Non-clinical studies in the process of new drug development - Part II: Good laboratory practice, metabolism, pharmacokinetics, safety and dose translation to clinical studies

Design, synthesis, and anticancer evaluation of N4-substituted thiosemicarbazones derived from ortho- and para-ethoxy-benzaldehydes

R2 - C(S) - NH - N = CH - R1 [R1 = o-OCH2CH3 & R2 = C4H9N (2-EBP), R1 = o-OCH2CH3 & R2 = C4H9NO (2-EBM), R1 = p-OCH2CH3 & R2 = C4H9N (4-EBP), and R1 = p-OCH2CH3 & R2 = C4H9NO (4-EBM)] have been synthesized. The ligands have been verified via various spectroscopic methods such as IR, NMR, etc. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction methods were applied to identify the structure of 4-EBP. Absorption/emission spectroscopic titration was used to assess the interaction of ligands to calf thymus (CT) DNA. DNA binding studies revealed interactions characterized by hyperchromicity and a slight redshift. 4-EBP showed the highest binding constant (1.58 × 105), indicating that it binds stronger to CT-DNA. The red shift and significant hypochromic shift seen in the fluorescence titration spectra of the BSA binding probes showed the strong interaction of the ligand to BSA. EGFR protein docking investigations verified the potential of the ligands to treat its targets. 4-EBP has the highest docking score (-6.7987 kcal) compared to other synthesized ligands. The B3LYP/6-311 G (d, p) ++ was implemented to calculate density functional theory (DFT). All ligands have a LogP value below 5, indicating lipophilic properties suitable for SwissADME studies. All new ligands follow Lipinski's drug class rules. Low synthetic input levels between 2 and 3 indicate the best results for this material. Each ligand (2-EBP to 4-EBM) has been marked to perform as an oral drug candidate. To test the anticancer potential of four ligands (2-EBP to 4-EBM). 4-EBP showed good efficacy against endothelial and liver cancer cells, with IC50 values of 21.2 ± 0.1 and 45.3 ± 0.1 against MCF-7 and HepG-2 respectively.

The Importance of Murine Models in Determining In Vivo Pharmacokinetics, Safety, and Efficacy in Antimalarial Drug Discovery

New chemical entities are constantly being investigated towards antimalarial drug discovery, and they require animal models for toxicity and efficacy testing. Murine models show physiological similarities to humans and are therefore indispensable in the search for novel antimalarial drugs. They provide a preclinical basis (following in vitro assessments of newly identified lead compounds) for further assessment in the drug development pipeline. Specific mouse strains, non-humanized and humanized, have successfully been infected with rodent Plasmodium species and the human Plasmodium species, respectively. Infected mice provide a platform for the assessment of treatment options being sought. In vivo pharmacokinetic evaluations are necessary when determining the fate of potential antimalarials in addition to the efficacy assessment of these chemical entities. This review describes the role of murine models in the drug development pipeline. It also explains some in vivo pharmacokinetic, safety, and efficacy parameters necessary for making appropriate choices of lead compounds in antimalarial drug discovery. Despite the advantages of murine models in antimalarial drug discovery, certain limitations are also highlighted.

Identification of active compounds as novel dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors through machine learning and structure-based molecular docking simulations

The enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) is a potential therapeutic target for type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Many synthetic anti-DPP4 medications are available to treat T2DM. The need for secure and efficient medicines has been unmet due to the adverse side effects of existing DPP4 medications. The present study implemented a combined approach to machine learning and structure-based virtual screening to identify DPP4 inhibitors. Two ML models were trained based on DPP4 IC50 datasets. The ML models random forest (RF) and multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network showed good accuracy, with the area under the curve being 0.93 and 0.91, respectively. The natural compound library was screened through ML models, and 1% (217) of compounds were selected for further screening. Structure-based virtual screening was performed along with positive control sitagliptin to obtain more specific and selective leads for DPP4. Based on binding affinity, drug-likeness properties, and interaction with DPP4, Z-614 and Z-997 compounds showed high binding affinity and specificity in the catalytic pocket of DPP4. Finally, the stability conformation of the DPP4 enzyme complex was checked by a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The MD simulation showed that both compounds bind better in the catalytic pocket, but the Z-614 compound altered the DPP4 native conformation. Therefore, Z-614 showed a high deviation in the backbone. This combined approach (ML and structure-based) study reported that Z-997 binds most stably to DPP4 in their catalytic pocket with a binding free energy of -70.3 kJ/mol, suggesting its therapeutic potential as a treatment option for T2DM disease.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Preclinical toxicity evaluation of the novel anti-hypertensive compound KSD179019

The Secretin receptor (SCTR) presents a promising path for hypertension management, with KSD179019 as identified as a Positive Allosteric Modulator (PAM) of SCTR, demonstrating anti-hypertensive effects in animal models. Our objective was to comprehensively evaluate the potential toxicity of KSD179019 through in vitro and in vivo investigations. Initial in vitro studies showed minimal toxicity in liver and kidney cells and non-mutagenicity in bacterial assays. A 14-day acute toxicity test indicated an LD50 over 5000 mg/kg body weight, suggesting a safe profile, yet necessitating further in vivo analysis before progressing to human trials. Following OECD protocols, we conducted sub-chronic (90 days) and chronic (180 days) toxicity studies in male and female C57 mice at various dosages. These included comprehensive hematological, biochemical, macroscopic, urinalysis, and histopathological examinations. The sub-chronic study reported minimal toxicity except at the highest doses (700 and 1000 mg/kg), while the chronic study suggested a no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) at 250 mg/kg with limitations. QSAR analysis supported the non-mutagenic nature of KSD179019. KSD179019 demonstrated a favorable general toxicity profile at a dose of 250 mg/kg in a 180-day chronic testing study. However, further preclinical investigations, including assessments of in vivo mutagenicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, and carcinogenicity, are required to comprehensively establish its safety profile.

Advancing Cancer Drug Delivery with Nanoparticles: Challenges and Prospects in Mathematical Modeling for In Vivo and In Vitro Systems

Mathematical models are crucial for predicting the behavior of drug conjugate nanoparticles and optimizing drug delivery systems in cancer therapy. These models simulate interactions among nanoparticle properties, tumor characteristics, and physiological conditions, including drug resistance and targeting specificity. However, they often rely on assumptions that may not accurately reflect in vivo conditions. In vitro studies, while useful, may not fully capture the complexities of the in vivo environment, leading to an overestimation of nanoparticle-based therapy effectiveness. Advancements in mathematical modeling, supported by preclinical data and artificial intelligence, are vital for refining nanoparticle-based therapies and improving their translation into effective clinical treatments.

Trends of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Use in Drug Targets, Discovery and Development: Current Status and Future Perspectives

The applications of artificial intelligence (AI) in pharmaceutical sectors have advanced drug discovery and development methods. AI has been applied in virtual drug design, molecule synthesis, advanced research, various screening methods, and decision-making processes. In the fourth industrial revolution, when medical discoveries are happening swiftly, AI technology is essential to reduce the costs, effort, and time in the pharmaceutical industry. Further, it will aid "genome-based medicine" and "drug discovery." AI may prepare proactive databases according to diseases, disorders, and appropriate usage of drugs which will facilitate the required data for the process of drug development. The application of AI has improved clinical trials on patient selection in a population, stratification, and sample assessment such as biomarkers, effectiveness measures, dosage selection, and trial length. Various studies suggest AI could be perform better compared to conventional techniques in drug discovery. The present review focused on the positive impact of AI in drug discovery and development processes in the pharmaceutical industry and beneficial usage in health sectors as well.

