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Algal Toxic Compounds and Their Aeroterrestrial, Airborne and other Extremophilic Producers with Attention to Soil and Plant Contamination: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050322. [PMID: 33946968 PMCID: PMC8145420 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The review summarizes the available knowledge on toxins and their producers from rather disparate algal assemblages of aeroterrestrial, airborne and other versatile extreme environments (hot springs, deserts, ice, snow, caves, etc.) and on phycotoxins as contaminants of emergent concern in soil and plants. There is a growing body of evidence that algal toxins and their producers occur in all general types of extreme habitats, and cyanobacteria/cyanoprokaryotes dominate in most of them. Altogether, 55 toxigenic algal genera (47 cyanoprokaryotes) were enlisted, and our analysis showed that besides the “standard” toxins, routinely known from different waterbodies (microcystins, nodularins, anatoxins, saxitoxins, cylindrospermopsins, BMAA, etc.), they can produce some specific toxic compounds. Whether the toxic biomolecules are related with the harsh conditions on which algae have to thrive and what is their functional role may be answered by future studies. Therefore, we outline the gaps in knowledge and provide ideas for further research, considering, from one side, the health risk from phycotoxins on the background of the global warming and eutrophication and, from the other side, the current surge of interest which phycotoxins provoke due to their potential as novel compounds in medicine, pharmacy, cosmetics, bioremediation, agriculture and all aspects of biotechnological implications in human life.
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Bioaccumulation and Phytotoxicity and Human Health Risk from Microcystin-LR under Various Treatments: A Pot Study. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12080523. [PMID: 32823916 PMCID: PMC7472386 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12080523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is prevalent in water and can be translocated into soil-crop ecosystem via irrigation, overflow (pollution accident), and cyanobacterial manure applications, threatening agricultural production and human health. However, the effects of various input pathways on the bioaccumulation and toxicity of MCs in terrestrial plants have been hardly reported so far. In the present study, pot experiments were performed to compare the bioaccumulation, toxicity, and health risk of MC-LR as well as its degradation in soils among various treatments with the same total amount of added MC-LR (150 μg/kg). The treatments included irrigation with polluted water (IPW), cultivation with polluted soil (CPS), and application of cyanobacterial manure (ACM). Three common leaf-vegetables in southern China were used in the pot experiments, including Ipomoea batatas L., Brassica juncea L., and Brassica alboglabra L. All leaf vegetables could bioaccumulate MC-LR under the three treatments, with much higher MC-LR bioaccumulation, especially root bioconcentration observed in ACM treatment than IPW and CPS treatments. An opposite trend in MC-LR degradation in soils of these treatments indicated that ACM could limit MC-LR degradation in soils and thus promote its bioaccumulation in the vegetables. MC-LR bioaccumulation could cause toxicity to the vegetables, with the highest toxic effects observed in ACM treatment. Similarly, bioaccumulation of MC-LR in the edible parts of the leaf-vegetables posed 1.1~4.8 fold higher human health risks in ACM treatment than in IPW and CPS treatments. The findings of this study highlighted a great concern on applications of cyanobacterial manure.
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Accumulation of Microcystin-LR in Grains of Two Rice Varieties ( Oryza sativa L.) and a Leafy Vegetable, Ipomoea aquatica. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11080432. [PMID: 31344839 PMCID: PMC6722703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The potential transfer of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) to humans via crop plants irrigated with MC-contaminated water is causing serious concern. In this study, two Oryza sativa variants, a hybrid (BG358), a traditional (Suwandel) variety, and a leafy green vegetable crop, Ipomoea aquatica, were exposed under laboratory conditions to natural blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa sampled from a hypereutrophic lake contaminated with MC-LR (3,197.37 ± 1.04 µg/L). Field samples of O. sativa and I. aquatica were collected from farmlands that had been irrigated from a reservoir, containing MC-LR (180 µg/L). MC-LR was quantified by high performance liquid chromatography followed by photodiode-array detection (HPLC-PDA). From the laboratory study, we calculated the potential human health exposure from BG358, Suwandel and I. aquatica as 2.84 ± 0.01, 0.22 ± 0.01, and 0.06 ± 0.01 µg/kg of body weight/day, respectively, whereas the potential health exposures from BG358, Suwandel and I. aquatica collected from the field were 0.10 ± 0.01, 0.009 ± 0.005, and 0.03 ± 0.01 µg/kg of body weight/day, respectively. In certain instances, the results exceeded the World Health Organization’s (WHO) tolerable daily intake of MC-LR, posing a potential health risk to humans. Thus, our results emphasize the importance of continuous screening programs for cyanotoxins in edible plants in the future to prevent the consumption of contaminated crops.
