AP^Thr over a wide range of g_GABA^tonic values. In summary, these results demonstrate that for several physiologically relevant situations E_GABA^Thr is negative to E_AP^Thr, suggesting that depolarizing GABAergic responses can mediate excitatory effects even if E_GABA did not reach E_AP^Thr.

The neurotransmitter GABA mediates an inhibitory action in the mature brain, while it was found that GABA provokes depolarizations in the immature brain or after neurological insults. It is, however, not clear to which extend these GABAergic depolarizations can contribute to an excitatory effect. In the present manuscript we approached this question with a computational model of a simplified neurons to determine what amount of a GABAergic depolarizing effect, which we quantified by the so called GABA reversal potential (E_GABA), was required to turn GABAergic inhibition to excitation. The results of our simulations revealed that if GABA was applied alone a GABAergic excitation was induced when E_GABA was around the action potential threshold. When GABA was applied together with additional excitatory inputs, which is the physiological situation in the brain, only for spatially and temporally correlated inputs E_GABA was close to the action potential threshold. For situations in which the additional excitatory inputs appear after the GABA input or are distant to the GABA input, an excitatory effect of GABA could be observed already at E_GABA substantially negative to the action potential threshold. This results indicate that even slightly depolarizing GABA responses, which may be induced during or after neurological insults, can potentially turn GABAergic inhibition into GABAergic excitation.

Neonatal Hypoxia-Ischemia Causes Persistent Intracortical Circuit Changes in Layer 4 of Rat Auditory Cortex

The connection between early brain injury and subsequent development of disorders is unknown. Neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI) alters circuits associated with subplate neurons (SPNs). SPNs are among the first maturing cortical neurons, project to thalamorecipient layer 4 (L4), and are required for the development of thalamocortical connections. Thus, early HI might influence L4 and such influence might persist. We investigated functional circuits to L4 neurons in neonatal rat HI models of different severities (mild and moderate) shortly after injury and at adolescence. We used laser-scanning photostimulation in slices of auditory cortex during P5-10 and P18-23. Mild injuries did not initially (P6/P7) alter the convergence of excitatory inputs from L2/3, but hyperconnectivity emerged by P8-10. Inputs from L4 showed initial hypoconnectivity which resolved by P8-10. Moderate injuries resulted in initial hypoconnectivity from both layers which resolved by P8-10 and led to persistent strengthening of connections. Inhibitory inputs to L4 cells showed similar changes. Functional changes were mirrored by reduced dendritic complexity. We also observed a persistent increase in similarity of L4 circuits, suggesting that HI interferes with developmental circuit refinement and diversification. Altogether, our results show that neonatal HI injuries lead to persistent changes in intracortical connections.

Spontaneous activity in developing thalamic and cortical sensory networks

Developing sensory circuits exhibit different patterns of spontaneous activity, patterns that are related to the construction and refinement of functional networks. During the development of different sensory modalities, spontaneous activity originates in the immature peripheral sensory structures and in the higher-order central structures, such as the thalamus and cortex. Certainly, the perinatal thalamus exhibits spontaneous calcium waves, a pattern of activity that is fundamental for the formation of sensory maps and for circuit plasticity. Here, we review our current understanding of the maturation of early (including embryonic) patterns of spontaneous activity and their influence on the assembly of thalamic and cortical sensory networks. Overall, the data currently available suggest similarities between the developmental trajectory of brain activity in experimental models and humans, which in the future may help to improve the early diagnosis of developmental disorders.

Non-canonical role for Lpar1-EGFP subplate neurons in early postnatal mouse somatosensory cortex

Subplate neurons (SPNs) are thought to play a role in nascent sensory processing in neocortex. To better understand how heterogeneity within this population relates to emergent function, we investigated the synaptic connectivity of Lpar1-EGFP SPNs through the first postnatal week in whisker somatosensory cortex (S1BF). These SPNs comprise of two morphological subtypes: fusiform SPNs with local axons and pyramidal SPNs with axons that extend through the marginal zone. The former receive translaminar synaptic input up until the emergence of the whisker barrels, a timepoint coincident with significant cell death. In contrast, pyramidal SPNs receive local input from the subplate at early ages but then - during the later time window - acquire input from overlying cortex. Combined electrical and optogenetic activation of thalamic afferents identified that Lpar1-EGFP SPNs receive sparse thalamic innervation. These data reveal components of the postnatal network that interpret sparse thalamic input to direct the emergent columnar structure of S1BF.

Transient cortical circuits match spontaneous and sensory-driven activity during development

At the earliest developmental stages, spontaneous activity synchronizes local and large-scale cortical networks. These networks form the functional template for the establishment of global thalamocortical networks and cortical architecture. The earliest connections are established autonomously. However, activity from the sensory periphery reshapes these circuits as soon as afferents reach the cortex. The early-generated, largely transient neurons of the subplate play a key role in integrating spontaneous and sensory-driven activity. Early pathological conditions-such as hypoxia, inflammation, or exposure to pharmacological compounds-alter spontaneous activity patterns, which subsequently induce disturbances in cortical network activity. This cortical dysfunction may lead to local and global miswiring and, at later stages, can be associated with neurological and psychiatric conditions.

