1
|
Harman PR, Mendell NL, Harman MM, Draney PA, Boyle AT, Gompper ME, Orr TJ, Bouyer DH, Teel PD, Hanley KA. Science abhors a surveillance vacuum: Detection of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in southern New Mexico through passive surveillance. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0292573. [PMID: 38295027 PMCID: PMC10830002 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0292573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Robust tick surveillance enhances diagnosis and prevention of tick-borne pathogens, yet surveillance efforts in the United States are highly uneven, resulting in large surveillance vacuums, one of which spans the state of New Mexico. As part of a larger effort to fill this vacuum, we conducted both active and passive tick sampling in New Mexico, focusing on the southern portion of the state. We conducted active tick sampling using dragging and CO₂ trapping at 45 sites across Hidalgo, Doña Ana, Otero, and Eddy counties between June 2021 to May 2022. Sampling occurred intermittently, with at least one sampling event each month from June to October 2021, pausing in winter and resuming in March through May 2022. We also conducted opportunistic, passive tick sampling in 2021 and 2022 from animals harvested by hunters or captured or collected by researchers and animals housed in animal hospitals, shelters, and farms. All pools of ticks were screened for Rickettsia rickettsii, Rickettsia parkeri, Rickettsia amblyommatis, Ehrlichia ewingii, and Ehrlichia chaffeensis. Active sampling yielded no ticks. Passive sampling yielded 497 ticks comprising Carios kelleyi from pallid bats, Rhipicephalus sanguineus from dogs, mule deer, and Rocky Mountain elk, Otobius megnini from dogs, cats, horses, and Coues deer, Dermacentor parumapertus from dogs and black-tailed jackrabbits, Dermacentor albipictus from domesticated cats, mule deer and Rocky Mountain elk, and Dermacentor spp. from American black bear, Rocky Mountain elk, and mule deer. One pool of D. parumapterus from a black-tailed jackrabbit in Luna County tested positive for R. parkeri, an agent of spotted fever rickettsiosis. Additionally, a spotted fever group Rickettsia was detected in 6 of 7 C. kelleyi pools. Two ticks showed morphological abnormalities; however, these samples did not test positive for any of the target pathogens, and the cause of the abnormalities is unknown. Passive surveillance yielded five identified species of ticks from three domestic and six wild mammal species. Our findings update tick distributions and inform the public, medical, and veterinary communities of the potential tick-borne pathogens present in southern New Mexico.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paige R. Harman
- Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Nicole L. Mendell
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Maysee M. Harman
- Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Puck A. Draney
- Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Anna T. Boyle
- Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Ecology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Matthew E. Gompper
- Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Ecology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Teri J. Orr
- Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Donald H. Bouyer
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Pete D. Teel
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Kathryn A. Hanley
- Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tardy O, Acheson ES, Bouchard C, Chamberland É, Fortin A, Ogden NH, Leighton PA. Mechanistic movement models to predict geographic range expansions of ticks and tick-borne pathogens: Case studies with Ixodes scapularis and Amblyomma americanum in eastern North America. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2023; 14:102161. [PMID: 36996508 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2023.102161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
The geographic range of the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis, is expanding northward from the United States into southern Canada, and studies suggest that the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum, will follow suit. These tick species are vectors for many zoonotic pathogens, and their northward range expansion presents a serious threat to public health. Climate change (particularly increasing temperature) has been identified as an important driver permitting northward range expansion of blacklegged ticks, but the impacts of host movement, which is essential to tick dispersal into new climatically suitable regions, have received limited investigation. Here, a mechanistic movement model was applied to landscapes of eastern North America to explore 1) relationships between multiple ecological drivers and the speed of the northward invasion of blacklegged ticks infected with the causative agent of Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, and 2) its capacity to simulate the northward range expansion of infected blacklegged ticks and uninfected lone star ticks under theoretical scenarios of increasing temperature. Our results suggest that the attraction of migratory birds (long-distance tick dispersal hosts) to resource-rich areas during their spring migration and the mate-finding Allee effect in tick population dynamics are key drivers for the spread of infected blacklegged ticks. The modeled increases in temperature extended the climatically suitable areas of Canada for infected blacklegged ticks and uninfected lone star ticks towards higher latitudes by up to 31% and 1%, respectively, and with an average predicted speed of the range expansion reaching 61 km/year and 23 km/year, respectively. Differences in the projected spatial distribution patterns of these tick species were due to differences in climate envelopes of tick populations, as well as the availability and attractiveness of suitable habitats for migratory birds. Our results indicate that the northward invasion process of lone star ticks is primarily driven by local dispersal of resident terrestrial hosts, whereas that of blacklegged ticks is governed by long-distance migratory bird dispersal. The results also suggest that mechanistic movement models provide a powerful approach for predicting tick-borne disease risk patterns under complex scenarios of climate, socioeconomic and land use/land cover changes.
Collapse
|
3
|
Ma Y, Kalantari Z, Destouni G. Infectious Disease Sensitivity to Climate and Other Driver-Pressure Changes: Research Effort and Gaps for Lyme Disease and Cryptosporidiosis. Geohealth 2023; 7:e2022GH000760. [PMID: 37303696 PMCID: PMC10251199 DOI: 10.1029/2022gh000760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Climate sensitivity of infectious diseases is discussed in many studies. A quantitative basis for distinguishing and predicting the disease impacts of climate and other environmental and anthropogenic driver-pressure changes, however, is often lacking. To assess research effort and identify possible key gaps that can guide further research, we here apply a scoping review approach to two widespread infectious diseases: Lyme disease (LD) as a vector-borne and cryptosporidiosis as a water-borne disease. Based on the emerging publication data, we further structure and quantitatively assess the driver-pressure foci and interlinkages considered in the published research so far. This shows important research gaps for the roles of rarely investigated water-related and socioeconomic factors for LD, and land-related factors for cryptosporidiosis. For both diseases, the interactions of host and parasite communities with climate and other driver-pressure factors are understudied, as are also important world regions relative to the disease geographies; in particular, Asia and Africa emerge as main geographic gaps for LD and cryptosporidiosis research, respectively. The scoping approach developed and gaps identified in this study should be useful for further assessment and guidance of research on infectious disease sensitivity to climate and other environmental and anthropogenic changes around the world.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y. Ma
- Department of Physical GeographyStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
| | - Z. Kalantari
- Department of Physical GeographyStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
- Department of Sustainable DevelopmentEnvironmental Science and Engineering (SEED)KTH Royal Institute of TechnologyStockholmSweden
| | - G. Destouni
- Department of Physical GeographyStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Shifflett SA, Wiedmeyer T, Kennedy A, Maestas L, Buoni M, Ciloglu A, Ellis VA. Prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi and diversity of its outer surface protein C (ospC) alleles in blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) in Delaware. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2023; 14:102139. [PMID: 36780839 PMCID: PMC10033352 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2023.102139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
Characterizing the diversity of genes associated with virulence and transmission of a pathogen across the pathogen's distribution can inform our understanding of host infection risk. Borrelia burgdorferi is a vector-borne bacterium that causes Lyme disease in humans and is common in the United States. The outer surface protein C (ospC) gene of B. burgdorferi exhibits substantial genetic variation across the pathogen's distribution and plays a critical role in virulence and transmission in vertebrate hosts. In fact, B. burgdorferi infections that disseminate across host tissues in humans are associated with only a subset of ospC alleles. Delaware has a high incidence of Lyme disease, but the diversity of ospC in B. burgdorferi in the state has not been evaluated. We used PCR to amplify ospC in B. burgdorferi-infected blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) in sites statewide and used short-read sequencing to identify ospC alleles. B. burgdorferi prevalence in blacklegged ticks varied across sites, but not significantly so. We identified 15 previously characterized ospC alleles accounting for nearly all of the expected diversity of alleles across the sites as estimated using the Chao1 index. Nearly 40% of sequenced infections (23/58) had more than one ospC allele present suggesting mixed strain infections and the relative frequencies of alleles in single infections were positively correlated with their relative frequencies in mixed infections. Turnover of ospC alleles was positively related to distance between sites with closer sites having more similar allele compositions than more distant sites. This suggests a degree of B. burgdorferi dispersal limitation or habitat specialization. OspC alleles known to cause disseminated infections in humans were found at the highest frequencies across sites, corresponding to Delaware's high incidence of Lyme disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scarlet A Shifflett
- Department of Entomology and Wildlife Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Tyler Wiedmeyer
- Department of Entomology and Wildlife Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Ashley Kennedy
- Mosquito Control Section, Division of Fish & Wildlife, Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, DE, USA
| | - Lauren Maestas
- Mosquito Control Section, Division of Fish & Wildlife, Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, DE, USA; Cattle Fever Tick Research Laboratory, USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Edinburg, TX, USA
| | - Michael Buoni
- Delaware Technical Community College, Georgetown, DE, USA; Department of Medical and Molecular Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Arif Ciloglu
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Türkiye; Vectors and Vector-Borne Diseases Implementation and Research Center, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Türkiye
| | - Vincenzo A Ellis
- Department of Entomology and Wildlife Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Rochlin I, Benach JL, Furie MB, Thanassi DG, Kim HK. Rapid invasion and expansion of the Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis) into a new area on Long Island, New York, USA. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2023; 14:102088. [PMID: 36436461 PMCID: PMC9898124 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.102088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Since its discovery in the United States in 2017, the Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis) has been detected in most eastern states between Rhode Island and Georgia. Long Island, east of New York City, a recognized high-risk area for tick-borne diseases, is geographically close to New Jersey and New York sites where H. longicornis was originally found. However, extensive tick surveys conducted in 2018 did not identify H. longicornis on Long Island. In stark contrast, our 2022 tick survey suggests that H. longicornis has rapidly invaded and expanded in multiple surveying sites on Long Island (12 out of 17 sites). Overall, the relative abundance of H. longicornis was similar to that of lone star ticks, Amblyomma americanum, a previously recognized tick species abundantly present on Long Island. Interestingly, our survey suggests that H. longicornis has expanded within the Appalachian forest ecological zone of Long Island's north shore compared to the Pine Barrens located on the south shore of Long Island. The rapid invasion and expansion of H. longicornis into an insular environment are different from the historical invasion and expansion of two native tick species, Ixodes scapularis (blacklegged tick or deer tick) and A. americanum, in Long Island. The implications of H. longicornis transmitting or introducing tick-borne pathogens of public health importance remain unknown.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ilia Rochlin
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.