Mass Spectrometry Imaging Distinguishes Biliary Toxicants on the Basis of Cellular Distribution

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) was used to investigate and provide insights into observed biliary pathology found in dogs and rats after administration of two different compounds. Both compounds were associated with peribiliary inflammatory infiltrates and proliferation of the bile duct epithelium. However, MSI revealed very different spatial distribution profiles for the two compounds: Compound A showed significant accumulation within the bile duct epithelium with a much higher concentration than in the parenchymal hepatocytes, while Compound T exhibited only a slight increase in the bile duct epithelium compared to parenchymal hepatocytes. These findings implicate cholangiocyte uptake and accumulation as a key step in the mechanism of biliary toxicity. In both cases, compounds are shown at the site of toxicity in support of a direct mechanism of toxicity on the biliary epithelium. MSI is a powerful tool for localizing small molecules within tissue sections and improvements in sensitivity have enabled localization down to the cellular level in some cases. MSI was also able to identify biomarker candidates of toxicity by differential analysis of ion profiles comparing treated and control cholangiocytes from tissue sections.

Computational exploration of compounds in Xylocarpus granatum as a potential inhibitor of Plasmodium berghei using docking, molecular dynamics, and DFT studies

Malaria remains a global health concern, with the emergence of resistance to the antimalarial drug atovaquone through cytochrome b (cyt b) being well-documented. This study was prompted by the presence of this mutation in cyt b to enable new drug candidates capable of overcoming drug resistance. Our objective was to identify potential drug candidates from compounds of Xylocarpus granatum by computationally assessing their interactions with Plasmodium berghei cyt b. Using computational methods, we modeled cyt b (GenBank: AF146076.1), identified the binding cavity, and analyzed the Ramachandran plot against cyt b. Additionally, we conducted drug-likeness and absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) studies, along with density functional theory (DFT) analysis of the compounds. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) were used to evaluate the binding energy and stability of the cyt b-ligand complex. Notably, our investigation highlighted kaempferol as a promising compound due to its high binding energy of 7.67 kcal/mol among all X. granatum compounds, coupled with favorable pharmacological properties (ADMET) and antiprotozoal properties at Pa 0.345 > Pi 0.009 (PASS value). DFT analysis showed that kaempferol has an energy gap of 4.514 eV. MDS indicated that all tested ligands caused changes in bonding and affected the structural conformation of cyt b, as observed before MDS (0 ns) and after MDS (100 ns). The most notable differences were observed in the types of hydrogen bonds between 0 and 100 ns. Nevertheles, MDS results from a 100 ns simulation revealed consistent behavior for kaempferol across various parameters including root mean square deviation (RMSD), root mean square fluctuation (RMSF), radius of gyration (Rg), solvent-accessible surface area (SASA), molecular mechanics-Poisson Boltzmann surface area (MM-PBSA), and hydrogen bonds. The cyt b-kaempferol complex demonstrated favorable energy stability, as supported by the internal energy distribution values observed in principal component analysis (PCA), which closely resembled those of the atovaquone control. Additionally, trajectory stability analysis indicated structural stability, with a cumulative eigenvalue of 24.7 %. Dynamic cross-correlation matrix (DCCM) analysis revealed a positive correlation among catalytic cytochrome residues within the amino acid residues range 119-268. The results of our research indicate that the structure of kaempferol holds promise as a potential candidate against Plasmodium.

Potential of 6'‑hydroxy justicidin B from Justicia procumbens as a therapeutic agent against coronavirus disease 2019

BACKGROUND

Since the onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, remarkable advances have been made in vaccine development to reduce mortality. However, therapeutic interventions for COVID-19 are comparatively limited despite these intensive efforts. Furthermore, the rapid mutation capability of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a characteristic of its RNA structure, has led to the emergence of multiple variants, necessitating a shift from a predominantly vaccine-centric approach to one that encompasses therapeutic strategies. 6'-Hydroxy justicidin B (6'-HJB), an arylnaphthalene lignan isolated from Justicia procumbens, a traditional Chinese medicine, is known for its antiviral properties.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

The aim of the present study was to assess the effectiveness and safety of 6'-HJB against SARS-CoV-2 in order to determine its potential as a therapeutic agent against COVID-19.

METHODS

The efficacy of 6'-HJB was evaluated both in vitro using Vero and Calu-3 cell lines and in vivo using ferrets. The safety assessment included toxicokinetics, safety pharmacology, and Good Laboratory Practice (GLP)-compliant toxicity evaluations following single- and repeated-dose toxicity studies in dogs.

RESULTS

The anti-SARS-CoV-2 efficacy of 6'-HJB was evaluated through dose-response curve (DRC) analysis using immunofluorescence; 6'-HJB demonstrated superior inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 growth and lower cytotoxicity than remdesivir. In SARS-CoV-2-infected ferret, 6'-HJB showed efficacy comparable to that of the positive control, Truvada. Further GLP toxicity studies corroborated the safety profile of 6'-HJB. Single-dose and 4-week repeated oral toxicity studies in Beagle dogs demonstrated minimal harmful effects at the highest dosages. The lethal dose of 6'-HJB exceeded 2,000 mg kg-1 in Beagle dogs. Toxicokinetic and GLP safety pharmacology studies demonstrated no adverse effects of 6'-HJB on metabolic processes, respiratory or central nervous systems, or cardiac functions.

CONCLUSION

This research highlights both the antiviral efficacy and safety profile of 6'-HJB, underscoring its potential as a novel COVID-19 treatment option. The potential of 6'-HJB was demonstrated using modern scientific methodologies and standards.

Nonclinical Pharmacokinetics Study of OLX702A-075-16, N-Acetylgalactosamine Conjugated Asymmetric Small Interfering RNA (GalNAc-asiRNA)

In this study, the nonclinical pharmacokinetics of OLX702A-075-16, an RNA interference therapeutic currently in development, were investigated. OLX702A-075-16 is a novel N-acetylgalactosamine conjugated asymmetric small-interfering RNA (GalNAc-asiRNA) used for the treatment of an undisclosed liver disease. Its unique 16/21-mer asymmetric structure reduces nonspecific off-target effects without compromising efficacy. We investigated the plasma concentration, tissue distribution, metabolism, and renal excretion of OLX702A-075-16 following a subcutaneous administration in mice and rats. For bioanalysis, high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection was used. The results showed rapid clearance from plasma (0.5 to 1.5 hours of half-life) and predominant distribution to the liver and/or kidney. Less than 1% of the liver concentration of OLX702A-075-16 was detected in the other tissues. Metabolite profiling using liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry revealed that the intact duplex OLX702A-075-16 was the major compound in plasma. The GalNAc moiety was predominantly metabolized from the sense strand in the liver, with the unconjugated sense strand of OLX702A-075-16 accounting for more than 95% of the total exposure in the rat liver. Meanwhile, the antisense strand was metabolized by the sequential loss of nucleotides from the 3'-terminus by exonuclease, with the rat liver samples yielding the most diverse truncated forms of metabolites. Urinary excretion over 96 hours was less than 1% of the administered dose in rats. High plasma protein binding of OLX702A-075-16 likely inhibited its clearance through renal filtration. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study presents the first comprehensive characterization of the in vivo pharmacokinetics of GalNAc-asiRNA. The pharmacokinetic insights gained from this research will aid in understanding toxicology and efficacy, optimizing delivery platforms, and improving the predictive power of preclinical species data for human applications.

Exploring potential biomarkers and lead molecules in gastric cancer by network biology, drug repurposing and virtual screening strategies

Gastric cancer poses a significant global health challenge, necessitating innovative approaches for biomarker discovery and therapeutic intervention. This study employs a multifaceted strategy integrating network biology, drug repurposing, and virtual screening to elucidate and expand the molecular landscape of gastric cancer. We identified and prioritized key genes implicated in gastric cancer by utilizing data from diverse databases and text-mining techniques. Network analysis underscored intricate gene interactions, emphasizing potential therapeutic targets such as CTNNB1, BCL2, TP53, etc, and highlighted ACTB among the top hub genes crucial in disease progression. Drug repurposing on 626 FDA-approved drugs for digestive system-related cancers revealed Norgestimate and Nimesulide as likely top candidates for gastric cancer, validated by molecular docking and dynamics simulations. Further, combinatorial synthesis of scaffold libraries derived from known chemotypes generated 56,160 virtual compounds, of which 76 new compounds were prioritized based on promising binding affinities and interactions at critical residues. Hotspot residue analysis identified GLU 214 and others as essential for ligand binding stability, enhancing compound efficacy and specificity. These findings support the therapeutic potential of targeting beta-actin protein in gastric cancer treatment, suggesting a future for further experimental validation and clinical translation. In conclusion, this study highlights the potential of repurposable drugs and virtual screening which can be used in combination with existing anti-gastric cancer drugs for gastric cancer therapy, emphasizing the role of computational methodologies in drug discovery.