The enigmatic fetal subplate compartment forms an early tangential cortical nexus and provides the framework for construction of cortical connectivity

The most prominent transient compartment of the primate fetal cortex is the deep, cell-sparse, synapse-containing subplate compartment (SPC). The developmental role of the SPC and its extraordinary size in humans remain enigmatic. This paper evaluates evidence on the development and connectivity of the SPC and discusses its role in the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders. A synthesis of data shows that the subplate becomes a prominent compartment by its expansion from the deep cortical plate (CP), appearing well-delineated on MR scans and forming a tangential nexus across the hemisphere, consisting of an extracellular matrix, randomly distributed postmigratory neurons, multiple branches of thalamic and long corticocortical axons. The SPC generates early spontaneous non-synaptic and synaptic activity and mediates cortical response upon thalamic stimulation. The subplate nexus provides large-scale interareal connectivity possibly underlying fMR resting-state activity, before corticocortical pathways are established. In late fetal phase, when synapses appear within the CP, transient the SPC coexists with permanent circuitry. The histogenetic role of the SPC is to provide interactive milieu and capacity for guidance, sorting, "waiting" and target selection of thalamocortical and corticocortical pathways. The new evolutionary role of the SPC and its remnant white matter neurons is linked to the increasing number of associative pathways in the human neocortex. These roles attributed to the SPC are regulated using a spatiotemporal gene expression during critical periods, when pathogenic factors may disturb vulnerable circuitry of the SPC, causing neurodevelopmental cognitive circuitry disorders.

Mechanisms of Spontaneous Electrical Activity in the Developing Cerebral Cortex-Mouse Subplate Zone

Subplate (SP) neurons exhibit spontaneous plateau depolarizations mediated by connexin hemichannels. Postnatal (P1-P6) mice show identical voltage pattern and drug-sensitivity as observed in slices from human fetal cortex; indicating that the mouse is a useful model for studying the cellular physiology of the developing neocortex. In mouse SP neurons, spontaneous plateau depolarizations were insensitive to blockers of: synaptic transmission (glutamatergic, GABAergic, or glycinergic), pannexins (probenecid), or calcium channels (mibefradil, verapamil, diltiazem); while highly sensitive to blockers of gap junctions (octanol), hemichannels (La3+, lindane, Gd3+), or glial metabolism (DLFC). Application of La3+ (100 μM) does not exert its effect on electrical activity by blocking calcium channels. Intracellular application of Gd3+ determined that Gd3+-sensitive pores (putative connexin hemichannels) reside on the membrane of SP neurons. Immunostaining of cortical sections (P1-P6) detected connexins 26, and 45 in neurons, but not connexins 32 and 36. Vimentin-positive glial cells were detected in the SP zone suggesting a potential physiological interaction between SP neurons and radial glia. SP spontaneous activity was reduced by blocking glial metabolism with DFLC or by blocking purinergic receptors by PPADS. Connexin hemichannels and ATP release from vimentin-positive glial cells may underlie spontaneous plateau depolarizations in the developing mammalian cortex.

Kcnab1 Is Expressed in Subplate Neurons With Unilateral Long-Range Inter-Areal Projections

Subplate (SP) neurons are among the earliest-born neurons in the cerebral cortex and heterogeneous in terms of gene expression. SP neurons consist mainly of projection neurons, which begin to extend their axons to specific target areas very early during development. However, the relationships between axon projection and gene expression patterns of the SP neurons, and their remnant layer 6b (L6b) neurons, are largely unknown. In this study, we analyzed the corticocortical projections of L6b/SP neurons in the mouse cortex and searched for a marker gene expressed in L6b/SP neurons that have ipsilateral inter-areal projections. Retrograde tracing experiments demonstrated that L6b/SP neurons in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) projected to the primary motor cortex (M1) within the same cortical hemisphere at postnatal day (PD) 2 but did not show any callosal projection. This unilateral projection pattern persisted into adulthood. Our microarray analysis identified the gene encoding a β subunit of voltage-gated potassium channel (Kcnab1) as being expressed in L6b/SP. Double labeling with retrograde tracing and in situ hybridization demonstrated that Kcnab1 was expressed in the unilaterally-projecting neurons in L6b/SP. Embryonic expression was specifically detected in the SP as early as embryonic day (E) 14.5, shortly after the emergence of SP. Double immunostaining experiments revealed different degrees of co-expression of the protein product Kvβ1 with L6b/SP markers Ctgf (88%), Cplx3 (79%), and Nurr1 (58%), suggesting molecular subdivision of unilaterally-projecting L6b/SP neurons. In addition to expression in L6b/SP, scattered expression of Kcnab1 was observed during postnatal stages without layer specificity. Among splicing variants with three alternative first exons, the variant 1.1 explained all the cortical expression mentioned in this study. Together, our data suggest that L6b/SP neurons have corticocortical projections and Kcnab1 expression defines a subpopulation of L6b/SP neurons with a unilateral inter-areal projection.

The Integrative Function of Silent Synapses on Subplate Neurons in Cortical Development and Dysfunction

The thalamocortical circuit is of central importance in relaying information to the cortex. In development, subplate neurons (SPNs) form an integral part of the thalamocortical pathway. These early born cortical neurons are the first neurons to receive thalamic inputs and excite neurons in the cortical plate. This feed-forward circuit topology of SPNs supports the role of SPNs in shaping the formation and plasticity of thalamocortical connections. Recently it has been shown that SPNs also receive inputs from the developing cortical plate and project to the thalamus. The cortical inputs to SPNs in early ages are mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-receptor only containing synapses while at later ages α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-receptors are present. Thus, SPNs perform a changing integrative function over development. NMDA-receptor only synapses are crucially influenced by the resting potential and thus insults to the developing brain that causes depolarizations, e.g., hypoxia, can influence the integrative function of SPNs. Since such insults in humans cause symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders, NMDA-receptor only synapses on SPNs might provide a crucial link between early injuries and later circuit dysfunction. We thus here review subplate associated circuits, their changing functions, and discuss possible roles in development and disease.