| | - Jorge L Benach
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Martha B Furie
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA; Department of Pathology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - David G Thanassi
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Hwan Keun Kim
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hammond-Collins K, Tremblay M, Milord F, Baron G, Bouchard C, Kotchi SO, Lambert L, Leighton P, Ogden NH, Rees EE. An ecological approach to predict areas with established populations of Ixodes scapularis in Quebec, Canada. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2022; 13:102040. [PMID: 36137391 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.102040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Public health management of Lyme disease (LD) is a dynamic challenge in Canada. Climate warming is driving the northward expansion of suitable habitat for the tick vector, Ixodes scapularis. Information about tick population establishment is used to inform the risk of LD but is challenged by sampling biases from surveillance data. Misclassifying areas as having no established tick population underestimates the LD risk classification. We used a logistic regression model at the municipal level to predict the probability of I. scapularis population establishment based on passive tick surveillance data during the period of 2010-2017 in southern Quebec. We tested for the effect of abiotic and biotic factors hypothesized to influence tick biology and ecology. Additional variables controlled for sampling biases in the passive surveillance data. In our final selected model, tick population establishment was positively associated with annual cumulative degree-days > 0°C, precipitation and deer density, and negatively associated with coniferous and mixed forest types. Sampling biases from passive tick surveillance were controlled for using municipal population size and public health instructions on tick submissions. The model performed well as indicated by an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.92, sensitivity of 86% and specificity of 81%. Our model enables prediction of I. scapularis population establishment in areas which lack data from passive tick surveillance and may improve the sensitivity of LD risk categorization in these areas. A more sensitive system of LD risk classification is important for increasing awareness and use of protective measures employed against ticks, and decreasing the morbidity associated with LD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mathieu Tremblay
- Direction de santé publique de la Montérégie, 1255 rue Beauregard, Longueuil, QC, Canada
| | - François Milord
- Direction de santé publique de la Montérégie, 1255 rue Beauregard, Longueuil, QC, Canada; Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 Boulevard de l'Université, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Geneviève Baron
- Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 Boulevard de l'Université, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada; Direction de Santé Publique de l'Estrie, 300 rue King Est, Bureau 300, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Catherine Bouchard
- Public Health Agency of Canada, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, 3190 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada; Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique (GREZOSP), Université de Montréal, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Serge Olivier Kotchi
- Public Health Agency of Canada, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada; Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique (GREZOSP), Université de Montréal, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Louise Lambert
- Direction de santé publique de la Montérégie, 1255 rue Beauregard, Longueuil, QC, Canada
| | - Patrick Leighton
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, 3190 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada; Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique (GREZOSP), Université de Montréal, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Nicholas H Ogden
- Public Health Agency of Canada, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada; Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique (GREZOSP), Université de Montréal, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Erin E Rees
- Public Health Agency of Canada, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, 3190 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada; Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique (GREZOSP), Université de Montréal, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lemoine M, Cornetti L, Reeh K, Tschirren B. Tick range expansion to higher elevations: does Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato facilitate the colonisation of marginal habitats? BMC Ecol Evol 2022; 22:104. [PMID: 36028800 PMCID: PMC9414408 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-022-02058-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Parasites can alter host and vector phenotype and thereby affect ecological processes in natural populations. Laboratory studies have suggested that Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the causative agent of human Lyme borreliosis, may induce physiological and behavioural alterations in its main tick vector in Europe, Ixodes ricinus, which increase the tick’s mobility and survival under challenging conditions. These phenotypic alterations may allow I. ricinus to colonise marginal habitats (‘facilitation hypothesis’), thereby fuelling the ongoing range expansion of I. ricinus towards higher elevations and latitudes induced by climate change. To explore the potential for such an effect under natural conditions, we studied the prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l. in questing I. ricinus and its variation with elevation in the Swiss Alps. Results We screened for B. burgdorferi s.l. infection in questing nymphs of I. ricinus (N = 411) from 15 sites between 528 and 1774 m.a.s.l to test if B. burgdorferi s.l. prevalence is higher at high elevations (i.e. in marginal habitats). Opposite of what is predicted under the facilitation hypothesis, we found that B. burgdorferi s.l. prevalence in I. ricinus nymphs decreased with increasing elevation and that Borrelia prevalence was 12.6% lower in I. ricinus nymphs collected at the range margin compared to nymphs in the core range. But there was no association between Borrelia prevalence and elevation within the core range of I. ricinus. Therefore the observed pattern was more consistent with a sudden decrease in Borrelia prevalence above a certain elevation, rather than a gradual decline with increasing elevation across the entire tick range. Conclusions In conclusion, we found no evidence that B. burgdorferi s.l.-induced alterations of I. ricinus phenotype observed in laboratory studies facilitate the colonisation of marginal habitats in the wild. Rather, ticks in marginal habitats are substantially less likely to harbour the pathogen. These findings have implications for a better understanding of eco-evolutionary processes in natural host-parasite systems, as well as the assessment of Lyme borreliosis risk in regions where I. ricinus is newly emerging.
Collapse
|
8
|
Gregory N, Fernandez MP, Diuk-Wasser M. Risk of tick-borne pathogen spillover into urban yards in New York City. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:288. [PMID: 35948911 PMCID: PMC9365221 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05416-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The incidence of tick-borne disease has increased dramatically in recent decades, with urban areas increasingly recognized as high-risk environments for exposure to infected ticks. Green spaces may play a key role in facilitating the invasion of ticks, hosts and pathogens into residential areas, particularly where they connect residential yards with larger natural areas (e.g. parks). However, the factors mediating tick distribution across heterogeneous urban landscapes remain poorly characterized. METHODS Using generalized linear models in a multimodel inference framework, we determined the residential yard- and local landscape-level features associated with the presence of three tick species of current and growing public health importance in residential yards across Staten Island, a borough of New York City, in the state of New York, USA. RESULTS The amount and configuration of canopy cover immediately surrounding residential yards was found to strongly predict the presence of Ixodes scapularis and Amblyomma americanum, but not that of Haemaphysalis longicornis. Within yards, we found a protective effect of fencing against I. scapularis and A. americanum, but not against H. longicornis. For all species, the presence of log and brush piles strongly increased the odds of finding ticks in yards. CONCLUSIONS The results highlight a considerable risk of tick exposure in residential yards in Staten Island and identify both yard- and landscape-level features associated with their distribution. In particular, the significance of log and brush piles for all three species supports recommendations for yard management as a means of reducing contact with ticks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nichar Gregory
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY USA
| | - Maria P. Fernandez
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY USA
- Earth Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY USA
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA USA
| | - Maria Diuk-Wasser
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Disler G, Schlaht R, Hahn MB. Perspectives on and prevalence of ticks and tick-borne diseases in Alaskan veterinary clinics. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2022; 261:1-8. [PMID: 35921400 PMCID: PMC10424748 DOI: 10.2460/javma.22.04.0162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Objective To assess knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of veterinary personnel and pet owners regarding ticks and tick-borne diseases in Alaska and to conduct a serosurvey for tick-borne disease pathogens among domestic animals visiting veterinary clinics for preventative care. Sample Across 8 veterinary clinics, we sampled 31 veterinary personnel, 81 pet owners, 102 client-owned dogs, and 1 client-owned cat. Procedures Information on KAP among veterinary staff and pet owners was collected via self-administered questionnaires. Tick and tick-borne disease prevalence were assessed via tick checks and benchtop ELISA antibody tests detecting Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma platys, Erlichia canis, Erlichia ewingii, and Borrelia burgdorferi. Results The veterinary personnel KAP survey showed a low average knowledge score (53.5%) but a moderate attitude score (71.7%). In contrast, owner average knowledge score was higher (67.5%) and attitude score was comparatively low (50.6%). Both veterinary personnel and owners had low average practice scores (64.5% and 56.3%, respectively). One dog was positive for anaplasmosis (unknown species) antibody, and 1 dog was positive for B burgdorferi antibody. No ticks were found during the study. Clinical Relevance This study was the first of its kind in the state and indicated a low prevalence of ticks and tick-borne diseases in the domestic pet population and highlighted significant knowledge gaps that could be targeted by public health efforts. Our results suggest the value of a One Health approach and of the veterinary-client relationship to address ticks and tick-borne diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gale Disler
- Institute for Circumpolar Health Studies, University of Alaska, Anchorage, AK
| | | | - Micah B. Hahn
- Institute for Circumpolar Health Studies, University of Alaska, Anchorage, AK
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
O’Keeffe KR, Oppler ZJ, Prusinski M, Falco RC, Oliver J, Haight J, Sporn LA, Backenson PB, Brisson D. Phylogeographic dynamics of the arthropod vector, the blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis). Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:238. [PMID: 35765050 PMCID: PMC9241328 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05304-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The emergence of vector-borne pathogens in novel geographic areas is regulated by the migration of their arthropod vectors. Blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) and the pathogens they vector, including the causative agents of Lyme disease, babesiosis and anaplasmosis, continue to grow in their population sizes and to expand in geographic range. Migration of this vector over the previous decades has been implicated as the cause of the re-emergence of the most prevalent infectious diseases in North America. METHODS We systematically collected ticks from across New York State (hereafter referred to as New York) from 2004 to 2017 as part of routine tick-borne pathogen surveillance in the state. This time frame corresponds with an increase in range and incidence of tick-borne diseases within New York. We randomly sampled ticks from this collection to explore the evolutionary history and population dynamics of I. scapularis. We sequenced the mitochondrial genomes of each tick to characterize their current and historical spatial genetic structure and population growth using phylogeographic methods. RESULTS We sequenced whole mitochondrial genomes from 277 ticks collected across New York between 2004 and 2017. We found evidence of population genetic structure at a broad geographic scale due to differences in the relative abundance, but not the composition, of haplotypes among sampled ticks. Ticks were often most closely related to ticks from the same and nearby collection sites. The data indicate that both short- and long-range migration events shape the population dynamics of blacklegged ticks in New York. CONCLUSIONS We detailed the population dynamics of the blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis) in New York during a time frame in which tick-borne diseases were increasing in range and incidence. Migration of ticks occurred at both coarse and fine scales in the recent past despite evidence of limits to gene flow. Past and current tick population dynamics have implications for further range expansion as habitat suitability for ticks changes due to global climate change. Analyses of mitochondrial genome sequencing data will expound upon previously identified drivers of tick presence and abundance as well as identify additional drivers. These data provide a foundation on which to generate testable hypotheses on the drivers of tick population dynamics occurring at finer scales.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Zachary J. Oppler
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA
| | | | | | - JoAnne Oliver
- Department of Health, Central New York Regional Office, Syracuse, NY 13202 USA
| | - Jamie Haight
- New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY USA
| | | | | | - Dustin Brisson
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Fulk A, Huang W, Agusto F, Supriatna AK. Exploring the Effects of Prescribed Fire on Tick Spread and Propagation in a Spatial Setting. Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine 2022; 2022:1-14. [PMID: 35422874 PMCID: PMC9005326 DOI: 10.1155/2022/5031806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Lyme disease is one of the most prominent tick-borne diseases in the United States, and prevalence of the disease has been steadily increasing over the past several decades due to a number of factors, including climate change. Methods for control of the disease have been considered, one of which is prescribed burning. In this paper, the effects of prescribed burns on the abundance of ticks present in a spatial domain are assessed. A spatial stage-structured tick-host model with an impulsive differential equation system is developed to simulate the effect that controlled burning has on tick populations. Subsequently, a global sensitivity analysis is performed to evaluate the effect of various model parameters on the prevalence of infectious nymphs. Results indicate that while ticks can recover relatively quickly following a burn, yearly, high-intensity prescribed burns can reduce the prevalence of ticks in and around the area that is burned. The use of prescribed burns in preventing the establishment of ticks into new areas is also explored, and it is observed that frequent burning can slow establishment considerably.
