Occurrence and risk assessment of glycidyl and 3-monochloropropanediol esters in infant formulas marketed in Taiwan

Glycidyl esters (GEs) and 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) are process contaminants commonly found in refined edible oils which are often added to infant formulas. The Taiwan Food and Drug Administration (TFDA) launched regulations for GEs in infant formulas that went into effect on 1 July 2021. To investigate levels of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in infant formula powder, 45 products were sampled and analysed during 2020-2021. The contents of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in formulas of different brands significantly varied, but their concentrations in all of the formulas complied with European Union (EU) regulations. Infant formulas containing palm oil had significantly higher 3-MCPDE levels in both extracted oils and milk powder than those without palm oil. Concentrations of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in infant formula powder and extracted oils were significantly lower in products from Europe than those from Australia and New Zealand. Infants aged 0-1 years in Taiwan who consumed only infant formula showed a margin of exposure (MoE) exceeding 25,000. Mean consumer exposures to 3-MCPDEs stayed below the tolerable daily intake (TDI), while high exposures at the 95th percentile (P95) exceeded the TDI by 1.7-fold. Herein, we present the changing trends in the risk assessment results of infant formula across various countries in the decade. Implementation of regulations and mitigation strategy effectively reduced the risk of infants being exposed to GEs and 3-MCPDEs through infant formula.

Evidence evaluated by European Food Safety Authority does not support lowering the temporary tolerable daily intake for bisphenol A

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recently derived a tolerable daily intake (TDI) for bisphenol A (BPA) of 0.2 ng/kg bw/day. There are several issues with EFSA's hazard assessment review process, including that it was based on a limited subset of relevant studies. Multiple public commenters on EFSA's draft evaluation of BPA, including several European regulatory agencies, noted these issues, yet they were not adequately addressed by EFSA in the final evaluation. The TDI for BPA was based on an intermediate immunotoxicity endpoint in mice that has not been observed in other species; there is no evidence that it is a precursor event to any downstream pathological outcome. The TDI is several orders of magnitude lower than estimates of safe doses of BPA established by agencies worldwide, including EFSA's temporary TDI (t-TDI) for BPA established in 2015. Overall, the EFSA hazard assessment review process has led to a conclusion that there are low-dose effects of BPA based on very few, lower quality experimental animal studies. This conclusion is not supported by the totality of the available evidence, which includes multiple high-quality studies not considered by EFSA and indicates that the t-TDI established in 2015 is protective of human health.

Multimycotoxin Exposure Assessment in UK Children Using Urinary Biomarkers-A Pilot Survey

Cereal foods are commonly contaminated with multiple mycotoxins resulting in frequent human mycotoxin exposure. Children are at risk of high-level exposure because of their high cereal intake relative to body weight. Hence, this study aims to assess multimycotoxin exposure in UK children using urinary biomarkers. Spot urines (n = 21) were analyzed for multimycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, DON; nivalenol, NIV; ochratoxin A, OTA; zearalenone, ZEN; α-zearalenol, α-ZEL; β-zearalenol, β-ZEL; T-2 toxin, T-2; HT-2 toxin, HT-2; and aflatoxin B₁ and M_1, AFB₁, AFM₁) using liquid chromatography-coupled tandem mass spectrometry. Urine samples frequently contained DON (13.10 ± 12.69 ng/mL), NIV (0.36 ± 0.16 ng/mL), OTA (0.05 ± 0.02 ng/mL), and ZEN (0.09 ± 0.07 ng/mL). Some samples (1-3) contained T-2, HT-2, α-ZEL, and β-ZEL but not aflatoxins. Dietary mycotoxin estimation showed that children were frequently exposed to levels exceeding the tolerable daily intake (52 and 95% of cases for DON and OTA). This demonstrates that UK children are exposed to multiple mycotoxins through their habitual diet.