Interactions between Membrane Resistance, GABA-A Receptor Properties, Bicarbonate Dynamics and Cl--Transport Shape Activity-Dependent Changes of Intracellular Cl- Concentration

The effects of ionotropic γ-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABA-A, GABA_A) activation depends critically on the Cl⁻-gradient across neuronal membranes. Previous studies demonstrated that the intracellular Cl⁻-concentration ([Cl⁻]_i) is not stable but shows a considerable amount of activity-dependent plasticity. To characterize how membrane properties and different molecules that are directly or indirectly involved in GABAergic synaptic transmission affect GABA-induced [Cl⁻]_i changes, we performed compartmental modeling in the NEURON environment. These simulations demonstrate that GABA-induced [Cl⁻]_i changes decrease at higher membrane resistance, revealing a sigmoidal dependency between both parameters. Increase in GABAergic conductivity enhances [Cl⁻]_i with a logarithmic dependency, while increasing the decay time of GABA_A receptors leads to a nearly linear enhancement of the [Cl⁻]_i changes. Implementing physiological levels of HCO₃⁻-conductivity to GABA_A receptors enhances the [Cl⁻]_i changes over a wide range of [Cl⁻]_i, but this effect depends on the stability of the HCO₃⁻ gradient and the intracellular pH. Finally, these simulations show that pure diffusional Cl⁻-elimination from dendrites is slow and that a high activity of Cl⁻-transport is required to improve the spatiotemporal restriction of GABA-induced [Cl⁻]_i changes. In summary, these simulations revealed a complex interplay between several key factors that influence GABA-induced [Cl]_i changes. The results suggest that some of these factors, including high resting [Cl⁻]_i, high input resistance, slow decay time of GABA_A receptors and dynamic HCO₃⁻ gradient, are specifically adapted in early postnatal neurons to facilitate limited activity-dependent [Cl⁻]_i decreases.

Multimodal Single-Cell Analysis Reveals Physiological Maturation in the Developing Human Neocortex

In the developing human neocortex, progenitor cells generate diverse cell types prenatally. Progenitor cells and newborn neurons respond to signaling cues, including neurotransmitters. While single-cell RNA sequencing has revealed cellular diversity, physiological heterogeneity has yet to be mapped onto these developing and diverse cell types. By combining measurements of intracellular Ca²⁺ elevations in response to neurotransmitter receptor agonists and RNA sequencing of the same single cells, we show that Ca²⁺ responses are cell-type-specific and change dynamically with lineage progression. Physiological response properties predict molecular cell identity and additionally reveal diversity not captured by single-cell transcriptomics. We find that the serotonin receptor HTR2A selectively activates radial glia cells in the developing human, but not mouse, neocortex, and inhibiting HTR2A receptors in human radial glia disrupts the radial glial scaffold. We show highly specific neurotransmitter signaling during neurogenesis in the developing human neocortex and highlight evolutionarily divergent mechanisms of physiological signaling.

Neural histology and neurogenesis of the human fetal and infant brain

The human brain develops slowly and over a long period of time which lasts for almost three decades. This enables good spatio-temporal resolution of histogenetic and neurogenetic events as well as an appropriate and clinically relevant timing of these events. In order to successfully apply in vivo neuroimaging data, in analyzing both the normal brain development and the neurodevelopmental origin of major neurological and mental disorders, it is important to correlate these neuroimaging data with the existing data on morphogenetic, histogenetic and neurogenetic events. Furthermore, when performing such correlation, the genetic, genomic, and molecular biology data on phenotypic specification of developing brain regions, areas and neurons should also be included. In this review, we focus on early developmental periods (form 8 postconceptional weeks to the second postnatal year) and describe the microstructural organization and neural circuitry elements of the fetal and early postnatal human cerebrum.

Sublaminar organization of the human subplate: developmental changes in the distribution of neurons, glia, growing axons and extracellular matrix

The objective of this paper was to collect normative data essential for analyzing the subplate (SP) role in pathogenesis of developmental disorders, characterized by abnormal circuitry, such as hypoxic-ischemic lesions, autism and schizophrenia. The main cytological features of the SP, such as low cell density, early differentiation of neurons and glia, plexiform arrangement of axons and dendrites, presence of synapses and a large amount of extracellular matrix (ECM) distinguish this compartment from the cell-dense cortical plate (CP; towards pia) and large fiber bundles of external axonal strata of fetal white matter (towards ventricle). For SP delineation from these adjacent layers based on combined cytological criteria, we analyzed the sublaminar distribution of different microstructural elements and the associated maturational gradients throughout development, using immunocytochemical and histological techniques on postmortem brain material (Zagreb Neuroembryological Collection). The analysis revealed that the SP compartment of the lateral neocortex shows changes in laminar organization throughout fetal development: the monolayer in the early fetal period (presubplate) undergoes dramatic bilaminar transformation between 13 and 15 postconceptional weeks (PCW), followed by subtle sublamination in three 'floors' (deep, intermediate, superficial) of midgestation (15-21 PCW). During the stationary phase (22-28 PCW), SP persists as a trilaminar compartment, gradually losing its sublaminar organization towards the end of gestation and remains as a single layer of SP remnant in the newborn brain. Based on these sublaminar transformations, we have documented developmental changes in the distribution, maturational gradients and expression of molecular markers in SP synapses, transitional forms of astroglia, neurons and ECM, which occur concomitantly with the ingrowth of thalamo-cortical, basal forebrain and cortico-cortical axons in a deep to superficial fashion. The deep SP is the zone of ingrowing axons - 'entrance (ingrowth) zone'. The process of axonal ingrowth begins with thalamo-cortical fibers and basal forebrain afferents, indicating an oblique geometry. During the later fetal period, deep SP receives long cortico-cortical axons exhibiting a tangential geometry. Intermediate SP ('proper') is the navigation and 'nexus' sublamina consisting of a plexiform arrangement of cellular elements providing guidance and substrate for axonal growth, and also containing transient connectivity of dendrites and axons in a tangential plane without radial boundaries immersed in an ECM-rich continuum. Superficial SP is the axonal accumulation ('waiting compartment') and target selection zone, indicating a dense distribution of synaptic markers, accumulation of thalamo-cortical axons (around 20 PCW), overlapping with dendrites from layer VI neurons. In the late preterm brain period, superficial SP contains a chondroitin sulfate non-immunoreactive band. The developmental dynamics for the distribution of neuronal, glial and ECM markers comply with sequential ingrowth of afferents in three levels of SP: ECM and synaptic markers shift from deep to superficial SP, with transient forms of glia following this arrangement, and calretinin neurons are concentrated in the SP during the formation phase. These results indicate developmental and morphogenetic roles in the SP cellular (transient glia, neurons and synapses) and ECM framework, enabling the spatial accommodation, navigation and establishment of numerous connections of cortical pathways in the expanded human brain. The original findings of early developmental dynamics of transitional subtypes of astroglia, calretinin neurons, ECM and synaptic markers presented in the SP are interesting in the light of recent concepts concerning its functional and morphogenetic role and an increasing interest in SP as a prospective substrate of abnormalities in cortical circuitry, leading to a cognitive deficit in different neurodevelopmental disorders.