Comprehensive approaches to preclinical evaluation of monoclonal antibodies and their next-generation derivatives

Biotherapeutics hold great promise for the treatment of several diseases and offer innovative possibilities for new treatments that target previously unaddressed medical needs. Despite successful transitions from preclinical to clinical stages and regulatory approval, there are instances where adverse reactions arise, resulting in product withdrawals. As a result, it is essential to conduct thorough evaluations of safety and effectiveness on an individual basis. This article explores current practices, challenges, and future approaches in conducting comprehensive preclinical assessments to ensure the safety and efficacy of biotherapeutics including monoclonal antibodies, toxin-conjugates, bispecific antibodies, single-chain antibodies, Fc-engineered antibodies, antibody mimetics, and siRNA-antibody/peptide conjugates.

Assessment of oral toxicity of Moringa oleifera Lam aqueous extract and its effect on gout induced in a murine model

Background and Aim

Although widely employed in traditional remedies globally, the safety and efficacy of Moringa oleifera remain inadequately documented through scientific research. This study evaluated the oral toxicity of M. oleifera leaf aqueous extract (MoAE) and its impact on gout-induced rats.

Materials and Methods

2000 mg/kg was given in a single dose during the acute oral toxicity test, while 100 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg, and 500 mg/kg were given daily for 28 days in the repeated dose toxicity test. 100 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg, and 500 mg/kg MoAE doses were administered during the assessment of its impact on gout caused by monosodium urate. In the hyperuricemia model induced by oxonic acid, serum uric acid levels were assessed and pain response was measured through acetic acid-induced writhing.

Results

In acute oral and 28-day repeated dose tests, no indications of toxicity were detected, while MoAE alleviated ankle joint swelling and reduced serum uric acid concentrations in arthritic rats, causing a significant reduction in acetic acid-induced contortions.

Conclusion

No acute oral toxicity or toxicity in 28-day repeated doses was found for MoAE, while it exhibited antiarthritic, antihyperuricemic, and pain-relieving effects in the murine model.

Non-invasive assessment of proarrhythmic risks associated with isoprenaline and the dietary supplement ingredient synephrine using human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes

Background

There have been conflicting reports about the proarrhythmic risk of p-synephrine (SYN). To address this, human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) combined with the microelectrode array (MEA) system have been utilized to assess arrhythmia risks, particularly in the context of adrenomimetic drugs.

Aim

This study aims to determine whether MEA recordings from hiPSC-CMs could predict the proarrhythmic risk of adrenomimetic drugs and to investigate the cardiovascular effects and mechanisms of SYN.

Materials and methods

We employed MEA recordings to assess the electrophysiological properties of hiPSC-CMs and conducted concentration-response analyses to evaluate the effects of SYN and Isoprenaline (ISO) on beating rate and contractility. A risk scoring system for proarrhythmic risks was established based on hiPSC-CMs in this study. ISO, a classic beta-adrenergic drug, was also evaluated. Furthermore, the study evaluated the risk of SYN and recorded the concentration-response of beating rate, contractility and the change in the presence or absence of selective β1, β2 and β3 adrenergic blockers.

Results

Our results suggested that ISO carries a high risk of inducing arrhythmias, aligning with existing literature. SYN caused a 30% prolongation of the field potential duration (FPD) at a concentration of 206.326 μM, a change significantly different from baseline measurements and control treatments. The half maximal effective concentration (EC50) of SYN (3.31 μM) to affect hiPSC-CM beating rate is much higher than that of ISO (18.00 nM). The effect of SYN at an EC50 of 3.31 μM is about ten times more potent in hiPSC-CMs compared to neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (34.12 μM). SYN increased the contractility of cardiomyocytes by 29.97 ± 11.65%, compared to ISO's increase of 50.56 ± 24.15%. β1 receptor blockers almost eliminated the beating rate increase induced by both ISO and SYN, while neither β2 nor β3 blockers had a complete inhibitory effect.

Conclusion

The MEA and hiPSC-CM system could effectively predict the risk of adrenomimetic drugs. The study concludes that the proarrhythmia risk of SYN at conventional doses is low. SYN is more sensitive in increasing beating rate and contractility in human cardiomyocytes compared to rats, primarily activating β1 receptor.

Potential impact of underlying diseases influencing ADME in nonclinical safety assessment

Nonclinical studies involve in vitro, in silico, and in vivo experiments to assess the toxicokinetics, toxicology, and safety pharmacology of drugs according to regulatory requirements by a national or international authority. In this review, we summarize the potential effects of various underlying diseases governing the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of drugs to consider the use of animal models of diseases in nonclinical trials. Obesity models showed alterations in hepatic metabolizing enzymes, transporters, and renal pathophysiology, which increase the risk of drug-induced toxicity. Diabetes models displayed changes in hepatic metabolizing enzymes, transporters, and glomerular filtration rates (GFR), leading to variability in drug responses and susceptibility to toxicity. Animal models of advanced age exhibited impairment of drug metabolism and kidney function, thereby reducing the drug-metabolizing capacity and clearance. Along with changes in hepatic metabolic enzymes, animal models of metabolic syndrome-related hypertension showed renal dysfunction, resulting in a reduced GFR and urinary excretion of drugs. Taken together, underlying diseases can induce dysfunction of organs involved in the ADME of drugs, ultimately affecting toxicity. Therefore, the use of animal models of representative underlying diseases in nonclinical toxicity studies can be considered to improve the predictability of drug side effects before clinical trials.

Antiviral activity of adenoviral vector expressing human interferon lambda-4 against influenza virus

Interferon lambda (IFNλ), classified as a type III IFN, is a representative cytokine that plays an important role in innate immunity along with type I IFN. IFNλ can elicit antiviral states by inducing peculiar sets of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). In this study, an adenoviral vector expression system with a tetracycline operator system was used to express human IFNλ4 in cells and mice. The formation of recombinant adenovirus (rAd-huIFNλ4) was confirmed using immunohistochemistry assays and transmission electron microscopy. Its purity was verified by quantifying host cell DNA and host cell proteins, as well as by confirming the absence of the replication-competent adenovirus. The transduction of rAd-huIFNλ4 induced ISGs and inhibited four subtypes of the influenza virus in both mouse-derived (LA-4) and human-derived cells (A549). The antiviral state was confirmed in BALB/c mice following intranasal inoculation with 109 PFU of rAd-huIFNλ4, which led to the inhibition of four subtypes of the influenza virus in mouse lungs, with reduced inflammatory lesions. These results imply that human IFNλ4 could induce antiviral status by modulating ISG expression in mice.

A guide to the use of bioassays in exploration of natural resources

Bioassays are the main tool to decipher bioactivities from natural resources thus their selection and quality are critical for optimal bioprospecting. They are used both in the early stages of compounds isolation/purification/identification, and in later stages to evaluate their safety and efficacy. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the most common bioassays used in the discovery and development of new bioactive compounds with a focus on marine bioresources. We present a comprehensive list of practical considerations for selecting appropriate bioassays and discuss in detail the bioassays typically used to explore antimicrobial, antibiofilm, cytotoxic, antiviral, antioxidant, and anti-ageing potential. The concept of quality control and bioassay validation are introduced, followed by safety considerations, which are critical to advancing bioactive compounds to a higher stage of development. We conclude by providing an application-oriented view focused on the development of pharmaceuticals, food supplements, and cosmetics, the industrial pipelines where currently known marine natural products hold most potential. We highlight the importance of gaining reliable bioassay results, as these serve as a starting point for application-based development and further testing, as well as for consideration by regulatory authorities.