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi and Borrelia miyamotoi are tick-vectored zoonotic pathogens maintained in wildlife species. Tick populations are establishing in new areas globally in response to climate change and other factors. New Brunswick is a Canadian maritime province at the advancing front of tick population establishment and has seen increasing numbers of ticks carrying B. burgdorferi, and more recently B. miyamotoi. Further, it is part of a region of Atlantic Canada with wildlife species composition differing from much of continental North America and little information exists as to the presence and frequency of infection of Borrelia spp. in wildlife in this region. We used a citizen science approach to collect a wide range of animals including migratory birds, medium-sized mammals, and small mammals. In total we tested 339 animals representing 20 species for the presence of B. burgdorferi and B. miyamotoi. We have developed new nested PCR primers and a protocol with excellent specificity for detecting both of these Borrelia species, both single and double infections, in tissues and organs of various wildlife species. The positive animals were primarily small non-migratory mammals, approximately twice as many were infected with B. burgdorferi than B. miyamotoi and one animal was found infected with both. In addition to established reservoir species, the jumping mouse (Napaeozapus insignis) was found frequently infected; this species had the highest infection prevalence for both B. burgdorferi and B. miyamotoi and has not previously been identified as an important carrier for either Borrelia species. Comprehensive testing of tissues found that all instances of B. burgdorferi infection were limited to one tissue within the host, whereas two of the five B. miyamotoi infections were diffuse and found in multiple systems. In the one coinfected specimen, two fetuses were also recovered and found infected with B. miyamotoi. This presumptive transplacental transmission suggests that vertical transmission in mammals is possible. This finding implies that B. miyamotoi could rapidly spread into wildlife populations, as well as having potential human health implications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B. Zinck
- Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Vett K. Lloyd
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, Sackville, New Brunswick, Canada
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Abstract
The effects of current and future global warming on the distribution and activity of the primary ixodid vectors of human babesiosis (caused by Babesia divergens, B. venatorum and B. microti) are discussed. There is clear evidence that the distributions of both Ixodes ricinus, the vector in Europe, and I. scapularis in North America have been impacted by the changing climate, with increasing temperatures resulting in the northwards expansion of tick populations and the occurrence of I. ricinus at higher altitudes. Ixodes persulcatus, which replaces I. ricinus in Eurasia and temperate Asia, is presumed to be the babesiosis vector in China and Japan, but this tick species has not yet been confirmed as the vector of either human or animal babesiosis. There is no definite evidence, as yet, of global warming having an effect on the occurrence of human babesiosis, but models suggest that it is only a matter of time before cases occur further north than they do at present.
Collapse
|
14
|
Dumas A, Bouchard C, Lindsay LR, Ogden NH, Leighton PA. Fine-scale determinants of the spatiotemporal distribution of Ixodes scapularis in Quebec (Canada). Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 13:101833. [PMID: 34600416 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The tick vector of Lyme disease, Ixodes scapularis, is currently expanding its geographical distribution northward into southern Canada driving emergence of Lyme disease in the region. Despite large-scale studies that attributed different factors such as climate change and changes in land use to the geographical expansion of the tick, a comprehensive understanding of local patterns of tick abundance is still lacking in that region. Using a newly endemic periurban nature park located in Quebec (Canada) as a model, we explored intra-habitat patterns in tick distribution and their relationship with biotic and abiotic factors. We verified the hypotheses that (1) there is spatial heterogeneity in tick densities at the scale of the park and (2) these patterns can be explained by host availability, habitat characteristics and microclimatic conditions. During tick activity season in three consecutive years, tick, deer, rodent and bird abundance, as well as habitat characteristics and microclimatic conditions, were estimated at thirty-two sites. Patterns of tick distribution and abundance were investigated by spatial analysis. Generalised additive mixed models were constructed for each developmental stage of the tick and the relative importance of significant drivers on tick abundance were derived from final models. We found fine-scale spatial heterogeneity in densities of all tick stages across the park, with interannual variability in the location of hotspots. For all stages, the local density was related to the density of the previous stage in the previous season, in keeping with the tick's life cycle. Adult tick density was highest where drainage was moderate (neither waterlogged nor dry). Microclimatic conditions influenced the densities of immature ticks, through the effects of weather at the time of tick sampling (ambient temperature and relative humidity) and of the seasonal microclimate at the site level (degree-days and number of tick adverse moisture events). Seasonal phenology patterns were generally consistent with expected curves for the region, with exceptions in some years that may be attributable to founder events. This study highlights fine scale patterns of tick population dynamics thus providing fundamental knowledge in Lyme disease ecology and information applicable to the development of well-targeted prevention and control strategies for public natural areas affected by this growing problem in southern Canada.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ariane Dumas
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada; Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada.
| | - Catherine Bouchard
- Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada; Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - L Robbin Lindsay
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Nicholas H Ogden
- Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada; Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Patrick A Leighton
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada; Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Burtis JC, Poggi JD, Payne B, Campbell SR, Harrington LC. Susceptibility of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) to Permethrin Under a Long-Term 4-Poster Deer Treatment Area on Shelter Island, NY. J Med Entomol 2021; 58:1966-1969. [PMID: 33822135 PMCID: PMC10601398 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjab054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Pesticide resistance in medically significant disease vectors can negatively impact the efficacy of control efforts. Resistance research on ticks has focused primarily on species of veterinary significance that experience relatively high degrees of control pressure. Resistance in tick vectors of medical significance has received little attention, in part because area-wide pesticide applications are not used to control these generalist tick species. One of the few effective methods currently used for area-wide control of medically important ticks, including Ixodes scapularis Say (Acari: Ixodidae), is deployment of 4-poster devices. Deer self-apply a topical acaricide (permethrin) while feeding on corn from the devices. A 4-poster program using permethrin has been deployed on Shelter Island, NY to control I. scapularis populations since 2008. We collected engorged female ticks from deer in this management area and a location in the Mid-Hudson River Valley, NY without area-wide tick control. Larvae were reared from egg masses and their susceptibility to permethrin was tested. Larvae originating from a long-term laboratory colony were used as a susceptible baseline for comparison. Compared against the laboratory colony, resistance ratios at LC-50 for Shelter Island and Hudson Valley I. scapularis were 1.87 and 1.51, respectively. The susceptibilities of the field populations to permethrin were significantly lower than that of the colony ticks. We provide the first data using the larval packet test to establish baseline susceptibility for I. scapularis to permethrin along with information relevant to understanding resistance emergence in tick populations under sustained control pressure from 4-poster devices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James C. Burtis
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Division of Vector-Borne Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Joseph D. Poggi
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Beau Payne
- Shelter Island Police Department, Shelter Island, NY 11964, USA
| | - Scott R. Campbell
- Suffolk County Department of Health Services, Yaphank, NY 11980, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
VanAcker MC, Little EAH, Molaei G, Bajwa WI, Diuk-Wasser MA. Enhancement of Risk for Lyme Disease by Landscape Connectivity, New York, New York, USA. Emerg Infect Dis 2020; 25:1136-1143. [PMID: 31107213 PMCID: PMC6537717 DOI: 10.3201/eid2506.181741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Most tickborne disease studies in the United States are conducted in low-intensity residential development and forested areas, leaving much unknown about urban infection risks. To understand Lyme disease risk in New York, New York, USA, we conducted tick surveys in 24 parks throughout all 5 boroughs and assessed how park connectivity and landscape composition contribute to Ixodes scapularis tick nymphal densities and Borrelia burgdorferi infection. We used circuit theory models to determine how parks differentially maintain landscape connectivity for white-tailed deer, the reproductive host for I. scapularis ticks. We found forested parks with vegetated buffers and increased connectivity had higher nymph densities, and the degree of park connectivity strongly determined B. burgdorferi nymphal infection prevalence. Our study challenges the perspective that tickborne disease risk is restricted to suburban and natural settings and emphasizes the need to understand how green space design affects vector and host communities in areas of emerging urban tickborne disease.