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Yang X, Liu W, Lin H, Zeng H, Zhang R, Pu C, Wang L, Zheng C, Tan Y, Luo Y, Feng X, Tian Y, Xiao G, Wang J, Huang Y, Luo J, Qiu Z, Chen JA, Wu L, He L, Shu W. Interaction Effects of AFB1 and MC-LR Co-exposure with Polymorphism of Metabolic Genes on Liver Damage: focusing on SLCO1B1 and GSTP1. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16164. [PMID: 29170472 PMCID: PMC5700940 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16432-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
AFB1 and MC-LR are two major environmental risk factors for liver damage worldwide, especially in warm and humid areas, but there are individual differences in health response of the toxin-exposed populations. Therefore, we intended to identify the susceptible genes in transport and metabolic process of AFB1 and MC-LR and find their effects on liver damage. We selected eight related SNPs that may affect liver damage outcomes in AFB1 and MC-LR exposed persons, and enrolled 475 cases with liver damage and 475 controls of healthy people in rural areas of China. The eight SNPs were genotyped by PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism. We found that SLCO1B1 (T521C) is a risk factor for liver damage among people exposed to high AFB1 levels alone or combined with MC-LR, and that GSTP1 (A1578G) could indicate the risk of liver damage among those exposed to high MC-LR levels alone or combined with high AFB1 levels. However, GSTP1 (A1578G) could reduce the risk of liver damage in populations exposed to low MC-LR levels alone or combined with high AFB1 levels. In conclusion, SLCO1B1 (T521C) and GSTP1 (A1578G) are susceptible genes for liver damage in humans exposed to AFB1 and/or MC-LR in rural areas of China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Yang
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Wenyi Liu
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Hui Lin
- Department of Tropical Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Hui Zeng
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Renping Zhang
- The Center for Disease Control and Prevention in Fuling District, Chongqing, 408000, China
| | - Chaowen Pu
- The Center for Disease Control and Prevention in Fuling District, Chongqing, 408000, China
| | - Lingqiao Wang
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Chuanfen Zheng
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Yao Tan
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Yang Luo
- Center for Nanomedicine, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Xiaobin Feng
- Institute of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Yingqiao Tian
- The Center for Disease Control and Prevention in Fuling District, Chongqing, 408000, China
| | - Guosheng Xiao
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Wanzhou, Chongqing, 404100, China
| | - Jia Wang
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Yujing Huang
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Jiaohua Luo
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Zhiqun Qiu
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Ji-An Chen
- Department of Health Education, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Liping Wu
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Lixiong He
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Weiqun Shu
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China.