Newly synthesized derivatives with a thiosemicarbazide group reduce the viability of cancer cell lines. Acute toxicity assessment in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) early life stages

Due to the variability and ability of tumor to mutate, as well as the heterogeneity of tumor tissue, such drugs are sought that would act selectively and multidirectionally on the cancer cell. Therefore, two newly synthesized semicarbazide structured substances were evaluated for anticancer properties in our study: 1a and 1b. In order to evaluate the cytotoxicity and selectivity of the tested compounds, MTT and Neutral Red uptake assay on cell lines (HEK293, LN229, 769-P, HepG2 and NCI-H1563) and cell cycle analysis were performed. Acute toxicity and cardiotoxicity were also evaluated in the zebrafish model. The tested compounds (1a, 1b) showed cytotoxic activity, with the greatest selectivity noted against the glioblastoma multiforme cell line (LN229). However, compound 1b showed stronger selective activity than 1a. Both of compounds were shown to significantly affect the M phase of the cell cycle. Whereas, the conducted toxicological examination of newly synthesized thiosemicarbazide derivates showed, that direct exposition of Danio rerio embryos to compound 1a, but not 1b, causes a concentration-dependent increase in developmental malformations, indicating possible teratogenic effects.

Efficacy of a combined anti-seizure treatment against cholinergic established status epilepticus following a sarin nerve agent insult in rats

The development of refractory status epilepticus (SE) following sarin intoxication presents a therapeutic challenge. Here, we evaluated the efficacy of delayed combined double or triple treatment in reducing abnormal epileptiform seizure activity (ESA) and the ensuing long-term neuronal insult. SE was induced in rats by exposure to 1.2 LD50 sarin followed by treatment with atropine and TMB4 (TA) 1 min later. Double treatment with ketamine and midazolam or triple treatment with ketamine, midazolam and levetiracetam was administered 30 min post-exposure, and the results were compared to those of single treatment with midazolam alone or triple treatment with ketamine, midazolam, and valproate, which was previously shown to ameliorate this neurological insult. Toxicity and electrocorticogram activity were monitored during the first week, and behavioral evaluations were performed 2 weeks post-exposure, followed by biochemical and immunohistopathological analyses. Both double and triple treatment reduced mortality and enhanced weight recovery compared to TA-only treatment. Triple treatment and, to a lesser extent, double treatment significantly ameliorated the ESA duration. Compared to the TA-only or the TA+ midazolam treatment, both double and triple treatment reduced the sarin-induced increase in the neuroinflammatory marker PGE2 and the brain damage marker TSPO and decreased gliosis, astrocytosis and neuronal damage. Finally, both double and triple treatment prevented a change in behavior, as measured in the open field test. No significant difference was observed between the efficacies of the two triple treatments, and both triple combinations completely prevented brain injury (no differences from the naïve rats). Delayed double and, to a greater extent, triple treatment may serve as an efficacious delayed therapy, preventing brain insult propagation following sarin-induced refractory SE.

Preclinical pharmacokinetic investigation of the bioavailability and skin distribution of HY-072808 ointment, a novel drug candidate for the treatment of atopic dermatitis, in minipigs by a newly LC-MS/MS method

HY-072808 is a novel phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor clinically used for topical atopic dermatitis treatment. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are involved in transforming it into major metabolite ZZ-24. An efficient UPLC-MS/MS method was established to detect HY-072808 and ZZ-24 in plasma and skin tissues of minipigs.One-step protein precipitation was performed with acetonitrile. Subsequently, elution was served with a methanol and water gradient containing 0.1% formic acid for 3.5 min. The plasma and skin tissue concentrations of HY-072808 and ZZ-24 showed good linearity from 0.200 to 200 ng/mL.The experimental minipigs exhibited low systemic exposure and bioavailability of 3.1-7.6% after transdermal application of 1-4% HY-072808 ointment. Multiple topical administrations over seven consecutive days showed a minor accumulation in systemic exposure, with accumulation factors of 2.3 and 4.0 for HY-072808 and ZZ-24, respectively.The distribution of HY-072808 ointment among different cortical layers in minipigs was studied for the first time. Following transdermal application of 2% HY-072808 ointment, the concentration in plasma and skin tissues in the order of epidermis > dermis > subcutaneous tissue ≈ subcutaneous muscle ≈ plasma; at 48 h after the administration, the epidermis and dermis still had a high concentration of the drug.

Revisiting edible insects as sources of therapeutics and drug delivery systems for cancer therapy

Cancer has been medicine's most formidable foe for long, and the rising incidence of the disease globally has made effective cancer therapy a significant challenge. Drug discovery is targeted at identifying efficacious compounds with minimal side effects and developments in nanotechnology and immunotherapy have shown promise in the fight against this complicated illness. Since ancient times, insects and insect-derived products have played a significant role in traditional medicine across several communities worldwide. The aim of this study was to inspect the traditional use of edible insects in various cultures and to explore their modern use in cancer therapy. Edible insects are sources of nutrients and a variety of beneficial substances with anticancer and immunomodulatory potential. Recently, insect derived bioactive-components have also been used as nanoparticles either in combination with chemotherapeutics or as a nano-cargo for the enhanced delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs due to their high biocompatibility, low bio-toxicity, and their antioxidant and anticancer effects. The crude extracts of different edible insects and their active components such as sericin, cecropin, solenopsin, melittin, antimicrobial peptides and fibroin produce anti-cancer and immunomodulatory effects by various mechanisms which have been discussed in this review.

Evaluation of the toxicity of the hydroethanolic extract of the stem bark of Virola elongata (Benth.) Warb. in in vitro and in vivo models

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Virola elongata (Benth.) Warb. (Myrsticaceae), referred to as "mucuíba" in Mato Grosso, is a native tree species that can be found in the Amazon Rainforest regions of South America and the Tropical Forests of Central America. The macerated extracts from the stem bark of this tree have been traditionally used to address various health issues, including gastric ulcers, infections, inflammations, and other ailments. In scientific literature, V. elongata has demonstrated pharmacological properties such as antiulcer, gastroprotective, antiproliferative, antimitotic, and psychoactive effects. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the safety profile of V. elongata has not been thoroughly established.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the toxicity of the hydroethanolic extract of the stem bark of Virola elongata (HEVe) in experimental models in vivo and in vitro.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

HEVe was obtained by macerating the stem bark powder in 70% hydroethanolic solution (1:10 w/v). The cytotoxicity of HEVe (3.125-200 μg/mL) was evaluated by Alamar blue assay in Chinese hamster ovary epithelial cells (CHO-k1) and human gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS). Genotoxicity assessment of HEVe (10, 30, or 100 μg/mL) was performed in CHO-k1 cells by the micronucleus test. The acute toxicity of HEVe was assessed by single-dose oral administration (2000 mg/kg) in mice of both sexes. The subacute toxicity of HEVe was assessed by oral administration of 300, 600, and 1200 mg/kg of the extract over 30 days in rats. Clinical observations of toxicological parameters were noted and pooled every 6 days. After the treatment period, blood was collected for hematological and biochemical analyses, and some organs were removed for macroscopic and histopathological analyses.