Collapse
|
17
|
Kim JY, Kho JW, Jung M, Lee DH. Assessment of potential effects and detection efficacy of a fluorescent marking system on a medically important hard tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodidae). Pest Manag Sci 2019; 75:2735-2743. [PMID: 30785237 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodidae) is an important disease vector, its small size restricts the tracking methods applicable. Recently, fluorescent marking as a conventional detection method for small arthropods has been improved by combining it with an ultraviolet laser. We examined the application potential of this new fluorescent marking system (FMS) for tracking H. longicornis by evaluating the effect of fluorescent marking on the ticks and detection efficacy. RESULTS Under laboratory conditions, fluorescent marking did not significantly affect the survivorship, movement patterns, and CO2 response of H. longicornis at all three developmental stages. Fluorescent-marked individuals could be detected at distances ranging from 12 to 29 m under dark, increasing with the body size. Finally, in grassland, >90% of fluorescent-marked individuals were retrieved at night regardless of developmental stage. However, the overall detection rate (<42%) was substantially reduced during the day. CONCLUSIOIN Our results show that FMS can reliably detect H. longicornis at night. Nevertheless, fluorescent-marked individuals are not as conspicuous under sunlight when they are illuminated with ultraviolet lasers, limiting the use of FMS during the day. Therefore, the development of an alternative tracking method is warranted for an effective detection of ticks during the day. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joo-Young Kim
- Department of Life Sciences, Gachon University, Seongnam, South Korea
| | - Jung-Wook Kho
- Department of Life Sciences, Gachon University, Seongnam, South Korea
| | - Minhyung Jung
- Department of Life Sciences, Gachon University, Seongnam, South Korea
| | - Doo-Hyung Lee
- Department of Life Sciences, Gachon University, Seongnam, South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Nguyen A, Mahaffy J, Vaidya NK. Modeling transmission dynamics of lyme disease: Multiple vectors, seasonality, and vector mobility. Infect Dis Model 2019; 4:28-43. [PMID: 30997436 PMCID: PMC6453107 DOI: 10.1016/j.idm.2019.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 02/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Lyme disease is the most prevalent tick-borne disease in the United States, which humans acquire from an infected tick of the genus Ixodes (primarily Ixodes scapularis). While previous studies have provided useful insights into various aspects of Lyme disease, the tick's host preference in the presence of multiple hosts has not been considered in the existing models. In this study, we develop a transmission dynamics model that includes the interactions between the primary vectors involved: blacklegged ticks (I. scapularis), white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Our model shows that the presence of multiple vectors may have a significant impact on the dynamics and spread of Lyme disease. Based on our model, we also calculate the basic reproduction number, R 0 , a threshold value that predicts whether a disease exists or dies out. Subsequent extensions of the model consider seasonality of the tick's feeding period and mobility of deer between counties. Our results suggest that a longer tick peak feeding period results in a higher infection prevalence. Moreover, while the deer mobility may not be a primary factor for short-term emergence of Lyme disease epidemics, in the long-run it can significantly contribute to local infectiousness in neighboring counties, which eventually reach the endemic steady state.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aileen Nguyen
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, San Diego State University, California, 92182, USA
| | - Joseph Mahaffy
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, San Diego State University, California, 92182, USA
| | - Naveen K Vaidya
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, San Diego State University, California, 92182, USA.,Computational Science Research Center, San Diego State University, California, 92182, USA.,Viral Information Institute, San Diego State University, California, 92182, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Spengler JR, Bergeron É, Spiropoulou CF. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever and expansion from endemic regions. Curr Opin Virol 2019; 34:70-78. [PMID: 30660091 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a virus-mediated hemorrhagic disease that occurs over a wide geographic region. In recent years, a variety of active and passive surveillance networks have improved our knowledge of areas with existing circulation of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), the etiologic agent of CCHF. These investigations aid in better defining the distribution of the virus. Expansion of a virus into new areas can occur through a variety of means, including introduction of infected humans, vectors, or animals. Here, these potential contributors to expansion of CCHFV into neighboring countries and geographically distant locations are reviewed, and the likelihood and possible implications of these events, based on known characteristics of the virus and its natural maintenance and transmission cycles are explored. Furthermore, this report discusses limitations in the currently described distribution of CCHFV, and the challenges in assessing viral circulation identified in a new region as geographic expansion of the virus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R Spengler
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Éric Bergeron
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Christina F Spiropoulou
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
|
21
|
Schillberg E, Lunny D, Lindsay LR, Nelder MP, Russell C, Mackie M, Coats D, Berry A, Young Hoon KN. Distribution of Ixodes scapularis in Northwestern Ontario: Results from Active and Passive Surveillance Activities in the Northwestern Health Unit Catchment Area. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018; 15:E2225. [PMID: 30314334 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15102225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The range of Ixodes scapularis is expanding in Ontario, increasing the risk of Lyme disease. As an effective public health response requires accurate information on disease distribution and areas of risk, this study aims to establish the geographic distribution of I. scapularis and its associated pathogen, B. burgdorferi, in northwestern Ontario. We assessed five years of active and passive tick surveillance data in northwestern Ontario. Between 2013 and 2017, 251 I. scapularis were submitted through passive surveillance. The submission rate increased over time, and the proportion infected with B. burgdorferi was 13.5%. Active tick surveillance from 2014 to 2016 found few I. scapularis specimens. In 2017, 102 I. scapularis were found in 10 locations around the city of Kenora; 60% were infected with B. burgdorferi, eight tested positive for A. phagocytophilum, and one for POWV. I. scapularis ticks were found in 14 locations within the Northwestern Health Unit area, with seven locations containing B. burgdorferi-positive ticks. We found abundant I. scapularis populations in the southern portion of northwestern Ontario and northward expansion is expected. It is recommended that I. scapularis populations continue to be monitored and mitigation strategies should be established for rural northern communities.
Collapse
|
22
|
Mechai S, Margos G, Feil EJ, Lindsay LR, Michel P, Kotchi SO, Ogden NH. Evidence for an effect of landscape connectivity on Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto dispersion in a zone of range expansion. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 9:1407-1415. [PMID: 30006200 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In North America, different strains of the Lyme disease-causing bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto cluster into phylogenetic groups that are associated with different levels of pathogenicity and, for some, specific rodent reservoir hosts. Here we explore whether landscape connectivity, by impacting host dispersal, influences B. burgdorferi s.s. spread patterns. This question is central to modelling spatial patterns of the spread of Lyme disease risk in the zone of northward range-expansion of B. burgdorferi s.s. in southeastern Canada where the study was conducted. We used multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) to characterise B. burgdorferi s.s. in positive ticks collected at 13 sites in southern Quebec, Canada during the early stages of B. burgdorferi s.s. invasion. We used mixed effects logistic regression to investigate whether landscape connectivity (probability of connectivity; PC) affected the probability that samples collected at different sites were of the same strain (MLST sequence type: ST). PC was calculated from a habitat map based on high spatial resolution (15 m) Landsat 8 imagery to identify woodland habitat that are preferred by rodent hosts of B. burgdorferi s.s. There was a significant positive association between the likelihood that two samples were of the same ST and PC, when PC values were grouped into three categories of low, medium and high. When analysing data for individual STs, samples at different sites were significantly more likely to be the same when PC was higher for the rodent-associated ST1. These findings support the hypothesis that dispersion trajectories of B. burgdorferi s.s. in general, and some rodent-associated strains in particular, are at least partly determined by landscape connectivity. This may suggest that dispersion of B. burgdorferi s.s. is more common by terrestrial mammal hosts (which would likely disperse according to landscape connectivity) than by birds, the dispersal of which is likely less constrained by landscape. This study suggests that accounting for landscape connectivity may improve model-based predictions of spatial spread patterns of B. burgdorferi s.s. The findings are consistent with possible past dispersal patterns of B. burgdorferi s.s. as determined by phylogeographic studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samir Mechai
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada; Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada.
| | - Gabriele Margos
- Ludwig Maximilians Universität München, Department for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Munich, Germany; National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Oberschleissheim, Germany; Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Edward J Feil
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - L Robbin Lindsay
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Pascal Michel
- Office of the Chief Science Officer, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Serge Olivier Kotchi
- Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada; Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - Nick H Ogden
- Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada; Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Halsey SJ, Allan BF, Miller JR. The role of Ixodes scapularis, Borrelia burgdorferi and wildlife hosts in Lyme disease prevalence: A quantitative review. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 9:1103-1114. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
24
|
Soucy JPR, Slatculescu AM, Nyiraneza C, Ogden NH, Leighton PA, Kerr JT, Kulkarni MA. High-Resolution Ecological Niche Modeling of Ixodes scapularis Ticks Based on Passive Surveillance Data at the Northern Frontier of Lyme Disease Emergence in North America. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2018; 18:235-242. [PMID: 29565748 PMCID: PMC5930794 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2017.2234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lyme disease (LD) is a bacterial infection transmitted by the black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis) in eastern North America. It is an emerging disease in Canada due to the expanding range of its tick vector. Environmental risk maps for LD, based on the distribution of the black-legged tick, have focused on coarse determinants such as climate. However, climatic factors vary little within individual health units, the level at which local public health decision-making takes place. We hypothesize that high-resolution environmental data and routinely collected passive surveillance data can be used to develop valid models for tick occurrence and provide insight into ecological processes affecting tick presence at fine scales. METHODS We used a maximum entropy algorithm (MaxEnt) to build a habitat suitability model for I. scapularis in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada using georeferenced occurrence points from passive surveillance data collected between 2013 and 2016 and high-resolution land cover and elevation data. We evaluated our model using an independent tick presence/absence dataset collected through active surveillance at 17 field sites during the summer of 2017. RESULTS Our model showed a good ability to discriminate positive sites from negative sites for tick presence (AUC = 0.878 ± 0.019, classification accuracy = 0.835 ± 0.020). Heavily forested suburban and rural areas in the west and southwest of Ottawa had higher predicted suitability than the more agricultural eastern areas. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates the value of passive surveillance data to model local-scale environmental risk for the tick vector of LD at sites of interest to public health. Given the rising incidence of LD and other emerging vector-borne diseases in Canada, our findings support the ongoing collection of these data and collaboration with researchers to provide a timely and accurate portrait of evolving public health risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Paul R. Soucy
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
- School of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | | | - Christine Nyiraneza
- School of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Nicholas H. Ogden
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Canada
| | - Patrick A. Leighton
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Canada
| | - Jeremy T. Kerr
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Manisha A. Kulkarni
- School of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Ferrell AM, Brinkerhoff RJ. Using Landscape Analysis to Test Hypotheses about Drivers of Tick Abundance and Infection Prevalence with Borrelia burgdorferi. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018; 15:ijerph15040737. [PMID: 29649156 PMCID: PMC5923779 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15040737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Patterns of vector-borne disease risk are changing globally in space and time and elevated disease risk of vector-borne infection can be driven by anthropogenic modification of the environment. Incidence of Lyme disease, caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, has risen in a number of locations in North America and this increase may be driven by spatially or numerically expanding populations of the primary tick vector, Ixodes scapularis. We used a model selection approach to identify habitat fragmentation and land-use/land cover variables to test the hypothesis that the amount and configuration of forest cover at spatial scales relevant to deer, the primary hosts of adult ticks, would be the predominant determinants of tick abundance. We expected that land cover heterogeneity and amount of forest edge, a habitat thought to facilitate deer foraging and survival, would be the strongest driver of tick density and that larger spatial scales (5-10 km) would be more important than smaller scales (1 km). We generated metrics of deciduous and mixed forest fragmentation using Fragstats 4.4 implemented in ArcMap 10.3 and found, after adjusting for multicollinearity, that total forest edge within a 5 km buffer had a significant negative effect on tick density and that the proportion of forested land cover within a 10 km buffer was positively associated with density of I. scapularis nymphs. None of the 1 km fragmentation metrics were found to significantly improve the fit of the model. Elevation, previously associated with increased density of I. scapularis nymphs in Virginia, while significantly predictive in univariate analysis, was not an important driver of nymph density relative to fragmentation metrics. Our results suggest that amount of forest cover (i.e., lack of fragmentation) is the most important driver of I. scapularis density in our study system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Michelle Ferrell
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, 28 Westhampton Way, Richmond, VA 23173, USA.