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Hu M, Qu X, Pan L, Fu C, Jia P, Liu Q, Wang Y. Effects of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa on the silver carp Hypophthalmichtys molitrix revealed by hepatic RNA-seq and miRNA-seq. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10456. [PMID: 28874710 PMCID: PMC5585339 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10335-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
High-throughput sequencing was applied to analyze the effects of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa on the silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix. Silver carps were exposed to two cyanobacteria species (toxic and non-toxic) for RNA-seq and miRNA-seq analysis. RNA-seq revealed that the liver tissue contained 105,379 unigenes. Of these genes, 143 were significantly differentiated, 82 were markedly up-regulated, and 61 were remarkably down-regulated. GO term enrichment analysis indicated that 35 of the 154 enriched GO terms were significantly enriched. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis demonstrated that 17 of the 118 enriched KEGG pathways were significantly enriched. A considerable number of disease/immune-associated GO terms and significantly enriched KEGG pathways were also observed. The sequence length determined by miRNA-seq was mainly distributed in 20-23 bp and composed of 882,620 unique small RNAs, and 53% of these RNAs were annotated to miRNAs. As confirmed, 272 known miRNAs were differentially expressed, 453 novel miRNAs were predicted, 112 miRNAs were well matched with 7,623 target genes, and 203 novel miRNAs were matched with 15,453 target genes. qPCR also indicated that Steap4, Cyp7a1, CABZ01088134.1, and PPP1R3G were significantly differentially expressed and might play major roles in the toxic, detoxifying, and antitoxic mechanisms of microcystin in fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menghong Hu
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
- The Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 201306, China
- Centre for Research on Environmental Ecology and Fish Nutrion (CREEFN) of the Ministry Agriculture, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Agriculture Ministry, Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiancheng Qu
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
- The Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 201306, China
- Centre for Research on Environmental Ecology and Fish Nutrion (CREEFN) of the Ministry Agriculture, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Agriculture Ministry, Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lisha Pan
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Chunxue Fu
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Peixuan Jia
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Qigen Liu
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China.
- The Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 201306, China.
- Centre for Research on Environmental Ecology and Fish Nutrion (CREEFN) of the Ministry Agriculture, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China.
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Agriculture Ministry, Ocean University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Youji Wang
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China.
- The Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 201306, China.
- International Research Center for Marine Biosciences at Shanghai Ocean University, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.
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Frenken T, Wierenga J, Gsell AS, van Donk E, Rohrlack T, Van de Waal DB. Changes in N:P Supply Ratios Affect the Ecological Stoichiometry of a Toxic Cyanobacterium and Its Fungal Parasite. Front Microbiol 2017. [PMID: 28634476 PMCID: PMC5459933 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Human activities have dramatically altered nutrient fluxes from the landscape into receiving waters. As a result, not only the concentration of nutrients in surface waters has increased, but also their elemental ratios have changed. Such shifts in resource supply ratios will alter autotroph stoichiometry, which may in turn have consequences for higher trophic levels, including parasites. Here, we hypothesize that parasite elemental composition will follow changes in the stoichiometry of its host, and that its reproductive success will decrease with host nutrient limitation. We tested this hypothesis by following the response of a host–parasite system to changes in nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) supply in a controlled laboratory experiment. To this end, we exposed a fungal parasite (the chytrid Rhizophydium megarrhizum) to its host (the freshwater cyanobacterium Planktothrix rubescens) under control, low N:P and high N:P conditions. Host N:P followed treatment conditions, with a decreased N:P ratio under low N:P supply, and an increased N:P ratio under high N:P supply, as compared to the control. Shifts in host N:P stoichiometry were reflected in the parasite stoichiometry. Furthermore, at low N:P supply, host intracellular microcystin concentration was lowered as compared to high N:P supply. In contrast to our hypothesis, zoospore production decreased at low N:P and increased at high N:P ratio as compared to the control. These findings suggest that fungal parasites have a relatively high N, but low P requirement. Furthermore, zoospore elemental content, and thereby presumably their size, decreased at high N:P ratios. From these results we hypothesize that fungal parasites may exhibit a trade-off between zoospore size and production. Since zooplankton can graze on chytrid zoospores, changes in parasite production, stoichiometry and cell size may have implications for aquatic food web dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs Frenken