RESULTS

HEVe did not show cytotoxicity in CHO-K1 and AGS cells (IC50 > 200 μg/mL) and did not cause DNA damage in CHO-k1 cells. Oral administration of HEVe in a single dose of 2000 mg/kg did not result in the death of the mice, with a reduction in body weight variation (33.03%, p < 0.05) and an increase in the relative weight of the stomach (12 0.82%, p < 0.05) in male mice, and increased relative weight of the spleen (25.00%, p < 0.01) in female mice. In the assessment of subacute toxicity, HEVe did not result in the death of the animals over the 30 days. A reduction (p < 0.05) in water consumption of 36.65% and 34.12% was observed in the groups treated with 300 and 600 mg/kg, respectively, of HEVe on D6., and the urine excretion of animals treated with 600 mg/kg of HEVe showed an increase (p < 0.05) throughout the experiment, with a maximum value of 46.72% on D12. The blood counts showed that the dose of 300 mg/kg reduced (p < 0.05) the absolute number of lymphocytes, while the doses of 300, 600, or 1200 mg/kg of HEVe reduced the red blood cell count in whole blood by 24.84% (p < 0.01), 16.72% (p < 0.05), and 22.14% (p < 0.01), and the absolute number of monocytes (p < 0.05) in 59.77%, 65.51%, and 79.81%, respectively. As for the biochemical parameters, the glucose level found increased by 22.41% (p < 0.05) only at the highest dose, while creatinine was reduced by 44.71% (p < 0.05) at the dose of 300 mg/kg of HEVe. In animals treated with the three doses tested, plasma levels of AST and alkaline phosphatase showed a reduction (p < 0.05) with the vehicle group. However, the hematological and biochemical changes observed are within the physiological limits for this animal species. No macroscopic and histopathological changes were observed in the organs of the animals treated with the three doses of HEVe within 30 days.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that HEVe did not show cytotoxicity or genotoxicity in vitro. HEVe proved to be safe in rodents in both acute and subacute toxicity tests. In rats, the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) dose was greater than 1200 mg/kg p. o. in rats.

Acute and sub-acute toxicity study of anti-obesity herbal granules in Sprague Dawley rats

Abstract Toxicological studies are essential for developing novel medications in pharmaceutical industries including ayurvedic preparation. Hence, the present study is aimed to evaluate acute and 28-days repeated dose oral toxicity of anti-obesity polyherbal granules (PHG) in Sprague Dawley rats by OECD guidelines No 425 and 407, respectively. In an acute oral toxicity study, a single dose of 2 g/kg PHG was administered to rats and mortality, body weight, and clinical observations were noted for fourteen days. However, in the subacute oral toxicity study, the PHG was administered orally at doses of 0.3, 0.5 and 1 g/kg daily for 28 days to rats. Food intake and body weight were recorded weekly. On the 29th day, rats were sacrificed and subjected to haematological, biochemical, urine, necropsy, and histopathological analysis. In an acute oral toxicity study, no treatment-related, mortality, behavioral changes, and toxicity were found throughout fourteen days. Likewise, in the sub-acute toxicity study, no mortality and toxic effects were found in haematology, biochemical, urine, necropsy and histopathological analysis in rats for 28 days of treatment with PHG. Based on these results, the LD50 of PHG was found to be greater than 2 g/kg and the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of PHG for rats was found to be 0.5 g/kg/day. Thus, anti-obesity polyherbal granules showed a good safety profile in animal studies and can be considered an important agent for the clinical management of obesity.

Targeting non-coding RNAs: Perspectives and challenges of in-silico approaches

The growing information currently available on the central role of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) including microRNAs (miRNAS) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) for chronic and degenerative human diseases makes them attractive therapeutic targets. RNAs carry out different functional roles in human biology and are deeply deregulated in several diseases. So far, different attempts to therapeutically target the 3D RNA structures with small molecules have been reported. In this scenario, the development of computational tools suitable for describing RNA structures and their potential interactions with small molecules is gaining more and more interest. Here, we describe the most suitable strategies to study ncRNAs through computational tools. We focus on methods capable of predicting 2D and 3D ncRNA structures. Furthermore, we describe computational tools to identify, design and optimize small molecule ncRNA binders. This review aims to outline the state of the art and perspectives of computational methods for ncRNAs over the past decade.

Identification of HHT-9041P1: A novel potent and selective JAK1 inhibitor in a rat model of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic disease associated with long-term disability and premature mortality. If left untreated, it can seriously affect patients' quality of life. The JAK-STAT signal transduction process is known to affect the occurrence and development of RA, and small molecule JAK inhibitors, such as tofacitinib, have been identified as treatments for RA. However, tofacitinib is a non-selective JAK inhibitor that was found to be associated with dose-limiting tolerability and safety issues, such as anemia in phase 2 dose-ranging studies. Therefore, we developed a selective JAK1 inhibitor, HHT-9041P1, to overcome target-related adverse reactions. We used enzyme and cytokine potency assays in vitro as well as the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model in vivo to explore the efficacy and mechanism. In vitro, HHT-9041P1 was diluted (0.017 nM-1 mM) in DMSO) and mixed with JAK1, JAK2, JAK3 or TYK2 kinases for use in the respective assays for inhibitory activity and selectivity evaluation. Fresh human PBMCs were activated and incubated with 100 ng/mL cytokine IL-6 or 20 ng/mL GM-CSF for use in the investigation of the immune mechanism. In vivo, HHT-9041P1 (1 mg/kg, 3 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg) was administered by oral gavage twice daily to CIA model Lewis rats from Day 8 to Day 29 for paw swelling and arthritis score evaluation. At the end of the experiment, the rats were sacrificed before collection of the hind ankle joint, spleen and blood for analysis of inflammation, arthritis phenotypes, inflammatory cytokine expression and Th1 cell proportions. As expected, HHT-9041P1 showed 10-fold greater selectivity for JAK1 over JAK2, and 23-fold greater selectivity over JAK3 in cellular assays. The high selectivity of HHT-9041P1 was also validated by in vivo safety studies. HHT-9041P1 demonstrated significant efficacy in a rat model of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and was associated with reduced helper T Cell 1 (Th1) cell differentiation. HHT-9041P1 also exhibited excellent pharmacokinetics properties. Thus, HHT-9041P1 was identified as a candidate for clinical development with many options for the treatment of RA.

Exposure considerations in human safety assessment: Report from an EPAA Partners' Forum

Understanding and estimating the exposure to a substance is one of the fundamental requirements for safe manufacture and use. Many approaches are taken to determine exposure to substances, mainly driven by potential use and regulatory need. There are many opportunities to improve and optimise the use of exposure information for chemical safety. The European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing (EPAA) therefore convened a Partners' Forum (PF) to explore exposure considerations in human safety assessment of industrial products to agree key conclusions for the regulatory acceptance of exposure assessment approaches and priority areas for further research investment. The PF recognised the widescale use of exposure information across industrial sectors with the possibilities of creating synergies between different sectors. Further, the PF acknowledged that the EPAA could make a significant contribution to promote the use of exposure data in human safety assessment, with an aim to address specific regulatory needs. To achieve this, research needs, as well as synergies and areas for potential collaboration across sectors, were identified.

Oxidative stress status assessment of rats' brains injury following subacute exposure to K-oximes

Oxidative stress status and morphological injuries in the brain of Wistar rats induced by repeated application of selected acetylcholinesterase reactivators - asoxime, obidoxime, K027, K048, K074, and K075 were evaluated. Each oxime in a dose of 0.1 of LD50/kg im was given 2x/week for 4 weeks. Markers of lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde, MDA), and protein oxidation (advanced oxidation protein products, AOPP), as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, CAT, superoxide dismutase, SOD, glutathione reductase, GR, and glutathione peroxidase, GPx), were estimated in the brain tissue homogenates on day 35 of the study. Brain alterations were carefully quantified by semiquantitative grading scales - brain damage score (BDS). Oxidative stress parameters, MDA and AOPP were significantly highest in the asoxime-, obidoxime- and K075-treated groups (p < 0.001). The activity of SOD and CAT was significantly elevated in the obidoxime-, K048-, and K075-treated groups (p < 0.001). Besides, GR was markedly decreased in the obidoxime- and K074-treated groups (p < 0.01), while treatment with K048, K074 and K075 induced extremely high elevation in GPx levels (p < 0.001). In the same groups of rats, brain alterations associated with polymorphonuclear cell infiltrate were significantly more severe than those observed in animals receiving only asoxime or K027 (p < 0.001). The presented results confirmed that treatment with different oximes significantly improved the oxidative status and attenuated signs of inflammation in rats' brains. Presented results, together with our previously published data can help to predict likely adverse systemic toxic effects, and target organ systems, which are crucial for establishing risk categories, as well as in dose selection of K-oximes as drug candidates.