Exposure assessment of infants and young children on selected Fusarium toxins

Background

Mycotoxins belong to substances harmful to human health. They are found mainly in cereal products and their preparations. In particular, infants and young children who consume cereal products, including porridge and gruel, are exposed to these substances.

Objective

The aim of the study is to assess the exposure of infants and young children in Poland to micotoxins (ochratoxin A. deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fumonisins B1 and B1, T-2 and HT-2 toxins) derived from cereal products intended for infants and children.

Material and methods

Samples of products (302) were taken from all over the country in the following three years (2011, 2012 and 2013). HPLC-MS / MS method was used to determine the test compounds.

Results

Using the HPLC-MS / MS method, the assessment of population exposure in Poland to mikototoxins (ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fumonisins B1 and B1, T-2 and HT-2 toxins) derived from cereal products (porridge, gruel) intended for infants and small children. Samples (302) were taken from across the country over the next three years. The exposure values obtained in the average exposure scenario range from 0.2 to 3% compared to the reference toxicological parameters. Considering that in the case of infants and young children, the tested products constitute a quantitatively significant part of the balanced diet of these consumers, and the remaining groups of foodstuffs, including vegetable products. fruit and meat and dairy products do not contribute significant amounts of mycotoxins to the diet can be accepted. that the level of contamination of cereal products does not pose a significant risk to the health of consumers. In the case of high exposure, it did not exceed 10% of the reference values for deoxynivalenol and the sum of fumonisins B1 and B2. These values were assessed as not relevant for the exposure of infants and young children. In contrast, in the case of zearalenone, the high level of exposure corresponded to 36% of the value of tolerable daily intake (TDI), and for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins, the value of 48% of tolerable daily intake. In both cases, the contribution of pollutants to the diet was significant, but still remained 2-3 times less than the tolerable daily intake. Given, that cereal products are the main source of these contaminants, it can be estimated that exceeding the TDI value in relation to the total diet of infants and young children is unlikely.

Conclusions

The exposure values obtained in the average exposure scenario range from 0.2 to 3% compared to the reference toxicological parameters. In the case of zearalenone, the high level of exposure corresponded to 36% of the TDI value. and for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins, 48% TDI. The contribution of pollutants to the diet in both cases was significant. however, it still remained 2-3 times less than the tolerable daily intake. Considering, that cereal products are the main source of these pollutants can be assessed. that exceeding the TDI value for the total diet of infants and young children is unlikely.

Analysis of Pollution of Phthalates in Pork and Chicken in Taiwan Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry and Assessment of Health Risk

Phthalates are widely used plasticizers that can cause endocrine disruption, mutagenicity, and carcinogenic effects and can contaminate food through various pathways. Investigations are scanty on phthalate pollution of livestock and poultry meat and their dietary exposure to humans. The present study assessed residual levels of phthalates in unpackaged pork (30 samples) and unpackaged chicken (30 samples) and their relevance to meat consumption and health risks in the Taiwanese population. Phthalate quantity was assessed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; the materials included diisononyl phthalate, diisodecyl phthalate, benzyl butyl phthalate, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-butyl phthalate. The Taiwan Food and Drug Administration (TFDA) has established values of tolerable daily intake (TDI) for the five phthalates. The major compound detected was DEHP, which ranged from 0.62 to 0.80 mg/kg in two pork samples, and 0.42-0.45 mg/kg in three chicken samples. Collectively, 8.33% of the phthalate-residue-containing samples tested positive for DEHP. The concentrations of DEHP were lower than the screening value of 1.0 mg/kg, as defined by the TFDA. Health risk was calculated as the estimated daily intake (DI) for any likely adverse effects; the DI of DEHP residues was <1% of the TDI value. The estimated risk was insignificant and considered to be safe, indicating that there is no risk to the health of Taiwanese population due to meat consumption. However, it is suggested that a phthalate monitoring program in meat should be instituted for any possible effects in future on human health.