| | - R Jory Brinkerhoff
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, 28 Westhampton Way, Richmond, VA 23173, USA.
- College of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 3209 Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Ripoche M, Lindsay LR, Ludwig A, Ogden NH, Thivierge K, Leighton PA. Multi-Scale Clustering of Lyme Disease Risk at the Expanding Leading Edge of the Range of Ixodes scapularis in Canada. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018; 15:E603. [PMID: 29584627 PMCID: PMC5923645 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15040603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Since its detection in Canada in the early 1990s, Ixodes scapularis, the primary tick vector of Lyme disease in eastern North America, has continued to expand northward. Estimates of the tick's broad-scale distribution are useful for tracking the extent of the Lyme disease risk zone; however, tick distribution may vary widely within this zone. Here, we investigated I. scapularis nymph distribution at three spatial scales across the Lyme disease emergence zone in southern Quebec, Canada. We collected ticks and compared the nymph densities among different woodlands and different plots and transects within the same woodland. Hot spot analysis highlighted significant nymph clustering at each spatial scale. In regression models, nymph abundance was associated with litter depth, humidity, and elevation, which contribute to a suitable habitat for ticks, but also with the distance from the trail and the type of trail, which could be linked to host distribution and human disturbance. Accounting for this heterogeneous nymph distribution at a fine spatial scale could help improve Lyme disease management strategies but also help people to understand the risk variation around them and to adopt appropriate behaviors, such as staying on the trail in infested parks to limit their exposure to the vector and associated pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marion Ripoche
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, 3200 Rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada.
- Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, 3200 Rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada.
| | - Leslie Robbin Lindsay
- Zoonoses and Special Pathogens Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.
| | - Antoinette Ludwig
- Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, 3200 Rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada.
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 3200 Rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada.
| | - Nicholas H Ogden
- Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, 3200 Rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada.
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 3200 Rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada.
| | - Karine Thivierge
- Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, 3200 Rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada.
- Quebec Public Health Laboratory, Quebec Public Health Institute (INSPQ), 20045 Chemin Sainte-Marie, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC H9X 3R5, Canada.
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, 21111 Lakeshore Road, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9, Canada.
| | - Patrick A Leighton
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, 3200 Rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada.
- Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, 3200 Rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Clow KM, Leighton PA, Ogden NH, Lindsay LR, Michel P, Pearl DL, Jardine CM. Northward range expansion of Ixodes scapularis evident over a short timescale in Ontario, Canada. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0189393. [PMID: 29281675 PMCID: PMC5744917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0189393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The invasion of the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis into Ontario, Canada poses a significant risk to public health because it is a vector for numerous pathogens, including Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, the causative agent of Lyme disease. Baseline field sampling in 2014 and 2015 detected I. scapularis and B. burgdorferi at sites across southern, eastern and central Ontario, including a hot spot in eastern Ontario. A “speed of spread” model for I. scapularis developed by Leighton and colleagues (2012) estimated that the tick’s range was expanding northward at 46 km/year. In 2016, we revisited a subset of sites sampled in 2014 and 2015 to understand the changing nature of risk, and assess whether the rate of tick invasion is consistent with the speed of spread estimate. Ticks were collected via tick dragging at 17 out of 36 sites, 5 of which were new sites for I. scapularis. Samples were positive for B. burgdorferi at 8 sites. No other I. scapularis-borne pathogens were detected. Centrographic statistics revealed an increase in the dispersion of I. scapularis positive sites in eastern Ontario. Field data for each site were then compared to the model’s predicted year of establishment for each census subdivision. Our findings illustrate that the range expansion of I. scapularis and the emergence of B. burgdorferi is ongoing, and provide short timescale evidence of the processes associated with I. scapularis spread. The range front appears to be moving at a rate of ~46 km/year, with colonization of the tick behind this range front occurring at a slower and heterogeneous rate. Assessment of site-level ecological factors did not provide any insight into the underlying processes that may be influencing the colonization of I. scapularis in specific areas. Ongoing field sampling is needed to monitor this dynamic process. This study highlights the current geographic risk associated with Lyme disease, which can be used to target public health interventions to the areas of greatest risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katie M. Clow
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Patrick A. Leighton
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nicholas H. Ogden
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
| | - L. Robbin Lindsay
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Pascal Michel
- Office of the Chief Science Officer, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - David L. Pearl
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Claire M. Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
White LA, Forester JD, Craft ME. Dynamic, spatial models of parasite transmission in wildlife: Their structure, applications and remaining challenges. J Anim Ecol 2017; 87:559-580. [PMID: 28944450 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Individual differences in contact rate can arise from host, group and landscape heterogeneity and can result in different patterns of spatial spread for diseases in wildlife populations with concomitant implications for disease control in wildlife of conservation concern, livestock and humans. While dynamic disease models can provide a better understanding of the drivers of spatial spread, the effects of landscape heterogeneity have only been modelled in a few well-studied wildlife systems such as rabies and bovine tuberculosis. Such spatial models tend to be either purely theoretical with intrinsic limiting assumptions or individual-based models that are often highly species- and system-specific, limiting the breadth of their utility. Our goal was to review studies that have utilized dynamic, spatial models to answer questions about pathogen transmission in wildlife and identify key gaps in the literature. We begin by providing an overview of the main types of dynamic, spatial models (e.g., metapopulation, network, lattice, cellular automata, individual-based and continuous-space) and their relation to each other. We investigate different types of ecological questions that these models have been used to explore: pathogen invasion dynamics and range expansion, spatial heterogeneity and pathogen persistence, the implications of management and intervention strategies and the role of evolution in host-pathogen dynamics. We reviewed 168 studies that consider pathogen transmission in free-ranging wildlife and classify them by the model type employed, the focal host-pathogen system, and their overall research themes and motivation. We observed a significant focus on mammalian hosts, a few well-studied or purely theoretical pathogen systems, and a lack of studies occurring at the wildlife-public health or wildlife-livestock interfaces. Finally, we discuss challenges and future directions in the context of unprecedented human-mediated environmental change. Spatial models may provide new insights into understanding, for example, how global warming and habitat disturbance contribute to disease maintenance and emergence. Moving forward, better integration of dynamic, spatial disease models with approaches from movement ecology, landscape genetics/genomics and ecoimmunology may provide new avenues for investigation and aid in the control of zoonotic and emerging infectious diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A White
- Department of Ecology, Evolution & Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - James D Forester
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Meggan E Craft
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Kada S, McCoy KD, Boulinier T. Impact of life stage-dependent dispersal on the colonization dynamics of host patches by ticks and tick-borne infectious agents. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:375. [PMID: 28778181 PMCID: PMC5544987 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2261-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND When colonization and gene flow depend on host-mediated dispersal, a key factor affecting vector dispersal potential is the time spent on the host for the blood meal, a characteristic that can vary strongly among life history stages. Using a 2-patch vector-pathogen population model and seabird ticks as biological examples, we explore how vector colonization rates and the spread of infectious agents may be shaped by life stage-dependent dispersal. We contrast hard (Ixodidae) and soft (Argasidae) tick systems, which differ strongly in blood- feeding traits. RESULTS We find that vector life history characteristics (i.e. length of blood meal) and demographic constraints (Allee effects) condition the colonization potential of ticks; hard ticks, which take a single, long blood meal per life stage, should have much higher colonization rates than soft ticks, which take repeated short meals. Moreover, this dispersal potential has direct consequences for the spread of vector-borne infectious agents, in particular when transmission is transovarial. CONCLUSIONS These results have clear implications for predicting the dynamics of vector and disease spread in the context of large-scale environmental change. The findings highlight the need to include life-stage dispersal in models that aim to predict species and disease distributions, and provide testable predictions related to the population genetic structure of vectors and pathogens along expansion fronts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Kada
- Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive (CEFE) - CNRS Université Montpellier UMR 5175, 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France
| | - Karen D. McCoy
- Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle, UMR CNRS 5290 - UR IRD 224 - Université Montpellier, Centre IRD, 34394 Montpellier, France
| | - Thierry Boulinier
- Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive (CEFE) - CNRS Université Montpellier UMR 5175, 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Gabriele-Rivet V, Koffi JK, Pelcat Y, Arsenault J, Cheng A, Lindsay LR, Lysyk TJ, Rochon K, Ogden NH. A Risk Model for the Lyme Disease Vector Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) in the Prairie Provinces of Canada. J Med Entomol 2017; 54:862-868. [PMID: 28399276 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjx036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Lyme disease is emerging in Canada due to geographic range expansion of the tick vector Ixodes scapularis Say. Recent areas of emergence include parts of the southeastern Canadian Prairie region. We developed a map of potential risk areas for future I. scapularis establishment in the Canadian Prairie Provinces. Six I. scapularis risk algorithms were developed using different formulations of three indices for environmental suitability: temperature using annual cumulative degree-days > 0 °C (DD > 0 °C; obtained from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer satellite data as an index of conditions that allow I. scapularis to complete its life cycle), habitat as a combined geolayer of forest cover and agricultural land use, and rainfall. The relative performance of these risk algorithms was assessed using receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) area under the curve (AUC) analysis with data on presence-absence of I. scapularis obtained from recent field surveillance in the Prairie Provinces accumulated from a number of sources. The ROC AUC values for the risk algorithms were significantly different (P < 0.01). The algorithm with six categories of DD > 0 °C, habitat as a simple dichotomous variable of presence or absence of forest, and normalized rainfall had the highest AUC of 0.74, representing "fair to good" performance of the risk algorithm. This algorithm had good (>80%) sensitivity in predicting positive I. scapularis surveillance sites, but low (50%) specificity as expected in this region where not all environmentally suitable habitats are expected to be occupied. Further prospective studies are needed to validate and perhaps improve the risk algorithm.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Gabriele-Rivet