Sour Tamarind Is More Antihypertensive than the Sweeter One, as Evidenced by In Vivo Biochemical Indexes, Ligand-Protein Interactions, Multitarget Interactions, and Molecular Dynamic Simulation

This research investigated the antihypertensive effects of tamarind products and compared their potentials based on an animal model's data verified by molecular docking, multitarget interactions, and dynamic simulation assays. GC-MS-characterized tamarind products were administered to cholesterol-induced hypertensive albino rat models. The two-week-intervened animals were dissected to collect their serum and organs and respectively subjected to analyses of their hypertension-linked markers and tissue architectures. The lead biometabolites of tamarinds interacted with eight target receptors in the molecular docking and dynamic simulation studies and with multitarget in the network pharmacological analyses. The results show that the serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), C-reactive protein (CRP), troponin I, and lipid profiles were maximally reinstated by the phenolic-enriched ripened sour tamarind extract compared to the sweet one, but the seed extracts had a smaller influence. Among the tamarind's biometabolites, ϒ-sitosterol was found to be the best ligand to interact with the guanylate cyclase receptor, displaying the best drug-likeliness with the highest binding energy, -9.3 Kcal. A multitargeted interaction-based degree algorithm and a phylogenetic tree of pathways showed that the NR3C1, REN, PPARG, and CYP11B1 hub genes were consistently modulated by ϒ-sitosterol to reduce hypertension and related risk factors. The dynamic simulation study showed that the P-RMSD values of ϒ-sitosterol-guanylate cyclase were stable between 75.00 and 100.00 ns at the binding pocket. The findings demonstrate that ripened sour tamarind extract may be a prospective antihypertensive nutraceutical or supplement target affirmed through advanced preclinical and clinical studies.

Toxicological and pharmacological effects of Eugenia brasiliensis Lam. (Myrtaceae) leaves in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Eugenia brasiliensis Lam., popularly known as "grumixama" or "Brazilian cherry", is widely used in folk medicine with astringent, diuretic, energizing, anti-rheumatic, and anti-inflammatory properties.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Despite its traditional use, detailed toxicological studies of Eugenia brasiliensis are few. Thus, in the current study, we evaluate the toxicological effects of hydroalcoholic extract of Eugenia brasiliensis (HEEb) and its antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used male, and female Swiss mice. Acute toxicity study was performed following the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guideline 425, and subacute toxicity was assessed following OECD guideline 407. We observed behavioral responses, in addition to hematological, biochemical, and histological evaluations. The antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of HEEb were assessed using the Carrageenan-induced mechanical allodynia and paw edema model. Mechanical allodynia, levels of inflammatory cytokines, and oxidative damage were evaluated.

RESULTS

The treatment with HEEb was not able to generate important toxicological alterations. Moreover, doses of 100 and 300 mg/kg of HEEb were able to reduce mechanical allodynia, paw edema, and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), decrease malondialdehyde and increase superoxide dismutase enzyme activity in the paw.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that HEEb does not present important toxic effects. Additionally, an important antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant potential were observed.

Prediction of Compound Plasma Concentration-Time Profiles in Mice Using Random Forest

Pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters such as clearance (CL) and volume of distribution (Vd) have been the subject of previous in silico predictive models. However, having information of the concentration over time profile explicitly can provide additional value like time above MIC or AUC, etc., to understand both the efficacy and safety-related aspects of a compound. In this work, we developed machine learning models for plasma concentration-time profiles after both i.v. and p.o. dosing for a series of 17 in-house projects. For explanatory variables, MACCS Keys chemical descriptors as well as in silico and experimental in vitro PK parameters were used. The predictive accuracy of random forest (RF), message passing neural network, 2-compartment models using estimated CL and Vdss, and an average model (as a control experiment) was investigated using 5-fold cross-validation (5-fold CV) and leave-one-project-out validation (LOPO-V). The predictive accuracy of RF in 5-fold CV for i.v. and p.o. plasma concentration-time profiles was the best among the models studied, with an RMSE for i.v. dosing at 0.08, 1, and 8 h of 0.245, 0.474, and 0.462, respectively, and an RMSE for p.o. dosing at 0.25, 1, and 8 h of 0.500, 0.612, and 0.509, respectively. Furthermore, by investigating the importance of the in vitro PK parameters using the Gini index, we observed that the general prior knowledge in ADME research was reflected well in the respective feature importance of in vitro parameters such as predicted human Vd (hVd) for the initial distribution, mouse intrinsic CL and unbound fraction of mouse plasma for the elimination process, and Caco2 permeability for the absorption process. Also, this model is the first model that can predict twin peaks in the concentration-time profile much better than a baseline compartment model. Because of its combination of sufficient accuracy and speed of prediction, we found the model to be fit-for-purpose for practical lead optimization.

Genotoxic carcinogen 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene inhibits gap junction intercellular communication through post-transcriptional and post-translational processing involved in connexin 43 stability

Gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) is composed of connexin (Cx) and plays an important role in maintaining intracellular homeostasis. Loss of GJIC is involved in the early stages of cancer pathways of non-genotoxic carcinogens; however, the effect of genotoxic carcinogens, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), on GJIC function remains unclear. Therefore, we determined whether and how a representative PAH 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) suppresses GJIC in WB-F344 cells. First, DMBA significantly inhibited GJIC and dose-dependently reduced Cx43 protein and mRNA expression. In contrast, Cx43 promoter activity was upregulated after DMBA treatment via the induction of specificity protein 1 and hepatocyte nuclear factor 3β, indicating that the promoter-independent loss of Cx43 mRNA can be associated with the inhibition of mRNA stability, which was verified by actinomycin D assay. In addition to a decrease in mRNA stability involved in human antigen R, we also observed DMBA-induced acceleration of Cx43 protein degradation, which was closely related to the loss of GJIC through Cx43 phosphorylation via MAPK activation. In conclusion, the genotoxic carcinogen DMBA suppresses GJIC by inhibiting post-transcriptional and post-translational processing of Cx43. Our findings suggest that the GJIC assay is an efficient short-term screening test for predicting the carcinogenic potential of genotoxic carcinogens.

Toxicity Profiling and Antihyperuricemic Activity of Goubion: A Polyherbal Formulation

The objective of the present study was to determine the acute and subacute toxicity profile of a polyherbal formulation called "Goubion" in addition to the in vivo antihyperuricemic study using fructose-induced hyperuricemia. Goubion is a combination of Colchicum autumnale (tuber), Tribulus terresteris (fruit), Vitex negundo (leaves), Smilax chinensis (root), Glycyrrhiza glabra (root), and Curcuma amada (rhizome). The acute toxicity study revealed no signs of mortality and morbidity at a single dose of 2000 mg/kg. Similarly, the results of the subacute repeated dose toxicity study exhibited no signs of mortality at any of the doses. However, significant changes in hematological, biochemical, and renal parameters were recorded at the dose of 60 mg/kg. Antihyperuricemic activity was tested at the dose of 15 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg of Goubion, respectively against 5 mg/kg Allopurinol. Based on the antihyperuricemic study, we infer that the Goubion has a significant hypouricemic action, as it remarkably decreased the elevated uric acid levels. The results also suggest the potential inhibitory capability of Goubion on xanthine oxidase dehydrogenase might be the mechanism behind the hypouricemic effect.

An extensive survey on the use of supervised machine learning techniques in the past two decades for prediction of drug side effects

Approved drugs for sale must be effective and safe, implying that the drug's advantages outweigh its known harmful side effects. Side effects (SE) of drugs are one of the common reasons for drug failure that may halt the whole drug discovery pipeline. The side effects might vary from minor concerns like a runny nose to potentially life-threatening issues like liver damage, heart attack, and death. Therefore, predicting the side effects of the drug is vital in drug development, discovery, and design. Supervised machine learning-based side effects prediction task has recently received much attention since it reduces time, chemical waste, design complexity, risk of failure, and cost. The advancement of supervised learning approaches for predicting side effects have emerged as essential computational tools. Supervised machine learning technique provides early information on drug side effects to develop an effective drug based on drug properties. Still, there are several challenges to predicting drug side effects. Thus, a near-exhaustive survey is carried out in this paper on the use of supervised machine learning approaches employed in drug side effects prediction tasks in the past two decades. In addition, this paper also summarized the drug descriptor required for the side effects prediction task, commonly utilized drug properties sources, computational models, and their performances. Finally, the research gap, open problems, and challenges for the further supervised learning-based side effects prediction task have been discussed.