Accumulation of Microcystin-LR in Grains of Two Rice Varieties (Oryza sativa L.) and a Leafy Vegetable, Ipomoea aquatica

The potential transfer of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) to humans via crop plants irrigated with MC-contaminated water is causing serious concern. In this study, two Oryza sativa variants, a hybrid (BG358), a traditional (Suwandel) variety, and a leafy green vegetable crop, Ipomoea aquatica, were exposed under laboratory conditions to natural blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa sampled from a hypereutrophic lake contaminated with MC-LR (3,197.37 ± 1.04 µg/L). Field samples of O. sativa and I. aquatica were collected from farmlands that had been irrigated from a reservoir, containing MC-LR (180 µg/L). MC-LR was quantified by high performance liquid chromatography followed by photodiode-array detection (HPLC-PDA). From the laboratory study, we calculated the potential human health exposure from BG358, Suwandel and I. aquatica as 2.84 ± 0.01, 0.22 ± 0.01, and 0.06 ± 0.01 µg/kg of body weight/day, respectively, whereas the potential health exposures from BG358, Suwandel and I. aquatica collected from the field were 0.10 ± 0.01, 0.009 ± 0.005, and 0.03 ± 0.01 µg/kg of body weight/day, respectively. In certain instances, the results exceeded the World Health Organization’s (WHO) tolerable daily intake of MC-LR, posing a potential health risk to humans. Thus, our results emphasize the importance of continuous screening programs for cyanotoxins in edible plants in the future to prevent the consumption of contaminated crops.

Simulating real-life exposures to uncover possible risks to human health: A proposed consensus for a novel methodological approach

In real life, consumers are exposed to complex mixtures of chemicals via food, water and commercial products consumption. Since risk assessment usually focuses on individual compounds, the current regulatory approach doesn't assess the overall risk of chemicals present in a mixture. This study will evaluate the cumulative toxicity of mixtures of different classes of pesticides and mixtures of different classes of pesticides together with food additives (FAs) and common consumer product chemicals using realistic doses after long-term exposure. Groups of Sprague Dawley (CD-SD) rats (20 males and 20 females) will be treated with mixtures of pesticides or mixtures of pesticides together with FAs and common consumer product chemicals in 0.0, 0.25 × acceptable daily intake (ADI)/tolerable daily intake (TDI), ADI/TDI and 5 × ADI/TDI doses for 104 weeks. All animals will be examined every day for signs of morbidity and mortality. Clinical chemistry hematological parameters, serum hormone levels, biomarkers of oxidative stress, cardiotoxicity, genotoxicity, urinalysis and echocardiographic tests will be assessed periodically at 6 month intervals. At 3-month intervals, ophthalmological examination, test for sensory reactivity to different types of stimuli, together with assessment of learning abilities and memory performance of the adult and ageing animals will be conducted. After 24 months, animals will be necropsied, and internal organs will be histopathologically examined. If the hypothesis of an increased risk or a new hazard not currently identified from cumulative exposure to multiple chemicals was observed, this will provide further information to public authorities and research communities supporting the need of replacing current single-compound risk assessment by a more robust cumulative risk assessment paradigm.

The Relation between Hepatotoxicity and the Total Coumarin Intake from Traditional Japanese Medicines Containing Cinnamon Bark