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW),Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Joren Wierenga
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW),Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Alena S Gsell
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW),Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Ellen van Donk
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW),Wageningen, Netherlands.,Department of Biology, University of UtrechtUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Thomas Rohrlack
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Norwegian University of Life SciencesÅs, Norway
| | - Dedmer B Van de Waal
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW),Wageningen, Netherlands
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Jia J, Chen Q, Lauridsen TL. A Systematic Investigation into the Environmental Fate of Microcystins and The Potential Risk: Study in Lake Taihu. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E170. [PMID: 27271667 PMCID: PMC4926137 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8060170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Revised: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A systematic investigation was conducted in Lake Taihu in autumn of 2013 and 2014, in order to understand the environmental fate of microcystins (MCs) and evaluate the health risk from MCs. Samples of water, algal cells, macrophytes, shrimps and fish were taken to detect MCs by HPLC-MS/MS after solid phase extraction. Widespread MC contamination in water, algal cells, macrophytes, shrimps and fish was found in Lake Taihu. The ubiquitous presence of MCs in water, algal cells and biota was found in 100% of samples. MC accumulation was in the order of primary producer > tertiary consumer > secondary consumer > primary consumer. The highest levels of MCs in macrophytes, shrimps and fish tissue were found in Potamogeton maackianus, Exopalaemon modestus, and Hyporhamphus intermedius, respectively. The MCs level in shrimps and the tissues of three fish species, Neosalanx tangkahkeii taihuensis, Coilia ectenes and silver carp, was closely linked to their dietary exposure. Ceratophyllum demersum L. was an ideal plant for introduction into lakes to protect against Microcystis blooms and MCs, due to its ability to absorb nutrients, accumulate large amounts of MCs and tolerate these toxins compared to other macrophytes. The average daily intakes (ADIs) of MCs for Exopalaemon modestus and three fish species, Coilia ectenes, Hyporhamphus intermedius and Carassius carassius, were all above the tolerable daily intakes (TDI) set by the World Health Organization (WHO), implying there existed potential threats to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junmei Jia
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark.
- Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research (SDC), Beijing 100190, China.
| | - Qiuwen Chen
- Center for Eco-Environmental Research, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing 210029, China.
| | - Torben L Lauridsen
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark.
- Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research (SDC), Beijing 100190, China.
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Schmidt JR, Wilhelm SW, Boyer GL. The fate of microcystins in the environment and challenges for monitoring. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:3354-87. [PMID: 25514094 PMCID: PMC4280539 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6123354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2014] [Revised: 11/29/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Microcystins are secondary metabolites produced by cyanobacteria that act as hepatotoxins in higher organisms. These toxins can be altered through abiotic processes, such as photodegradation and adsorption, as well as through biological processes via metabolism and bacterial degradation. Some species of bacteria can degrade microcystins, and many other organisms metabolize microcystins into a series of conjugated products. There are toxicokinetic models used to examine microcystin uptake and elimination, which can be difficult to compare due to differences in compartmentalization and speciation. Metabolites of microcystins are formed as a detoxification mechanism, and little is known about how quickly these metabolites are formed. In summary, microcystins can undergo abiotic and biotic processes that alter the toxicity and structure of the microcystin molecule. The environmental impact and toxicity of these alterations and the metabolism of microcystins remains uncertain, making it difficult to establish guidelines for human health. Here, we present the current state of knowledge regarding the alterations microcystins can undergo in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine R Schmidt
- Department of Chemistry, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
| | - Steven W Wilhelm
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0845, USA.