Establishing Rationale for the Clinical Development of Cell Therapy Products: Consensus between Risk and Benefit

Despite long-term research achievements, the development of cell therapy (CT) products remains challenging. This is because the risks experienced by the subject and therapeutic effects in the clinical trial stage are unclear due to the various uncertainties of CT when administered to humans. Nevertheless, as autologous cell products for systemic administration have recently been approved for marketing, CT product development is accelerating, particularly in the field of unmet medical needs. The human experience of CT remains insufficient compared with other classes of pharmaceuticals, while there are countless products for clinical development. Therefore, for many sponsors, understanding the rationale of human application of an investigational product based on the consensus and improving the ability to apply it appropriately for CT are necessary. Thus, defining the level of evidence for safety and efficacy fundamentally required for initiating the clinical development and preparing it using a reliable method for CT. Furthermore, the expertise should be strengthened in the design of the first-in-human trial, such as the starting dose and dose-escalation plan, based on a sufficiently acceptable rationale. Cultivating development professionals with these skills will increase the opportunity for more candidates to enter the clinical development phase.

Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Ethanolic Extract of Piper vicosanum Leaves

Nonclinical trials are important to validate the efficacy and safety of medicinal plants. Scientific toxicological studies with Piper vicosanum Yuncker have showed its safety; however, no studies have indicated the analgesic or antiarthritic potential of the ethanolic extract of P. vicosanum leaves (EEPV). The objective of the present work was to evaluate the antiarthritic and antinociceptive effects of EEPV in experimental mouse models. The oral administration of EEPV (100, 300, and 700 mg/kg) and dexamethasone (1 mg/kg) were performed in carrageenan-induced pleurisy, in formalin and acetic-acid-induced nociception, and in zymosan-induced articular inflammation models in Swiss mice. The EEPV (300 mg/kg) was tested in zymosan-articular inflammation, the complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) inflammatory model, and in in situ intravitreal microscopy analysis of rolling and adhesion events of leukocytes in the mesenteric microcirculation in mice. EEPV significantly inhibited: (i) nociceptive response at phase 1 and 2, and also in the cold response in the formalin model; (ii) abdominal contortion induced by acetic acid; (iii) mechanical hyperalgesia after 4 and 6 h, knee edema after 6 h, and leukocyte migration in articular inflammation induced by zymosan. All doses of EEPV reduced the leukocyte migration to the inflamed pleural cavity and knee edema 4 h after the zymosan knee injection. The treatment with the EEPV significantly inhibited the CFA-induced edema, mechanical and cold hyperalgesia, and NAG and MPO. The EEPV also significantly inhibited carrageenan-induced leukocyte rolling and adhesion. The present study revealed, for the first time, the antiarthritic and antinociceptive effects of the EEPV.

Maternal-Fetal Drug Development: An Industry Perspective

Medicines and vaccines prescribed to pregnant women often have not had pregnant women or lactating women included in clinical trials and products are often not approved by regulatory agencies for use in pregnant women. As a result, practitioners may need to prescribe medicines and give vaccines to this special population with limited drug efficacy and safety information available. Multiple regulatory guidance documents regarding the development of medications for pregnant and lactating women have been developed to encourage drug development and the investigation of medicines and vaccines used in this population. However, clinical, regulatory, ethical, and drug development challenges are encountered when designing clinical trials that include pregnant women and their fetuses, in which innovative methods and trial designs are essential. This article provides an overview of an industry perspective on maternal-fetal drug development that includes a review of the regulatory landscape for developing medicines for pregnant women and their fetuses, trial designs that include pregnant women, identification of gaps and challenges, and strategies for potential maternal-fetal drug development considerations for the future development of medicines and vaccines for pregnant women. Early involvement and discussion of drug and vaccine products with multiple stakeholders, including therapeutic experts, patients, physicians, and regulators, is encouraged to optimize the development of safe and effective medicines and vaccines for pregnant women and their fetuses.

The Sheep as a Large Animal Model for the Investigation and Treatment of Human Disorders

Simple Summary

We review the value of large animal models for improving the translation of biomedical research for human application, focusing primarily on sheep.

Abstract

An essential aim of biomedical research is to translate basic science information obtained from preclinical research using small and large animal models into clinical practice for the benefit of humans. Research on rodent models has enhanced our understanding of complex pathophysiology, thus providing potential translational pathways. However, the success of translating drugs from pre-clinical to clinical therapy has been poor, partly due to the choice of experimental model. The sheep model, in particular, is being increasingly applied to the field of biomedical research and is arguably one of the most influential models of human organ systems. It has provided essential tools and insights into cardiovascular disorder, orthopaedic examination, reproduction, gene therapy, and new insights into neurodegenerative research. Unlike the widely adopted rodent model, the use of the sheep model has an advantage over improving neuroscientific translation, in particular due to its large body size, gyrencephalic brain, long lifespan, more extended gestation period, and similarities in neuroanatomical structures to humans. This review aims to summarise the current status of sheep to model various human diseases and enable researchers to make informed decisions when considering sheep as a human biomedical model.

Predicting Total Drug Clearance and Volumes of Distribution Using the Machine Learning-Mediated Multimodal Method through the Imputation of Various Nonclinical Data

Pharmacokinetic research plays an important role in the development of new drugs. Accurate predictions of human pharmacokinetic parameters are essential for the success of clinical trials. Clearance (CL) and volume of distribution (Vd) are important factors for evaluating pharmacokinetic properties, and many previous studies have attempted to use computational methods to extrapolate these values from nonclinical laboratory animal models to human subjects. However, it is difficult to obtain sufficient, comprehensive experimental data from these animal models, and many studies are missing critical values. This means that studies using nonclinical data as explanatory variables can only apply a small number of compounds to their model training. In this study, we perform missing-value imputation and feature selection on nonclinical data to increase the number of training compounds and nonclinical datasets available for these kinds of studies. We could obtain novel models for total body clearance (CL_tot) and steady-state Vd (Vd_ss) (CL_tot: geometric mean fold error [GMFE], 1.92; percentage within 2-fold error, 66.5%; Vd_ss: GMFE, 1.64; percentage within 2-fold error, 71.1%). These accuracies were comparable to the conventional animal scale-up models. Then, this method differs from animal scale-up methods because it does not require animal experiments, which continue to become more strictly regulated as time passes.

Esketamine inhaled as dry powder: Pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic and safety assessment in a preclinical study

Ketamine and its enantiomer esketamine have gained much attention in recent years as potent, fast-acting agents for the management of treatment-resistant depression. However, an alternative to oral ketamine administration is required to ensure adequate systemic exposure as the drug undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism. We propose dry powder inhalation as a new esketamine delivery route. Here, we examine the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, toxicology and safety of this novel esketamine administration method. Esketamine (10 mg/kg) and ketamine racemate (20 mg/kg) were administered to rats by dry powder inhalation, intravenous injection or intratracheal instillation and the pharmacokinetics of these treatments were compared. Analyte concentration of ketamine stereoisomers and their metabolites was assessed by LC-MS/MS method. Esketamine showed a clinically relevant pharmacokinetic profile, with high bioavailability (62%) and relatively low maximum concentration peaks. Esketamine exhibited high penetration of the blood-brain barrier, but pharmacodynamic examinations of brain homogenates showed no changes in selected protein phosphorylation or expression analyzed by the immunoblotting method. We conducted GLP-compliant 14-day and 28-day general toxicity studies in rats and dogs, respectively, subjected to dry esketamine powder inhalation. The maximum daily dosages were 46.5 mg/kg and 36.5 mg/kg, respectively. We also performed pharmacological safety studies. Esketamine inhaled as dry powder had an expected safety profile consistent with its known pharmacological action. None of its observed effects were considered toxicologically significant. The pharmacological safety studies confirmed that the observed effects were transient and that inhaled esketamine had a good safety profile. Hence, our preclinical studies demonstrated that dry powder inhalation is a highly efficacious and safe delivery route for esketamine and may be a viable alternative administration route meriting further clinical development.