The Superior Function of the Subplate in Early Neocortical Development

During early development the structure and function of the cerebral cortex is critically organized by subplate neurons (SPNs), a mostly transient population of glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons located below the cortical plate. At the molecular and morphological level SPNs represent a rather diverse population of cells expressing a variety of genetic markers and revealing different axonal-dendritic morphologies. Electrophysiologically SPNs are characterized by their rather mature intrinsic membrane properties and firing patterns. They are connected via electrical and chemical synapses to local and remote neurons, e.g., thalamic relay neurons forming the first thalamocortical input to the cerebral cortex. Therefore SPNs are robustly activated at pre- and perinatal stages by the sensory periphery. Although SPNs play pivotal roles in early neocortical activity, development and plasticity, they mostly disappear by programmed cell death during further maturation. On the one hand, SPNs may be selectively vulnerable to hypoxia-ischemia contributing to brain damage, on the other hand there is some evidence that enhanced survival rates or alterations in SPN distribution may contribute to the etiology of neurological or psychiatric disorders. This review aims to give a comprehensive and up-to-date overview on the many functions of SPNs during early physiological and pathophysiological development of the cerebral cortex.

Review of imaging network activities in developing rodent cerebral cortex in vivo

The combination of voltage-sensitive dye imaging (VSDI) with multielectrode array (MEA) recordings in the rodent cerebral cortex in vivo allows the simultaneous analysis of large-scale network interactions and electrophysiological single-unit recordings. Using this approach, distinct patterns of spontaneous and sensory-evoked activity can be recorded in the primary somatosensory (S1) and motor cortex (M1) of newborn rats. Already at the day of birth, gamma oscillations and spindle bursts in the barrel cortex synchronize the activity of a local columnar ensemble, thereby generating an early topographic representation of the sensory periphery. During the first postnatal week, both cortical activity patterns undergo developmental changes in their spatiotemporal properties and spread into neighboring cortical columns. Simultaneous VSDI and MEA recordings in S1 and M1 demonstrate that the immature motor cortex receives information from the somatosensory system and that M1 may trigger movements of the periphery, which subsequently evoke gamma oscillations and spindle bursts in S1. These early activity patterns not only play an important role in the development of the cortical columnar architecture, they also control the ratio of surviving versus dying neurons in an activity-dependent manner, making these processes most vulnerable to pathophysiological disturbances during early developmental stages.

Homeostatic interplay between electrical activity and neuronal apoptosis in the developing neocortex

An intriguing feature of nervous system development in most animal species is that the initial number of generated neurons is higher than the number of neurons incorporated into mature circuits. A substantial portion of neurons is indeed eliminated via apoptosis during a short time window - in rodents the first two postnatal weeks. While it is well established that neurotrophic factors play a central role in controlling neuronal survival and apoptosis in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the situation is less clear in the central nervous system (CNS). In postnatal rodent neocortex, the peak of apoptosis coincides with the occurrence of spontaneous, synchronous activity patterns. In this article, we review recent results that demonstrate the important role of electrical activity for neuronal survival in the neocortex, describe the role of Ca²⁺ and neurotrophic factors in translating electrical activity into pro-survival signals, and finally discuss the clinical impact of the tight relation between electrical activity and neuronal survival versus apoptosis.

Growth of Thalamocortical Fibers to the Somatosensory Cortex in the Human Fetal Brain

Thalamocortical (TH-C) fiber growth begins during the embryonic period and is completed by the third trimester of gestation in humans. Here we determined the timing and trajectories of somatosensory TH-C fibers in the developing human brain. We analyzed the periods of TH-C fiber outgrowth, path-finding, "waiting" in the subplate (SP), target selection, and ingrowth in the cortical plate (CP) using histological sections from post-mortem fetal brain [from 7 to 34 postconceptional weeks (PCW)] that were processed with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) histochemistry and immunohistochemical methods. Images were compared with post mortem diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)-based fiber tractography (code No NO1-HD-4-3368). The results showed TH-C axon outgrowth occurs as early as 7.5 PCW in the ventrolateral part of the thalamic anlage. Between 8 and 9.5 PCW, TH-C axons form massive bundles that traverse the diencephalic-telencephalic boundary. From 9.5 to 11 PCW, thalamocortical axons pass the periventricular area at the pallial-subpallial boundary and enter intermediate zone in radiating fashion. Between 12 and 14 PCW, the TH-C axons, aligned along the fibers from the basal forebrain, continue to grow for a short distance within the deep intermediate zone and enter the deep CP, parallel with SP expansion. Between 14 and 18 PCW, the TH-C interdigitate with callosal fibers, running shortly in the sagittal stratum and spreading through the deep SP ("waiting" phase). From 19 to 22 PCW, TH-C axons accumulate in the superficial SP below the somatosensory cortical area; this occurs 2 weeks earlier than in the frontal and occipital cortices. Between 23 and 24 PCW, AChE-reactive TH-C axons penetrate the CP concomitantly with its initial lamination. Between 25 and 34 PCW, AChE reactivity of the CP exhibits an uneven pattern suggestive of vertical banding, showing a basic 6-layer pattern. In conclusion, human thalamocortical axons show prolonged growth (4 months), and somatosensory fibers precede the ingrowth of fibers destined for frontal and occipital areas. The major features of growing TH-C somatosensory fiber trajectories are fan-like radiation, short runs in the sagittal strata, and interdigitation with the callosal system. These results support our hypothesis that TH-C axons are early factors in SP and CP morphogenesis and synaptogenesis and may regulate cortical somatosensory system maturation.