| | - Gregory L Boyer
- Department of Chemistry, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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Máthé C, M-Hamvas M, Vasas G. Microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin induced alterations in chromatin organization of plant cells. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:3689-717. [PMID: 24084787 PMCID: PMC3826130 DOI: 10.3390/md11103689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria produce metabolites with diverse bioactivities, structures and pharmacological properties. The effects of microcystins (MCYs), a family of peptide type protein-phosphatase inhibitors and cylindrospermopsin (CYN), an alkaloid type of protein synthesis blocker will be discussed in this review. We are focusing mainly on cyanotoxin-induced changes of chromatin organization and their possible cellular mechanisms. The particularities of plant cells explain the importance of such studies. Preprophase bands (PPBs) are premitotic cytoskeletal structures important in the determination of plant cell division plane. Phragmoplasts are cytoskeletal structures involved in plant cytokinesis. Both cyanotoxins induce the formation of multipolar spindles and disrupted phragmoplasts, leading to abnormal sister chromatid segregation during mitosis. Thus, MCY and CYN are probably inducing alterations of chromosome number. MCY induces programmed cell death: chromatin condensation, nucleus fragmentation, necrosis, alterations of nuclease and protease enzyme activities and patterns. The above effects may be related to elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or disfunctioning of microtubule associated proteins. Specific effects: MCY-LR induces histone H3 hyperphosphorylation leading to incomplete chromatid segregation and the formation of micronuclei. CYN induces the formation of split or double PPB directly related to protein synthesis inhibition. Cyanotoxins are powerful tools in the study of plant cell organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Csaba Máthé
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen H-4010, Egyetem tér 1, Hungary.
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Xiao FG, Zhao XL, Tang J, Gu XH, Zhang JP, Niu WM. Necessity of screening water chestnuts for microcystins after cyanobacterial blooms break out. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2009; 57:256-263. [PMID: 19125218 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-008-9275-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2008] [Accepted: 12/15/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Water chestnut is one of the most popular vegetables in Asian countries that grows in shallow water. Eighteen water chestnut samples were collected from Lake Tai and six samples were bought at markets in Wuxi, China, in October 2007. Extraction solution of water chestnut was cleaned up with a solid phase extraction column and immunoaffinity chromatography cartridges, then the microcystin (MC) level was detected by indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The results of ELISA showed that there were six samples collected from Lake Tai which contained MCs; the highest level of total MCs was 7.02 ng/g. The results of LC-MS confirmed that MC-LR and MC-RR were present in five samples. The highest level of MC-LR was 1.02 ng/g and that of MC-RR was 4.44 ng/g. Heavy cyanobacterial blooms had occurred, and MCs were detected in water at the points in Lake Tai where MCs occurred in water chestnuts collected in 2007. MCs were not detected in the six samples bought at Wuxi markets. The results suggest that MCs can accumulate in water chestnuts, which is a potential hazard for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Gang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, 214122 Wuxi, China
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Chia A, Abolude D, Ladan Z, Akanbi O, Kalaboms A. The Presence of Microcystins in Aquatic Ecosystems in Northern Nigeria: Zaria as a Case Study. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.3923/rjet.2009.170.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Crush JR, Briggs LR, Sprosen JM, Nichols SN. Effect of irrigation with lake water containing microcystins on microcystin content and growth of ryegrass, clover, rape, and lettuce. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2008; 23:246-52. [PMID: 18214908 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2007] [Accepted: 09/01/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The effect of irrigation with lake water containing a variety of microcystins on accumulation of toxins, or toxin metabolites, and plant growth in ryegrass, clover, rape, and lettuce, was investigated in a glasshouse experiment. The plants were grown in sand culture and received either three or six applications of lake water, which was applied either directly to the sand surface or to the plant shoots. As determined by LC-MS, each plant received 170 mug of a mixture of 10 different microcystins per application. Microcystins in plant samples were extracted with 70% methanol and analyzed by Adda-specific ELISA. For the shoot application treatment, microcystins were not present at measurable levels in shoots of ryegrass or rape, but were present in lettuce [0.79 mg/kg dry weight (DW)] and clover (0.20 mg/kg DW). Total microcystin concentration in roots did not vary greatly depending on whether treatment water was applied directly to the sand, or reached the roots via run-off from the shoots. Microcystins in roots were highest in clover (1.45 mg/kg DW), intermediate in lettuce (0.68 mg/kg DW) and low in ryegrass (0.20 mg/kg DW), and rape (0.12 mg/kg DW). There was no evidence for root-to-shoot translocation of microcystins. Three applications of microcystins reduced shoot DW of ryegrass, rape and lettuce, and increased root DW of ryegrass and lettuce. Clover DW was not changed by treatment with microcystins. The results show that irrigation with water containing microcystins has the potential to move microcystins into farm animal and human food chains at concentrations that can exceed recommended tolerable limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Crush
- AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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Pegram RA, Nichols T, Etheridge S, Humpage A, LeBlanc S, Love A, Neilan B, Pflugmacher S, Runnegar M, Thacker R. Cyanotoxins Workgroup report. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2008; 619:317-81. [PMID: 18461775 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-75865-7_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Cyanotoxins: sampling, sample processing and toxin uptake. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2008; 619:483-99. [PMID: 18461780 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-75865-7_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
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Peuthert A, Chakrabarti S, Pflugmacher S. Uptake of microcystins-LR and -LF (cyanobacterial toxins) in seedlings of several important agricultural plant species and the correlation with cellular damage (lipid peroxidation). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2007; 22:436-42. [PMID: 17607734 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Plants used for agriculture may come into contact with cyanobacterial toxins via spray irrigation when surface water bodies containing cyanobacteria are used as the water source. As many of the bloom forming cyanobacteria are known to produce a variety of toxins, the possibility of uptake of toxins in these plants seems possible. With this study the uptake of two microcystins (MC-LR and MC-LF) as well as MC-LR within a cyanobacterial crude extract in several important agricultural plants is presented. Especially high uptake values in roots of alfalfa and wheat, using an ELISA kit for microcystin detection, is shown. In general, concentrations in the shoot occur at a much lower level than in the root. The amount of toxin is correlated with cellular damage in the seedlings using lipid peroxidation as an indicator. Good correlation was shown between toxin uptake and lipid peroxidation in the seedlings. The exposure of agriculturally important crop plants to cyanobacterial toxins via spray irrigation or watering is a potential concern for human health, as these toxins may accumulate in plant tissues and may therefore be carried through the food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Peuthert
- Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Biochemical Regulation, Müggelseedamm 301, 12587 Berlin, Germany
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Abstract
Blue-green algae are found in lakes, ponds, rivers and brackish waters throughout the world. In case of excessive growth such as bloom formation, these bacteria can produce inherent toxins in quantities causing toxicity in mammals, including humans. These cyanotoxins include cyclic peptides and alkaloids. Among the cyclic peptides are the microcystins and the nodularins. The alkaloids include anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(S), cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins (STXs), aplysiatoxins and lyngbyatoxin. Both biological and chemical methods are used to determine cyanotoxins. Bioassays and biochemical assays are nonspecific, so they can only be used as screening methods. HPLC has some good prospects. For the subsequent detection of these toxins different detectors may be used, ranging from simple UV-spectrometry via fluorescence detection to various types of MS. The main problem in the determination of cyanobacterial toxins is the lack of reference materials of all relevant toxins. In general, toxicity data on cyanotoxins are rather scarce. A majority of toxicity data are known to be of microcystin-LR. For nodularins, data from a few animal studies are available. For the alkaloids, limited toxicity data exist for anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin and STX. Risk assessment for acute exposure could be relevant for some types of exposure. Nevertheless, no acute reference doses have formally been derived thus far. For STX(s), many countries have established tolerance levels in bivalves, but these limits were set in view of STX(s) as biotoxins, accumulating in marine shellfish. Official regulations for other cyanotoxins have not been established, although some (provisional) guideline values have been derived for microcystins in drinking water by WHO and several countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marian E van Apeldoorn