The Hitchhiker's Guide to Human Therapeutic Nanoparticle Development

Nanomedicine plays an essential role in developing new therapies through novel drug delivery systems, diagnostic and imaging systems, vaccine development, antibacterial tools, and high-throughput screening. One of the most promising drug delivery systems are nanoparticles, which can be designed with various compositions, sizes, shapes, and surface modifications. These nanosystems have improved therapeutic profiles, increased bioavailability, and reduced the toxicity of the product they carry. However, the clinical translation of nanomedicines requires a thorough understanding of their properties to avoid problems with the most questioned aspect of nanosystems: safety. The particular physicochemical properties of nano-drugs lead to the need for additional safety, quality, and efficacy testing. Consequently, challenges arise during the physicochemical characterization, the production process, in vitro characterization, in vivo characterization, and the clinical stages of development of these biopharmaceuticals. The lack of a specific regulatory framework for nanoformulations has caused significant gaps in the requirements needed to be successful during their approval, especially with tests that demonstrate their safety and efficacy. Researchers face many difficulties in establishing evidence to extrapolate results from one level of development to another, for example, from an in vitro demonstration phase to an in vivo demonstration phase. Additional guidance is required to cover the particularities of this type of product, as some challenges in the regulatory framework do not allow for an accurate assessment of NPs with sufficient evidence of clinical success. This work aims to identify current regulatory issues during the implementation of nanoparticle assays and describe the major challenges that researchers have faced when exposing a new formulation. We further reflect on the current regulatory standards required for the approval of these biopharmaceuticals and the requirements demanded by the regulatory agencies. Our work will provide helpful information to improve the success of nanomedicines by compiling the challenges described in the literature that support the development of this novel encapsulation system. We propose a step-by-step approach through the different stages of the development of nanoformulations, from their design to the clinical stage, exemplifying the different challenges and the measures taken by the regulatory agencies to respond to these challenges.

Evaluation of the safety of ethanolic extract from Piper amalago L. (Piperaceae) leaves in vivo: Subacute toxicity and genotoxicity studies

Piper amalago L. (Piperaceae) is traditionally used due to its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, diuretic, and antiparasitic properties. However, few studies have focused on its adverse effects, compromising its safe use. This study evaluated the toxicological safety of ethanolic extract from Piper amalago leaves (EEPA), through subacute toxicity and genotoxicity assays in rodents. In subacute toxicity, 100, 200 or 300 mg/kg of EEPA were tested in female Wistar rats, by gavage, for 28 days. For genotoxicity test, female Swiss mice were orally treated with 17.5, 175 or 1750 mg/kg of EEPA and the comet, micronucleus, and splenic phagocytic assays were evaluated. In subacute toxicity, the extract induced an increase in the food and water intakes, as well as in the liver absolute weight, and in the heart and kidney relative weights. EEPA also provoked alterations in histopathological analysis of liver and in hemato-biochemical parameters, evidenced by a decrease in hematocrit levels and albumin levels, and an increase in the number of platelets and in alkaline phosphatase and cholesterol levels. However, EEPA did not presented genotoxic nor mutagenic properties. EEPA showed hemato-biochemical toxicity profile in rats and should be used with caution, especially when for prolonged period.

Perfluorocarbon Emulsion Contrast Agents: A Mini Review

Perfluorocarbon emulsions offer a variety of applications in medical imaging. The substances can be useful for most radiological imaging modalities; including, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasonography, computed tomography, and positron emission tomography. Recently, the substance has gained much interest for theranostics, with both imaging and therapeutic potential. As MRI sequences improve and more widespread access to ¹⁹F-MRI coils become available, perfluorocarbon emulsions have great potential for new commercial imaging agents, due to high fluorine content and previous regulatory approval as antihypoxants and blood substitutes. This mini review aims to discuss the chemistry and physics of these contrast agents, in addition to highlighting some of the past, recent, and potential applications.

In vitro tools for orally inhaled drug products-state of the art for their application in pharmaceutical research and industry and regulatory challenges

The drug development process is a lengthy and expensive challenge for all involved players. Experience with the COVID-19 pandemic underlines the need for a rapid and effective approval for treatment options. As essential prerequisites for successful drug approval, a combination of high-quality studies and reliable research must be included. To this day, mainly in vivo data are requested and collected for assessing safety and efficacy and are therefore decisive for the pre-clinical evaluation of the respective drug. This review aims to summarize the current state of the art for safety and efficacy studies in pharmaceutical research and industry to address the relevant regulatory challenges and to provide an outlook on implementing more in vitro methods as alternative to animal testing. While the public demand for alternative methods is becoming louder, first examples have meanwhile found acceptance in relevant guidelines, e.g. the OECD guidelines for skin sensitizer. Besides ethically driven developments, also the rather low throughput and relatively high costs of animal experiments are forcing the industry towards the implementation of alternative methods. In this context, the development of orally inhaled drug products is particularly challenging due to the complexity of the lung as biological barrier and route of administration. The replacement of animal experiments with focus on the lungs requires special designed tools to achieve predictive data. New in vitro test systems of increasing complexity are presented in this review. Limits and advantages are discussed to provide some perspective for a future in vitro testing strategy for orally inhaled drug products.

Graphical abstract

ISPRF: a machine learning model to predict the immune subtype of kidney cancer samples by four genes

Background

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is the most common type of renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Immunotherapy, especially anti-PD-1, is becoming a pillar of ccRCC treatment. However, precise biomarkers and robust models are needed to select the proper patients for immunotherapy.

Methods

A total of 831 ccRCC transcriptomic profiles were obtained from 6 datasets. Unsupervised clustering was performed to identify the immune subtypes among ccRCC samples based on immune cell enrichment scores. Weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) was used to identify hub genes distinguishing subtypes and related to prognosis. A machine learning model was established by a random forest (RF) algorithm and used on an open and free online website to predict the immune subtype.

Results

In the identified immune subtypes, subtype2 was enriched in immune cell enrichment scores and immunotherapy biomarkers. WGCNA analysis identified four hub genes related to immune subtypes, CTLA4, FOXP3, IFNG, and CD19. The RF model was constructed by mRNA expression of these four hub genes, and the value of area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was 0.78. Subtype2 patients in the independent validation cohort had a better drug response and prognosis for immunotherapy treatment. Moreover, an open and free website was developed by the RF model (https://immunotype.shinyapps.io/ISPRF/).

Conclusions

The current study constructs a model and provides a free online website that could identify suitable ccRCC patients for immunotherapy, and it is an important step forward to personalized treatment.

Effects of the consumption of guarana on human health: A narrative review

Guarana (Paullinia cupana) is a plant from the Amazon region with cultural importance. Despite its early ancestral use by indigenous tribes, the first reports regarding the benefits of guarana consumption for human health were published in the 19th century. Since then, the use of guarana seed in powder and extract forms has been studied for its diverse effects on human health, such as stimulating, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, hypocholesterolemic, and anti-obesity effects. These effects are attributed to the high content of bioactive compounds found in guarana seeds, especially methylxanthines and flavonoids. In fact, the Brazilian Food Supplement Law has officially acknowledged guarana as a source of bioactive compounds. The number and diversity of studies focused on guarana and human health are increasing; thus, organizing and describing the available evidence on guarana and its applications is necessary to provide a framework for future studies. In this narrative review, we have organized the available information regarding guarana and its potential effects on human health. Guarana produces unique fruits with great potential for human health applications. However, the available evidence lacks human studies and mechanistic investigations. Future studies should be designed considering its applicability to human health, including intake levels and toxicity studies.