A role for GABAergic interneuron diversity in circuit development and plasticity of the neonatal cerebral cortex

GABAergic interneurons are a highly heterogeneous group of cells that are critical for the mature function and development of the neocortex. In terms of the latter, much attention has focused on the well-established role of parvalbumin (PV+)-expressing, fast spiking, basket cells in determining the critical period plasticity. However recent endeavours have started to shed the light on the contribution of other interneuron subtypes to early circuit formation and plasticity. Data suggests that there are significant interactions between PV+ cells and other interneuron subtypes that regulate circuit development in rodents in the first postnatal week. Moreover, a number of these early interactions are transient which points to an important, distinct role for interneuron diversity in setting up emergent neocortical processing.

Neuronal activity controls the development of interneurons in the somatosensory cortex

BACKGROUND

Neuronal activity in cortical areas regulates neurodevelopment by interacting with defined genetic programs to shape the mature central nervous system. Electrical activity is conveyed to sensory cortical areas via intracortical and thalamocortical neurons, and includes oscillatory patterns that have been measured across cortical regions.

OBJECTIVE

In this work, we review the most recent findings about how electrical activity shapes the developmental assembly of functional circuitry in the somatosensory cortex, with an emphasis on interneuron maturation and integration. We include studies on the effect of various neurotransmitters and on the influence of thalamocortical afferent activity on circuit development. We additionally reviewed studies describing network activity patterns.

METHODS

We conducted an extensive literature search using both the PubMed and Google Scholar search engines. The following keywords were used in various iterations: "interneuron", "somatosensory", "development", "activity", "network patterns", "thalamocortical", "NMDA receptor", "plasticity". We additionally selected papers known to us from past reading, and those recommended to us by reviewers and members of our lab.

RESULTS

We reviewed a total of 132 articles that focused on the role of activity in interneuronal migration, maturation, and circuit development, as well as the source of electrical inputs and patterns of cortical activity in the somatosensory cortex. 79 of these papers included in this timely review were written between 2007 and 2016.

CONCLUSIONS

Neuronal activity shapes the developmental assembly of functional circuitry in the somatosensory cortical interneurons. This activity impacts nearly every aspect of development and acquisition of mature neuronal characteristics, and may contribute to changing phenotypes, altered transmitter expression, and plasticity in the adult. Progressively changing oscillatory network patterns contribute to this activity in the early postnatal period, although a direct requirement for specific patterns and origins of activity remains to be demonstrated.

A Transient Translaminar GABAergic Interneuron Circuit Connects Thalamocortical Recipient Layers in Neonatal Somatosensory Cortex

GABAergic activity is thought to influence developing neocortical sensory circuits. Yet the late postnatal maturation of local layer (L)4 circuits suggests alternate sources of GABAergic control in nascent thalamocortical networks. We show that a population of L5b, somatostatin (SST)-positive interneuron receives early thalamic synaptic input and, using laser-scanning photostimulation, identify an early transient circuit between these cells and L4 spiny stellates (SSNs) that disappears by the end of the L4 critical period. Sensory perturbation disrupts the transition to a local GABAergic circuit, suggesting a link between translaminar and local control of SSNs. Conditional silencing of SST+ interneurons or conversely biasing the circuit toward local inhibition by overexpression of neuregulin-1 type 1 results in an absence of early L5b GABAergic input in mutants and delayed thalamic innervation of SSNs. These data identify a role for L5b SST+ interneurons in the control of SSNs in the early postnatal neocortex.

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Early postnatal thalamic synaptic input onto L5b somatostatin interneurons

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Transient reciprocal connectivity between L5b INs and L4 spiny stellate cells

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Sensory activity is required for the transition to a local L4 GABAergic circuit

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Molecular bias toward early local IN synapses delays thalamic innervation of SSNs

Early Somatostatin Interneuron Connectivity Mediates the Maturation of Deep Layer Cortical Circuits

The precise connectivity of somatostatin and parvalbumin cortical interneurons is generated during development. An understanding of how these interneuron classes incorporate into cortical circuitry is incomplete but essential to elucidate the roles they play during maturation. Here, we report that somatostatin interneurons in infragranular layers receive dense but transient innervation from thalamocortical afferents during the first postnatal week. During this period, parvalbumin interneurons and pyramidal neurons within the same layers receive weaker thalamocortical inputs, yet are strongly innervated by somatostatin interneurons. Further, upon disruption of the early (but not late) somatostatin interneuron network, the synaptic maturation of thalamocortical inputs onto parvalbumin interneurons is perturbed. These results suggest that infragranular somatostatin interneurons exhibit a transient early synaptic connectivity that is essential for the establishment of thalamic feedforward inhibition mediated by parvalbumin interneurons.

Spontaneous Neuronal Activity in Developing Neocortical Networks: From Single Cells to Large-Scale Interactions

Neuronal activity has been shown to be essential for the proper formation of neuronal circuits, affecting developmental processes like neurogenesis, migration, programmed cell death, cellular differentiation, formation of local and long-range axonal connections, synaptic plasticity or myelination. Accordingly, neocortical areas reveal distinct spontaneous and sensory-driven neuronal activity patterns already at early phases of development. At embryonic stages, when immature neurons start to develop voltage-dependent channels, spontaneous activity is highly synchronized within small neuronal networks and governed by electrical synaptic transmission. Subsequently, spontaneous activity patterns become more complex, involve larger networks and propagate over several neocortical areas. The developmental shift from local to large-scale network activity is accompanied by a gradual shift from electrical to chemical synaptic transmission with an initial excitatory action of chloride-gated channels activated by GABA, glycine and taurine. Transient neuronal populations in the subplate (SP) support temporary circuits that play an important role in tuning early neocortical activity and the formation of mature neuronal networks. Thus, early spontaneous activity patterns control the formation of developing networks in sensory cortices, and disturbances of these activity patterns may lead to long-lasting neuronal deficits.