- Centre for Substances and Integrated Risk Assessment, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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Yin L, Huang J, Li D, Liu Y. Microcystin-RR uptake and its effects on the growth of submerged macrophyte Vallisneria natans (lour.) hara. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:308-13. [PMID: 15892062 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins are hepatotoxins produced by many species of several cyanobacterial genera. Their toxic effects on animals and some terrestrial higher plants have been well studied, but their potential effects on the development of aquatic plant seedlings are not well known, and their uptake by aquatic plants is seldom reported. In our research the seeds and seedlings of the submerged macrophyte Vallisneria natans were exposed to different concentrations of microcystin-RR, which was purified with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results indicated that microcystin-RR could accumulate differentially in the roots and leaves of V. natans seedlings. Toxin accumulation in the roots and leaves was time- and dose-dependent, with higher uptake detected in the roots. Growth and development detection revealed that V. natans was relatively insensitive to microcystin-RR at concentrations ranging from 0.0001 to 0.01 mg/L. However, when the toxin concentration was more than 0.01 mg/L, both the fresh weight and the longest leaf length of seedlings were significantly reduced after a 30-day treatment. The root and leaf numbers were significantly decreased when 10 mg/L of toxin was used. These results suggest that microcystin-RR can be taken up by V. natans, which subsequently will retard its development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyan Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
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Karlsson KM, Spoof LEM, Meriluoto JAO. Quantitative LC-ESI-MS analyses of microcystins and nodularin-R in animal tissue--matrix effects and method validation. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:381-9. [PMID: 15892039 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The matrix effects and signal response in LC-MS analysis of six microcystins and nodularin-R were studied in mussels and liver samples from the common eider and rainbow trout. The instrumentation used in the study was a triple quadrupole MS with electrospray ionization. The results from the spiked tissue samples showed that both signal suppression and enhancement occurred. The recorded matrix effects were not severe; all studied toxins could be detected with sufficient limit of detection in all matrices. The results indicate, however, that matrix effects must be monitored for accurate quantification of microcystin and nodularin in tissue samples. Matrix effects can be studied with standard additions in the studied matrix, as was done in this study. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) resulted in a lower limit of detection compared to no cleanup in the sample preparation. SPE also prolonged the chromatographic stability. SPE cleanup is therefore strongly recommeded. Also described in this article are the chromatographic and mass spectrometric details of glutathione and cysteine conjugates, which are the detoxification products of the toxins. LC-MS analysis is suitable for detoxification studies of microcystins and nodularins. Cysteine conjugate was identified as the main detoxification product in a mussel sample that was exposed to toxic cyanobacteria in an aquarium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krister M Karlsson
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Abo Akademi University, Artillerigatan 6, FIN-20521 Turku, Finland.
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Pflugmacher S, Wiegand C, Werner S, Schröder H, Kankaanpää H. Activity and substrate specificity of cytosolic and microsomal glutathione S-transferase in Australian black tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) after exposure to cyanobacterial toxins. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:301-7. [PMID: 15892065 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial toxins have been shown to have a far-reaching impact-from aquatic organisms to human health. Aquatic organisms are typically exposed in their natural environment to toxic cyanobacteria, and exposure can occur via ingestion of cyanobacterial cells or by bioaccumulation of water-borne toxin. The aquaculture and fisheries of crustaceans are among the most important seafood industries. Concomitant with the growth of this industry, the importance of the health of crustaceans increased. The black tiger prawn is the major cultivated prawn in Australia. The aquaculture of these prawns takes place in shallow ponds, where blooms, often of cyanobacteria, develop. Cyanobacterial toxins were hypothesized to contribute to the mortality of prawns. Many aquatic organisms have the possibility of detoxifying cyanobacterial toxins via conjugation to glutathione. The presence of several classes of the cytosolic glutathione S-transferase system in black tiger prawns-mu, pi, theta, alpha, and tau-was shown using different substrates for measurement. Injection experiments with microcystin-LR and feeding experiments with nodularin revealed elevation of GST activity in different types of prawn tissue in parallel with reduction in the GST classes. Correlation analyses of toxin content of the prawns with GST activity showed that low toxin content was correlated with high elevation of enzymes and high toxin content with low elevation of enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Pflugmacher
- Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, RG Biogeochemical Regulation, Müggelseedamm 301, 12587 Berlin, Germany.
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