- Groupe de recherche en épidémiologie des zoonoses et santé publique, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Jules K Koffi
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental & Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Yann Pelcat
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Julie Arsenault
- Groupe de recherche en épidémiologie des zoonoses et santé publique, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Département de pathologie et microbiologie, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Angela Cheng
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - L Robbin Lindsay
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Timothy J Lysyk
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Lethbridge, Alberta
| | - Kateryn Rochon
- Department of Entomology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Nicholas H Ogden
- Groupe de recherche en épidémiologie des zoonoses et santé publique, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Watson SC, Liu Y, Lund RB, Gettings JR, Nordone SK, McMahan CS, Yabsley MJ. A Bayesian spatio-temporal model for forecasting the prevalence of antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi, causative agent of Lyme disease, in domestic dogs within the contiguous United States. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0174428. [PMID: 28472096 PMCID: PMC5417420 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper models the prevalence of antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in domestic dogs in the United States using climate, geographic, and societal factors. We then use this model to forecast the prevalence of antibodies to B. burgdorferi in dogs for 2016. The data available for this study consists of 11,937,925 B. burgdorferi serologic test results collected at the county level within the 48 contiguous United States from 2011-2015. Using the serologic data, a baseline B. burgdorferi antibody prevalence map was constructed through the use of spatial smoothing techniques after temporal aggregation; i.e., head-banging and Kriging. In addition, several covariates purported to be associated with B. burgdorferi prevalence were collected on the same spatio-temporal granularity, and include forestation, elevation, water coverage, temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, population density, and median household income. A Bayesian spatio-temporal conditional autoregressive (CAR) model was used to analyze these data, for the purposes of identifying significant risk factors and for constructing disease forecasts. The fidelity of the forecasting technique was assessed using historical data, and a Lyme disease forecast for dogs in 2016 was constructed. The correlation between the county level model and baseline B. burgdorferi antibody prevalence estimates from 2011 to 2015 is 0.894, illustrating that the Bayesian spatio-temporal CAR model provides a good fit to these data. The fidelity of the forecasting technique was assessed in the usual fashion; i.e., the 2011-2014 data was used to forecast the 2015 county level prevalence, with comparisons between observed and predicted being made. The weighted (to acknowledge sample size) correlation between 2015 county level observed prevalence and 2015 forecasted prevalence is 0.978. A forecast for the prevalence of B. burgdorferi antibodies in domestic dogs in 2016 is also provided. The forecast presented from this model can be used to alert veterinarians in areas likely to see above average B. burgdorferi antibody prevalence in dogs in the upcoming year. In addition, because dogs and humans can be exposed to ticks in similar habitats, these data may ultimately prove useful in predicting areas where human Lyme disease risk may emerge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stella C. Watson
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States of America
| | - Yan Liu
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States of America
| | - Robert B. Lund
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States of America
| | - Jenna R. Gettings
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States of America
| | - Shila K. Nordone
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, United States of America
| | - Christopher S. McMahan
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States of America
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Hahn MB, Jarnevich CS, Monaghan AJ, Eisen RJ. Modeling the Geographic Distribution of Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) in the Contiguous United States. J Med Entomol 2016; 53:1176-1191. [PMID: 27282813 PMCID: PMC5491370 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjw076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
In addition to serving as vectors of several other human pathogens, the black-legged tick, Ixodes scapularis Say, and western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus Cooley and Kohls, are the primary vectors of the spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi) that causes Lyme disease, the most common vector-borne disease in the United States. Over the past two decades, the geographic range of I. pacificus has changed modestly while, in contrast, the I. scapularis range has expanded substantially, which likely contributes to the concurrent expansion in the distribution of human Lyme disease cases in the Northeastern, North-Central and Mid-Atlantic states. Identifying counties that contain suitable habitat for these ticks that have not yet reported established vector populations can aid in targeting limited vector surveillance resources to areas where tick invasion and potential human risk are likely to occur. We used county-level vector distribution information and ensemble modeling to map the potential distribution of I. scapularis and I. pacificus in the contiguous United States as a function of climate, elevation, and forest cover. Results show that I. pacificus is currently present within much of the range classified by our model as suitable for establishment. In contrast, environmental conditions are suitable for I. scapularis to continue expanding its range into northwestern Minnesota, central and northern Michigan, within the Ohio River Valley, and inland from the southeastern and Gulf coasts. Overall, our ensemble models show suitable habitat for I. scapularis in 441 eastern counties and for I. pacificus in 11 western counties where surveillance records have not yet supported classification of the counties as established.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Micah B Hahn
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3156 Rampart Rd., Fort Collins, CO 80521 (; )
| | | | - Andrew J Monaghan
- National Center for Atmospheric Research, P.O. Box 3000, Boulder, CO 80307
| | - Rebecca J Eisen
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3156 Rampart Rd., Fort Collins, CO 80521 (; )
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Ogrzewalska M, Schwarcz K, Bajay MM, Bajay SK, Pinheiro JB, Zucchi MI, Pinter A, Labruna MB. Characterization of Genetic Variability and Population Structure of the Tick Amblyomma aureolatum (Acari: Ixodidae). J Med Entomol 2016; 53:843-850. [PMID: 27230435 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjw049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The hard tick Amblyomma aureolatum (Pallas) is a vector of the bacterium Rickettsia rickettsii, the etiologic agent of Brazilian spotted fever (BSF) in parts of Brazil. Despite its wide distribution in southeastern South America and its public health importance, there is no information about genetic variation of this species that might help to understand the epidemiology of BSF. Using data from eight microsatellite markers and ticks from six localities, we used a population genetics approach to test the hypothesis that tick populations from areas with the presence of R. rickettsii are genetically different from ticks from areas without R. rickettsii Contrary to expectations, we found low genetic structure between studied regions. Thus, the presence of R. rickettsii in the specific area is more likely correlated with ecological and the environmental conditions or due to unknown gene coding regions of A. aureolatum genome that would be related to R. rickettsii infection resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Ogrzewalska
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, CEP 21045-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Prof. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, Cidade Universitária, CEP 05508-270, São Paulo, SP, Brazil, e-mail:
| | - Kaiser Schwarcz
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução e Bioagentes, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, R. Bertrand Russel, s/n Caixa Postal 6109, CEP 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Miklos M Bajay
- Departamento de Genética, Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Pádua Dias 11, CEP 13418-900, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil (; ; )
| | - Stephanie K Bajay
- Departamento de Genética, Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Pádua Dias 11, CEP 13418-900, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil (; ; )
| | - José B Pinheiro
- Departamento de Genética, Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Pádua Dias 11, CEP 13418-900, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil (; ; )
| | - Maria I Zucchi
- Superintendência de Controle de Endemias, R. Cardeal Arcoverde, 2878, Pinheiros, CEP 05408-003, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Adriano Pinter
- Pólo Centro-Sul, Agência Paulista de Tecnologia dos Agronegócios, Av. Barão de Itapura, 1481, Botafogo, CEP 13020-902, Campinas, SP, Brazil , and
| | - Marcelo B Labruna
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Walter KS, Pepin KM, Webb CT, Gaff HD, Krause PJ, Pitzer VE, Diuk-Wasser MA. Invasion of two tick-borne diseases across New England: harnessing human surveillance data to capture underlying ecological invasion processes. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 283:20160834. [PMID: 27252022 PMCID: PMC4920326 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.0834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Modelling the spatial spread of vector-borne zoonotic pathogens maintained in enzootic transmission cycles remains a major challenge. The best available spatio-temporal data on pathogen spread often take the form of human disease surveillance data. By applying a classic ecological approach-occupancy modelling-to an epidemiological question of disease spread, we used surveillance data to examine the latent ecological invasion of tick-borne pathogens. Over the last half-century, previously undescribed tick-borne pathogens including the agents of Lyme disease and human babesiosis have rapidly spread across the northeast United States. Despite their epidemiological importance, the mechanisms of tick-borne pathogen invasion and drivers underlying the distinct invasion trajectories of the co-vectored pathogens remain unresolved. Our approach allowed us to estimate the unobserved ecological processes underlying pathogen spread while accounting for imperfect detection of human cases. Our model predicts that tick-borne diseases spread in a diffusion-like manner with occasional long-distance dispersal and that babesiosis spread exhibits strong dependence on Lyme disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katharine S Walter
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Kim M Pepin
- United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 LaPorte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Colleen T Webb
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Holly D Gaff
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, 302a Mills Godwin Building, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA
| | - Peter J Krause
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Virginia E Pitzer
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Maria A Diuk-Wasser
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, 1200 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, NY 10027, USA
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Wang H, Grant W, Teel P, Hamer S. Tick-borne infectious agents in nature: Simulated effects of changes in host density on spatial-temporal prevalence of infected ticks. Ecol Modell 2016; 323:77-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
|
36
|
Wu X, Röst G, Zou X. Impact of Spring Bird Migration on the Range Expansion of Ixodes scapularis Tick Population. Bull Math Biol 2016; 78:138-68. [PMID: 26688012 DOI: 10.1007/s11538-015-0133-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Many observational studies suggest that seasonal migratory birds play an important role in spreading Ixodes scapularis, a vector of Lyme disease, along their migratory flyways, and they are believed to be responsible for geographic range expansion of I. scapularis in Canada. However, the interplay between the dynamics of I. scapularis on land and migratory birds in the air is not well understood. In this study, we develop a periodic delay meta-population model which takes into consideration the local landscape for tick reproduction within patches and the times needed for ticks to be transported by birds between patches. Assuming that the tick population is endemic in the source region, we find that bird migration may boost an already established tick population at the subsequent region and thus increase the risk to humans, or bird migration may help ticks to establish in a region where the local landscape is not appropriate for ticks to survive in the absence of bird migration, imposing risks to public health. This theoretical study reveals that bird migration plays an important role in the geographic range expansion of I. scapularis, and therefore our findings may suggest some strategies for Lyme disease prevention and control.