Spindle Activity Orchestrates Plasticity during Development and Sleep

Spindle oscillations have been described during early brain development and in the adult brain. Besides similarities in temporal patterns and involved brain areas, neonatal spindle bursts (NSBs) and adult sleep spindles (ASSs) show differences in their occurrence, spatial distribution, and underlying mechanisms. While NSBs have been proposed to coordinate the refinement of the maturating neuronal network, ASSs are associated with the implementation of acquired information within existing networks. Along with these functional differences, separate synaptic plasticity mechanisms seem to be recruited. Here, we review the generation of spindle oscillations in the developing and adult brain and discuss possible implications of their differences for synaptic plasticity. The first part of the review is dedicated to the generation and function of ASSs with a particular focus on their role in healthy and impaired neuronal networks. The second part overviews the present knowledge of spindle activity during development and the ability of NSBs to organize immature circuits. Studies linking abnormal maturation of brain wiring with neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders highlight the importance to better elucidate neonatal plasticity rules in future research.

Spindle Bursts in Neonatal Rat Cerebral Cortex

Spontaneous and sensory evoked spindle bursts represent a functional hallmark of the developing cerebral cortex in vitro and in vivo. They have been observed in various neocortical areas of numerous species, including newborn rodents and preterm human infants. Spindle bursts are generated in complex neocortical-subcortical circuits involving in many cases the participation of motor brain regions. Together with early gamma oscillations, spindle bursts synchronize the activity of a local neuronal network organized in a cortical column. Disturbances in spindle burst activity during corticogenesis may contribute to disorders in cortical architecture and in the activity-dependent control of programmed cell death. In this review we discuss (i) the functional properties of spindle bursts, (ii) the mechanisms underlying their generation, (iii) the synchronous patterns and cortical networks associated with spindle bursts, and (iv) the physiological and pathophysiological role of spindle bursts during early cortical development.

GABA transporters control GABAergic neurotransmission in the mouse subplate

The subplate is a transient layer between the cortical plate and intermediate zone in the developing cortex. Thalamo-cortical axons form temporary synapses on subplate neurons (SPns) before invading the cortical plate. Neuronal activity within the subplate is of critical importance for the development of neocortical circuits and architecture. Although both glutamatergic and GABAergic inputs on SPns were reported, short-term plasticity of GABAergic transmission has not been investigated yet. GABAergic postsynaptic currents (GPSCs) were recorded from SPns in coronal neocortical slices prepared from postnatal day 3-4 mice using whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Evoked GPSCs (eGPSCs) elicited by electrical paired-pulse stimulation demonstrated paired-pulse depression at all interstimulus intervals tested. Baclofen, a specific GABAB receptor (GABABR) agonist, reduced eGPSC amplitudes and increased paired-pulse ratio (PPR), suggesting presynaptic location of functional GABABRs. Baclofen-induced effects were alleviated by (2S)-3-[[(1S)-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)ethyl]amino-2-hydroxypropyl](phenylmethyl)phosphinic acid (CGP55845), a selective GABABR blocker. Moreover, CGP55845 increased eGPSC amplitudes and decreased PPR even under control conditions, indicating that GABABRs are tonically activated by ambient GABA. Because extracellular GABA concentration is mainly regulated by GABA transporters (GATs), we asked whether GATs release GABA. 1,2,5,6-tetrahydro-1-[2-[[(diphenylmethylene)amino]oxy]ethyl]-3-pyridinecarboxylic acid (NNC-711) (10μM), a selective GAT-1 blocker, increased eGPSC decay time, decreased eGPSC amplitudes and PPR. The two last effects but not the first one were blocked by CGP55845, indicating that GAT-1 blockade causes an elevation of extracellular GABA concentration and in turn activation of extrasynaptic GABAARs and presynaptic GABABRs. 1-[2-[tris(4-methoxyphenyl)methoxy]ethyl]-(S)-3-piperidinecarboxylic acid (SNAP-5114), a specific GAT-2/3 blocker, failed to affect eGPSC kinetics. However, in contrast to NNC-711 SNAP-5114 increased eGPSC amplitudes and decreased PPR. In the presence of SNAP-5114 CGP55845 did not influence GABAergic transmission, indicating that GABABRs are not activated any longer. We conclude that in the subplate GAT-2/3 operates in reverse mode. GABA released via GAT-2/3 activates presynaptic GABABRs on GABAergic synapses and tonically inhibits GABAergic inputs on SPns.

The relevance of human fetal subplate zone for developmental neuropathology of neuronal migration disorders and cortical dysplasia

The human fetal cerebral cortex develops through a series of partially overlapping histogenetic events which occur in transient cellular compartments, such as the subplate zone. The subplate serves as waiting compartment for cortical afferent fibers, the major site of early synaptogenesis and neuronal differentiation and the hub of the transient fetal cortical circuitry. Thus, the subplate has an important but hitherto neglected role in the human fetal cortical connectome. The subplate is also an important compartment for radial and tangential migration of future cortical neurons. We review the diversity of subplate neuronal phenotypes and their involvement in cortical circuitry and discuss the complexity of late neuronal migration through the subplate as well as its potential relevance for pathogenesis of migration disorders and cortical dysplasia. While migratory neurons may become misplaced within the subplate, they can easily survive by being involved in early subplate circuitry; this can enhance their subsequent survival even if they have immature or abnormal physiological activity and misrouted connections and thus survive into adulthood. Thus, better understanding of subplate developmental history and various subsets of its neurons may help to elucidate certain types of neuronal disorders, including those accompanied by epilepsy.

Connexin hemichannels contribute to spontaneous electrical activity in the human fetal cortex

Before the human cortex is able to process sensory information, young postmitotic neurons must maintain occasional bursts of action-potential firing to attract and keep synaptic contacts, to drive gene expression, and to transition to mature membrane properties. Before birth, human subplate (SP) neurons are spontaneously active, displaying bursts of electrical activity (plateau depolarizations with action potentials). Using whole-cell recordings in acute cortical slices, we investigated the source of this early activity. The spontaneous depolarizations in human SP neurons at midgestation (17-23 gestational weeks) were not completely eliminated by tetrodotoxin--a drug that blocks action potential firing and network activity--or by antagonists of glutamatergic, GABAergic, or glycinergic synaptic transmission. We then turned our focus away from standard chemical synapses to connexin-based gap junctions and hemichannels. PCR and immunohistochemical analysis identified the presence of connexins (Cx26/Cx32/Cx36) in the human fetal cortex. However, the connexin-positive cells were not found in clusters but, rather, were dispersed in the SP zone. Also, gap junction-permeable dyes did not diffuse to neighboring cells, suggesting that SP neurons were not strongly coupled to other cells at this age. Application of the gap junction and hemichannel inhibitors octanol, flufenamic acid, and carbenoxolone significantly blocked spontaneous activity. The putative hemichannel antagonist lanthanum alone was a potent inhibitor of the spontaneous activity. Together, these data suggest that connexin hemichannels contribute to spontaneous depolarizations in the human fetal cortex during the second trimester of gestation.

The GABA excitatory/inhibitory developmental sequence: a personal journey

The developing brain is talkative but its language is not that of the adult. Most if not all voltage and transmitter-gated ionic currents follow a developmental sequence and network-driven patterns differ in immature and adult brains. This is best illustrated in studies engaged almost three decades ago in which we observed elevated intracellular chloride (Cl(-))i levels and excitatory GABA early during development and a perinatal excitatory/inhibitory shift. This sequence is observed in a wide range of brain structures and animal species suggesting that it has been conserved throughout evolution. It is mediated primarily by a developmentally regulated expression of the NKCC1 and KCC2 chloride importer and exporter respectively. The GABAergic depolarization acts in synergy with N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-mediated and voltage-gated calcium currents to enhance intracellular calcium exerting trophic effects on neuritic growth, migration and synapse formation. These sequences can be deviated in utero by genetic or environmental insults leading to a persistence of immature features in the adult brain. This "neuroarcheology" concept paves the way to novel therapeutic perspectives based on the use of drugs that block immature but not adult currents. This is illustrated notably with the return to immature high levels of chloride and excitatory actions of GABA observed in many pathological conditions. This is due to the fact that in the immature brain a down regulation of KCC2 and an up regulation of NKCC1 are seen. Here, I present a personal history of how an unexpected observation led to novel concepts in developmental neurobiology and putative treatments of autism and other developmental disorders. Being a personal account, this review is neither exhaustive nor provides an update of this topic with all the studies that have contributed to this evolution. We all rely on previous inventors to allow science to advance. Here, I present a personal summary of this topic primarily to illustrate why we often fail to comprehend the implications of our own observations. They remind us - and policy deciders - why Science cannot be programed, requiring time, and risky investigations that raise interesting questions before being translated from bench to bed. Discoveries are always on sideways, never on highways.

Early GABAergic circuitry in the cerebral cortex

In the cerebral cortex GABAergic signaling plays an important role in regulating early developmental processes, for example, neurogenesis, migration and differentiation. Transient cell populations, namely Cajal-Retzius in the marginal zone and thalamic input receiving subplate neurons, are integrated as active elements in transitory GABAergic circuits. Although immature pyramidal neurons receive GABAergic synaptic inputs already at fetal stages, they are integrated into functional GABAergic circuits only several days later. In consequence, GABAergic synaptic transmission has only a minor influence on spontaneous network activity during early corticogenesis. Concurrent with the gradual developmental shift of GABA action from excitatory to inhibitory and the maturation of cortical synaptic connections, GABA becomes more important in synchronizing neuronal network activity.

Malformations of cortical development and neocortical focus

Developmental neocortical malformations resulting from abnormal neurogenesis, disturbances in programmed cell death, or neuronal migration disorders may cause a long-term hyperexcitability. Early generated Cajal-Retzius and subplate neurons play important roles in transient cortical circuits, and structural/functional disorders in early cortical development may induce persistent network disturbances and epileptic disorders. In particular, depolarizing GABAergic responses are important for the regulation of neurodevelopmental events, like neurogenesis or migration, while pathophysiological alterations in chloride homeostasis may cause epileptic activity. Although modern imaging techniques may provide an estimate of the structural lesion, the site and extent of the cortical malformation may not correlate with the epileptogenic zone. The neocortical focus may be surrounded by widespread molecular, structural, and functional disturbances, which are difficult to recognize with imaging technologies. However, modern imaging and electrophysiological techniques enable focused hypotheses of the neocortical epileptogenic zone, thus allowing more specific epilepsy surgery. Focal cortical malformation can be successfully removed with minimal rim, close to or even within eloquent cortex with a promising risk-benefit ratio.

Hypoxia-ischemia disrupts directed interactions within neonatal prefrontal-hippocampal networks

Due to improved survival rates and outcome of human infants experiencing a hypoxic-ischemic episode, cognitive dysfunctions have become prominent. They might result from abnormal communication within prefrontal-hippocampal networks, as synchrony and directed interactions between the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus account for mnemonic and executive performance. Here, we elucidate the structural and functional impact of hypoxic-ischemic events on developing prefrontal-hippocampal networks in an immature rat model of injury. The magnitude of infarction, cell loss and astrogliosis revealed that an early hypoxic-ischemic episode had either a severe or a mild/moderate outcome. Without affecting the gross morphology, hypoxia-ischemia with mild/moderate outcome diminished prefrontal neuronal firing and gamma network entrainment. This dysfunction resulted from decreased coupling synchrony within prefrontal-hippocampal networks and disruption of hippocampal theta drive. Thus, early hypoxia-ischemia may alter the functional maturation of neuronal networks involved in cognitive processing by disturbing the communication between the neonatal prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.