Collapse
|
37
|
Khatchikian CE, Prusinski MA, Stone M, Backenson PB, Wang IN, Foley E, Seifert SN, Levy MZ, Brisson D. Recent and rapid population growth and range expansion of the Lyme disease tick vector, Ixodes scapularis, in North America. Evolution 2015; 69:1678-89. [PMID: 26149959 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Migration is a primary force of biological evolution that alters allele frequencies and introduces novel genetic variants into populations. Recent migration has been proposed as the cause of the emergence of many infectious diseases, including those carried by blacklegged ticks in North America. Populations of blacklegged ticks have established and flourished in areas of North America previously thought to be devoid of this species. The recent discovery of these populations of blacklegged ticks may have resulted from either in situ growth of long-established populations that were maintained at very low densities or by migration and colonization from established populations. These alternative evolutionary hypotheses were investigated using Bayesian phylogeographic approaches to infer the origin and migratory history of recently detected blacklegged tick populations in the Northeastern United States. The data and results indicate that newly detected tick populations are not the product of in situ population growth from a previously established population but from recent colonization resulting in a geographic range expansion. This expansion in the geographic range proceeded primarily through progressive and local migration events from southern populations to proximate northern locations although long-distance migration events were also detected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Melissa Stone
- State University of New York, Albany, New York, 12222
| | - Peter Bryon Backenson
- New York Department of Health, Albany, New York, 12237.,State University of New York, Albany, New York, 12222
| | - Ing-Nang Wang
- State University of New York, Albany, New York, 12222
| | - Erica Foley
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104
| | | | - Michael Z Levy
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104
| | - Dustin Brisson
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Gabriele-Rivet V, Arsenault J, Badcock J, Cheng A, Edsall J, Goltz J, Kennedy J, Lindsay LR, Pelcat Y, Ogden NH. Different Ecological Niches for Ticks of Public Health Significance in Canada. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131282. [PMID: 26131550 PMCID: PMC4489490 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne diseases are a growing public health concern as their incidence and range have increased in recent decades. Lyme disease is an emerging infectious disease in Canada due to northward expansion of the geographic range of Ixodes scapularis, the principal tick vector for the Lyme disease agent Borrelia burgdorferi, into central and eastern Canada. In this study the geographical distributions of Ixodid ticks, including I. scapularis, and environmental factors associated with their occurrence were investigated in New Brunswick, Canada, where few I. scapularis populations have been found to date. Density of host-seeking ticks was evaluated by drag sampling of woodland habitats in a total of 159 sites. Ixodes scapularis ticks (n = 5) were found on four sites, Ixodes muris (n = 1) on one site and Haemaphysalis leporispalustris (n = 243) on 41 sites. One of four adult I. scapularis ticks collected was PCR-positive for B. burgdorferi. No environmental variables were significantly associated with the presence of I. scapularis although comparisons with surveillance data in neighbouring provinces (Québec and Nova Scotia) suggested that temperature conditions may be too cold for I. scapularis (< 2800 annual degree days above 0°C [DD > 0°C]) across much of New Brunswick. In contrast, the presence of H. leporispalustris, which is a competent vector of tularaemia, was significantly (P < 0.05) associated with specific ranges of mean DD > 0°C, mean annual precipitation, percentage of clay in site soil, elevation and season in a multivariable logistic regression model. With the exception of some localized areas, temperature conditions and deer density may be too low for the establishment of I. scapularis and Lyme disease risk areas in New Brunswick, while environmental conditions were suitable for H. leporispalustris at many sites. These findings indicate differing ecological niches for two tick species of public health significance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Gabriele-Rivet
- Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Julie Arsenault
- Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Département de Pathologie et Microbiologie, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Jacqueline Badcock
- Office of the Chief Medical Officer of Health, New Brunswick Department of Health, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
| | | | - Jim Edsall
- Jim Edsall Insect Identification Services, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Jim Goltz
- New Brunswick Department of Aquaculture, Agriculture & Food, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
| | - Joe Kennedy
- New Brunswick Natural Resources, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
| | - L. Robbin Lindsay
- Public Health Agency of Canada, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Yann Pelcat
- Public Health Agency of Canada, Laboratory for Foodborne Zoonoses, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Nicholas H. Ogden
- Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Public Health Agency of Canada, Laboratory for Foodborne Zoonoses, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Ogden NH, Barker IK, Francis CM, Heagy A, Lindsay LR, Hobson KA. How far north are migrant birds transporting the tick Ixodes scapularis in Canada? Insights from stable hydrogen isotope analyses of feathers. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2015; 6:715-20. [PMID: 26100493 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Revised: 05/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Lyme disease is emerging in Canada because of northward range expansion of the tick vector Ixodes scapularis. It is hypothesised that I. scapularis feeding on passerine birds migrating north in spring are important in founding new I. scapularis populations leading to northward range expansion. However, there are no studies on how far north I. scapularis may be carried, only inferences from passive tick surveillance. We used stable hydrogen isotope (δ(2)H) analysis of rectrices collected from northward migrating, I. scapularis-carrying, passerine birds captured in Canada to estimate how far north I. scapularis may be carried. Rectrices are usually grown close to breeding sites and their δ(2)H values reflect those in the environment, which vary strongly with latitude in North America. Passerines usually return to their breeding or natal sites so δ(2)H values of rectrices of northward migrating birds can identify the likely latitudinal bands of their intended destinations. In 2006 we analysed δ(2)H from rectrices of 73 I. scapularis-carrying birds captured at five migration monitoring stations, mainly from southern Ontario. Values of δ(2)H ranged from -33 to -124‰, suggesting 19/71 (26.7%) birds were destined for latitude band B (the most southerly part of Ontario), 40/71 (56.3%) birds were destined for band C (which extends from southern Ontario, Quebec and the Maritimes to southern James Bay) and 12/71 (16.9%) birds were destined for bands D and E (which extend from northern Ontario and Quebec into the southern Canadian Arctic). This indicates that many I. scapularis-carrying migratory birds in spring have destinations far north in Canada, including some farther north than the current region of climatic suitability for I. scapularis. These findings support the hypothesis that I. scapularis may continue to be spread north by spring migrating passerines. Some thrush species may be particularly implicated in far northward dispersion of I. scapularis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N H Ogden
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saint Hyacinth, QC, Canada; Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique (GREZOSP), 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada J2S 7C6.
| | - I K Barker
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road, Guelph, ON, Canada N1G 2W1.
| | - C M Francis
- Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, 1125 Colonel By, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0H3.
| | - A Heagy
- Bird Studies Canada, 115 Front St., Port Rowan, ON, Canada N0E 1M0.
| | - L R Lindsay
- Zoonotic Diseases & Special Pathogens Division, Public Health Agency of Canada, National Microbiology Laboratory, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, MB, Canada R3E 3R2.
| | - K A Hobson
- Environment Canada, 11 Innovation Blvd, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 3H5.