Spontaneous Network Activity and Synaptic Development

Throughout development, the nervous system produces patterned spontaneous activity. Research over the past two decades has revealed a core group of mechanisms that mediate spontaneous activity in diverse circuits. Many circuits engage several of these mechanisms sequentially to accommodate developmental changes in connectivity. In addition to shared mechanisms, activity propagates through developing circuits and neuronal pathways (i.e., linked circuits in different brain areas) in stereotypic patterns. Increasing evidence suggests that spontaneous network activity shapes synaptic development in vivo Variations in activity-dependent plasticity may explain how similar mechanisms and patterns of activity can be employed to establish diverse circuits. Here, I will review common mechanisms and patterns of spontaneous activity in emerging neural networks and discuss recent insights into their contribution to synaptic development.

[Fetal MRI and ultrasound of congenital CNS anomalies]

In the last decade the newest technologies, fetal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and 3D ultrasound, have given an insight into the minute structures of the fetal brain. However, without knowledge of the basic developmental processes the imaging is futile. Knowledge of fetal neuroanatomy corresponding to the gestational week is necessary in order to recognize pathological structures. Furthermore, a modern neuroradiologist should be acquainted with the three steps in the formation of the cerebral cortex: proliferation, migration and differentiation of neurons in order to be in a position to suspect that there is a pathology and start recognizing and discovering the abnormalities. The fetal MRI has become an important complementary method to ultrasound especially in cortical malformations when confirmation of the prenatal diagnosis is needed and additional pathologies need to be diagnosed. In this manner these two methods help in parental counseling and treatment planning.

Expression of EAAT2 in neurons and protoplasmic astrocytes during human cortical development

The major regulators of synaptic glutamate in the cerebral cortex are the excitatory amino acid transporters 1-3 (EAAT1-3). In this study, we determined the cellular and temporal expression of EAAT1-3 in the developing human cerebral cortex. We applied single- and double-label immunocytochemistry to normative frontal or parietal (associative) cortex samples from 14 cases ranging in age from 23 gestational weeks to 2.5 postnatal years. The most striking finding was the transient expression of EAAT2 in layer V pyramidal neuronal cell bodies up until 8 postnatal months prior to its expression in protoplasmic astrocytes at 41 postconceptional weeks onward. EAAT2 was also expressed in neurons in layer I (presumed Cajal-Retzius cells), and white matter (interstitial) neurons. This expression in neurons in the developing human cortex contrasts with findings by others of transient expression exclusively in axon tracts in the developing sheep and rodent brain. With western blotting, we found that EAAT2 was expressed as a single band until 2 postnatal months, after which it was expressed as two bands. The expression of EAAT2 in pyramidal neurons during human brain development may contribute to cortical vulnerability to excitotoxicity during the critical period for perinatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. In addition, by studying the expression of EAAT1 and EAAT2 glutamate transporters, it was possible to document the development of protoplasmic astrocytes.

Expression profiling of mouse subplate reveals a dynamic gene network and disease association with autism and schizophrenia

The subplate zone is a highly dynamic transient sector of the developing cerebral cortex that contains some of the earliest generated neurons and the first functional synapses of the cerebral cortex. Subplate cells have important functions in early establishment and maturation of thalamocortical connections, as well as in the development of inhibitory cortical circuits in sensory areas. So far no role has been identified for cells in the subplate in the mature brain and disease association of the subplate-specific genes has not been analyzed systematically. Here we present gene expression evidence for distinct roles of the mouse subplate across development as well as unique molecular markers to extend the repertoire of subplate labels. Performing systematic comparisons between different ages (embryonic days 15 and 18, postnatal day 8, and adult), we reveal the dynamic and constant features of the markers labeling subplate cells during embryonic and early postnatal development and in the adult. This can be visualized using the online database of subplate gene expression at https://molnar.dpag.ox.ac.uk/subplate/. We also identify embryonic similarities in gene expression between the ventricular zones, intermediate zone, and subplate, and distinct postnatal similarities between subplate, layer 5, and layers 2/3. The genes expressed in a subplate-specific manner at some point during development show a statistically significant enrichment for association with autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia. Our report emphasizes the importance of the study of transient features of the developing brain to better understand neurodevelopmental disorders.

Morphology and physiology of excitatory neurons in layer 6b of the somatosensory rat barrel cortex

Neocortical lamina 6B (L6B) is a largely unexplored layer with a very heterogeneous cellular composition. To date, only little is known about L6B neurons on a systematic and quantitative basis. We investigated the morphological and electrophysiological properties of excitatory L6B neurons in the rat somatosensory barrel cortex using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings and simultaneous biocytin fillings. Subsequent histological processing and computer-assisted 3D reconstructions provided the basis for a classification of excitatory L6B neurons according to their structural and functional characteristics. Three distinct clusters of excitatory L6B neurons were identified: (C1) pyramidal neurons with an apical dendrite pointing towards the pial surface, (C2) neurons with a prominent, “apical”-like dendrite not oriented towards the pia, and (C3) multipolar spiny neurons without any preferential dendritic orientation. The second group could be further subdivided into three categories termed inverted, “tangentially” oriented and “horizontally” oriented neurons. Furthermore, based on the axonal domain two subcategories of L6B pyramidal cells were identified that had either a more barrel-column confined or an extended axonal field. The classification of excitatory L6B neurons provided here may serve as a basis for future studies on the structure, function, and synaptic connectivity of L6B neurons.