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Yunik MEM, Galloway TD, Lindsay LR. Ability of Unfed Dermacentor variabilis (Acari: Ixodidae) to Survive a Second Winter as Adults in Manitoba, Canada, Near the Northern Limit of Their Range. J Med Entomol 2015; 52:138-142. [PMID: 26336297 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tju061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 12/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
One thousand seven hundred unfed field-collected adult Dermacentor variabilis (Say) were overwintered in 34 outdoor enclosures near the northern limit of their distribution in Manitoba, Canada. At the northern limits of the range of D. variabilis, it had always been assumed that unfed adult ticks questing in spring succumbed before the next winter and were not part of the population observed in the following year. Survival of the collected ticks was assessed on two occasions. In midwinter, an average 39.4% (SE ± 2.50) of the ticks were still alive, while an average 19.9% (SE ± 1.14) survived to April. Female ticks had significantly higher survivorship than males. The ability to survive an additional winter allows ticks to act in a greater capacity as reservoirs for tick-associated pathogens in this region.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E M Yunik
- Department of Entomology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2. Corresponding author, e-mail:
| | - Terry D Galloway
- Department of Entomology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2
| | - L Robbin Lindsay
- Department of Entomology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2. Public Health Agency of Canada, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3E 3R2
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Schneider SC, Parker CM, Miller JR, Page Fredericks L, Allan BF. Assessing the Contribution of Songbirds to the Movement of Ticks and Borrelia burgdorferi in the Midwestern United States During Fall Migration. Ecohealth 2015; 12:164-73. [PMID: 25297819 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-014-0982-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2013] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The geographic distributions of Ixodes scapularis (black-legged tick) and the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi (the causative agent of Lyme disease) are expanding in the USA. To assess the role of migratory songbirds in the spread of this tick and pathogen, we captured passerines in central Illinois during the fall of 2012. We compared forested sites in regions where I. scapularis populations were either previously or not yet established. Ticks were removed from birds and blood samples were taken from select avian species. Ticks were identified by morphology and molecular techniques were used to detect B. burgdorferi and other tick-borne pathogens in ticks and avian blood samples. Ixodes spp. were detected on 10 of 196 migrants (5.1%), with I. scapularis larvae found on 2 individuals. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto was detected in the blood of 9 of 29 birds sampled (31%), yet only 1 infected bird was infested by ticks. The ticks were mostly Haemaphysalis leporispalustris and I. dentatus larvae, and none tested positive for B. burgdorferi. Infestation of birds by Ixodes spp. differed significantly by region, while B. burgdorferi infection did not. These data suggest that migratory birds may play a larger role in the dispersal of B. burgdorferi than previously realized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Schneider
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Werden L, Barker IK, Bowman J, Gonzales EK, Leighton PA, Lindsay LR, Jardine CM. Geography, deer, and host biodiversity shape the pattern of Lyme disease emergence in the Thousand Islands Archipelago of Ontario, Canada. PLoS One 2014; 9:e85640. [PMID: 24416435 PMCID: PMC3887107 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In the Thousand Islands region of eastern Ontario, Canada, Lyme disease is emerging as a serious health risk. The factors that influence Lyme disease risk, as measured by the number of blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis) vectors infected with Borrelia burgdorferi, are complex and vary across eastern North America. Despite study sites in the Thousand Islands being in close geographic proximity, host communities differed and both the abundance of ticks and the prevalence of B. burgdorferi infection in them varied among sites. Using this archipelago in a natural experiment, we examined the relative importance of various biotic and abiotic factors, including air temperature, vegetation, and host communities on Lyme disease risk in this zone of recent invasion. Deer abundance and temperature at ground level were positively associated with tick abundance, whereas the number of ticks in the environment, the prevalence of B. burgdorferi infection, and the number of infected nymphs all decreased with increasing distance from the United States, the presumed source of this new endemic population of ticks. Higher species richness was associated with a lower number of infected nymphs. However, the relative abundance of Peromyscus leucopus was an important factor in modulating the effects of species richness such that high biodiversity did not always reduce the number of nymphs or the prevalence of B. burgdorferi infection. Our study is one of the first to consider the interaction between the relative abundance of small mammal hosts and species richness in the analysis of the effects of biodiversity on disease risk, providing validation for theoretical models showing both dilution and amplification effects. Insights into the B. burgdorferi transmission cycle in this zone of recent invasion will also help in devising management strategies as this important vector-borne disease expands its range in North America.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Werden
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Parks Canada Agency, Thousand Islands National Park, Mallorytown, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ian K. Barker
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jeff Bowman
- Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Patrick A. Leighton
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faulty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Claire M. Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Pattullo KM, Wobeser G, Lockerbie BP, Burgess HJ. Babesia odocoilei infection in a Saskatchewan elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis) herd. J Vet Diagn Invest 2013; 25:535-40. [PMID: 23780934 DOI: 10.1177/1040638713491746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An 8-year-old female elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis) cow, presented for chronic severe weight loss and unthriftiness, was diagnosed with Babesia odocoilei infection based on blood smear evaluation, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and DNA sequence analysis. Subsequently, velvet antler from a male that died acutely on the same farm was also PCR positive for Babesia spp. Both animals originated from a game ranch of Saskatchewan-bred and -raised animals with no known history of tick exposure, but with a history of numerous sudden deaths of unknown etiology. The presence of B. odocoilei in Canada might be a result of a recent introduction that could have deleterious effects on local wild ungulates or may represent discovery of a previously unrecognized endemic disease in local wildlife.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly M Pattullo
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Lee X, Hardy K, Johnson DH, Paskewitz SM. Hunter-killed deer surveillance to assess changes in the prevalence and distribution of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) in Wisconsin. J Med Entomol 2013; 50:632-639. [PMID: 23802460 DOI: 10.1603/me12234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
As a result of the increasing incidence of Lyme disease and other tick-borne pathogens in Wisconsin, we assessed the distribution of adult blacklegged ticks through collections from hunter-killed deer in 2008 and 2009 and compared results with prior surveys beginning in 1981. Volunteers staffed 21 Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources registration stations in 21 counties in the eastern half of Wisconsin in 2008 and 10 stations in seven counties in northwestern Wisconsin in 2009. In total, 786 and 300 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were examined in 2008 and 2009, respectively. All but three stations in 2008 were positive for ticks and all stations in 2009 were positive for ticks. The three sites negative for ticks occurred within the eastern half of Wisconsin. The results indicate that range expansion of Ixodes scapularis (Say) is continuing and the risk of tick exposure is increasing, especially in the eastern one-third of the state.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xia Lee
- University of Wisconsin, 237 Russell Labs, 1630 Linden Dr., Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Dergousoff SJ, Galloway TD, Lindsay LR, Curry PS, Chilton NB. Range expansion of Dermacentor variabilis and Dermacentor andersoni (Acari: Ixodidae) near their northern distributional limits. J Med Entomol 2013; 50:510-520. [PMID: 23802445 DOI: 10.1603/me12193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Distributional ranges of the ticks Dermacentor andersoni Stiles and Dermacentor variabilis (Say) in the Canadian Prairies were determined by passive surveillance and active collection. These findings were compared with historical records of both species, particularly in the province of Saskatchewan, where the northern distributional limits of both tick species occur. Before the 1960s, D. variabilis and D. andersoni were allopatric in Saskatchewan; however, since then, the distribution of D. variabilis has expanded westward and northward. Although the range of D. andersoni has remained relatively stable, range expansion of D. variabilis has resulted in a zone of sympatry at least 200 km wide. Twenty-nine species of mammals and three species of birds were identified as hosts for different life stages of these ticks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shaun J Dergousoff
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5E2.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Rollend L, Fish D, Childs JE. Transovarial transmission of Borrelia spirochetes by Ixodes scapularis: a summary of the literature and recent observations. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2012; 4:46-51. [PMID: 23238242 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2011] [Revised: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Transovarial transmission (TOT) of Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato), the agent of Lyme disease, by the Ixodes persulcatus group of hard ticks (Ixodidae) has frequently been reported in the literature since the discovery of Lyme disease 1982. Evidence for and against TOT by B. burgdorferi has led to uncertainty and confusion in the literature, causing misconceptions that may have public health consequences. In this report, we review the published information implicating B. burgdorferi as a bacterium transovarially transmitted among ticks of the Ixodes persulcatus group and present new data indicating the transovarially transmitted agent is actually Borrelia miyamotoi. B. miyamotoi, first described in 1995, is antigenically and phylogenetically related to B. burgdorferi, although more closely related to the relapsing fever-group Borrelia typically transmitted by soft ticks (Argasidae). Borrelia infections of unfed larvae derived from egg clutches of wild-caught Ixodes scapularis are demonstrated to result from transovarial transmission of B. miyamotoi, not B. burgdorferi. The presence of this second Borrelia species, apparently sympatric with B. burgdorferi worldwide also may explain other confusing observations reported on Borrelia/Ixodes relationships.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Rollend
- Yale School of Public Health, 60 College Street, New Haven, CT 06520-8034, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Wang H, Grant W, Teel P. Simulation of climate–host–parasite–landscape interactions: A spatially explicit model for ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). Ecol Modell 2012; 243:42-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2012.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
48
|
Rydzewski J, Mateus-Pinilla N, Warner RE, Nelson JA, Velat TC. Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) distribution surveys in the Chicago metropolitan region. J Med Entomol 2012; 49:955-959. [PMID: 22897059 DOI: 10.1603/me11233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Considering recent studies confirming an increased risk of contracting Lyme disease near metropolitan Chicago, we surveyed a more comprehensive area to assess whether the geographical distribution and establishment of Ixodes scapularis (Say) populations across northeast Illinois are widespread or limited in occurrence. From May through October 2008 and from April through October 2009, 602 I. scapularis ticks of all three life stages (larva, nymph, adult) were collected from sites in Cook, DuPage, Lake, and McHenry counties in northeast Illinois. The surveys were conducted by drag sampling vegetation in public-access forested areas. I. scapularis comprised 56.4% of ticks collected (n = 1,067) at 17 of 32 survey sites. In addition, four other tick species were incidentally collected: Dermacentor variabilis (Say), Haemaphysalis leporispalustris (Packard), Ixodes dentatus (Marx), and Amblyomma americanum (L.). This study updates the I. scapularis distribution in northeast Illinois. Our random sampling of suitable tick habitats across a large geographic area of the Chicago metropolitan area suggests a widespread human exposure to I. scapularis, and, potentially, to their associated pathogens throughout the region. These results prompt continued monitoring and investigation of the distribution, emergence, and expansion of I. scapularis populations and Borrelia burgdorferi transmission within this heavily populated region of Illinois.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Rydzewski
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1102 South Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Diuk-wasser M, Fish D. In Response. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012; 86:1086-1086. [DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12-0149b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
|
50
|
Estrada-Peña A, Sánchez N, Estrada-Sánchez A. An assessment of the distribution and spread of the tick Hyalomma marginatum in the western Palearctic under different climate scenarios. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:758-68. [PMID: 22448680 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2011.0771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We applied a process-driven model to evaluate the impact of climate scenarios for the years 2020, 2050, and 2080 on the life cycle of Hyalomma marginatum ticks in the western Palearctic. The net growth rate of the tick populations increased in every scenario tested compared to the current climate baseline. These results support the expectations of increased tick survival and increased population turnover in future climate scenarios. We included a basic evaluation of host movement based on rules connected to altitude, slope, size of the near patches, and inter-patch distances in the real landscape over the target area. Data on landscape were obtained from medium-resolution MODIS satellite imagery, which allowed us to test the potential spread of the populations. Such a model of host dispersal linked to the process-driven life cycle model demonstrated that eastern (Turkey, Russia, and Balkans) populations of H. marginatum currently are well separated and have little mixing with western (Italy, Spain, and northern Africa) populations. The northern limit is marked by the cold areas in the Balkans, Alps, and Pyrenees. Under the warmer conditions predicted by the climate scenarios, the exchange of ticks throughout new areas, previously free of the vector, is expected to increase, mainly in the Balkans and southern Russia, over the limit of the mountain ranges. Therefore, the northern limit of the tick range would increase. Additional studies are necessary to understand the implications of host changes in range and abundance for H. marginatum and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus.
Collapse
|