Cinnamon bark is commonly used in traditional Japanese herbal medicines (Kampo medicines). The coumarin contained in cinnamon is known to be hepatotoxic, and a tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.1 mg/kg/day, has been quantified and used in Europe to insure safety. Risk assessments for hepatotoxicity by the cinnamon contained in foods have been reported. However, no such assessment of cinnamon bark has been reported and the coumarin content of Kampo medicines derived from cinnamon bark is not yet known. To assess the risk for hepatotoxicity by Kampo medicines, we evaluated the daily coumarin intake of patients who were prescribed Kampo medicines and investigated the relation between hepatotoxicity and the coumarin intake. The clinical data of 129 outpatients (18 male and 111 female, median age 58 years) who had been prescribed keishibukuryogankayokuinin (TJ-125) between April 2008 and March 2013 was retrospectively investigated. Concurrent Kampo medicines and liver function were also surveyed. In addition to TJ-125, the patients took some of the other 32 Kampo preparations and 22 decoctions that include cinnamon bark. The coumarin content of these Kampo medicines was determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). TJ-125 had the highest daily content of coumarin (5.63 mg/day), calculated from the daily cinnamon bark dosage reported in the information leaflet inserted in each package of Kampo medicine. The coumarin content in 1g cinnamon bark decoction was 3.0 mg. The daily coumarin intake of the patients was 0.113 (0.049–0.541) mg/kg/day, with 98 patients (76.0%) exceeding the TDI. Twenty-three patients had an abnormal change in liver function test value, but no significant difference was found in the incidence of abnormal change between the group consuming less than the TDI value (6/31, 19.4%) and the group consuming equal to or greater than the TDI value (17/98, 17.3%). In addition, no abnormal change related to cinnamon bark was found for individual patients. This paper was done to assess the risk of hepatotoxicity by the coumarin contained in Kampo medicines and to clarify whether or not the Kampo preparations in general use that contain cinnamon bark may be safely used in clinical practice.

The toxicity of 3-chloropropane-1,2-dipalmitate in Wistar rats and a metabonomics analysis of rat urine by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol(3-MCPD) fatty acid esters can release free 3-MCPD in a certain condition. Free 3-MCPD is a well-known food contaminant and is toxicological well characterized, however, in contrast to free 3-MCPD, the toxicological characterization of 3-MCPD fatty acid esters is puzzling. In this study, toxicological and metabonomics studies of 3-chloropropane-1,2-dipalmitate(3-MCPD dipalmitate) were carried out based on an acute oral toxicity test, a 90-day feeding test and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) analysis. The LD50 value of 3-MCPD dipalmitate was determined to be 1780 mg/kg body weight (bw) for Wistar rats. The results of the 90-day feeding test in male Wistar rats showed that 3-MCPD dipalmitate caused a significant increase in blood urea nitrogen and creatinine in the high-dose group (267 mg/kg bw/day) compared to control rats. Renal tubular epithelium cell degeneration and renal tubular hyaline cast accumulation were the major histopathological changes in rats administered 3-MCPD dipalmitate. Urine samples obtained after the 90-day feeding test and analyzed by UPLC-MS showed that the differences in metabolic profiles between control and treated rats were clearly distinguished by partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) of the chromatographic data. Five metabolite biomarkers which had earlier and significant variations had been identified, they were first considered to be the early, sensitive biomarkers in evaluating the effect of 3-MCPD dipalmitate exposure, and the possible mechanism of these biomarkers variation was elucidated. The combination of histopathological examination, clinical chemistry and metabolomics analyses in rats resulted in a systematic and comprehensive assessment of the long-term toxicity of 3-MCPD dipalmitate.

Mycotoxins: occurrence, toxicology, and exposure assessment

Mycotoxins are abiotic hazards produced by certain fungi that can grow on a variety of crops. Consequently, their prevalence in plant raw materials may be relatively high. The concentration of mycotoxins in finished products is usually lower than in raw materials. In this review, occurrence and toxicology of the main mycotoxins are summarised. Furthermore, methodological approaches for exposure assessment are described. Existing exposure assessments, both through contamination and consumption data and biomarkers of exposure, for the main mycotoxins are also discussed.

Occurrence and exposure assessment of Fusarium mycotoxins in maize germ, refined corn oil and margarine

Analytical methods were validated for the analysis of fumonisins (FB1 and FB2), deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) in maize germ, corn oil and margarine. A survey of 74 samples consisting of 12 wet-milled maize germ, 12 dry-milled maize germ, 25 refined corn oil, and 25 corn oil margarine was conducted. Results revealed that 100% and 87.5% of maize germ samples presented FB1 and FB2, respectively, attaining concentrations for the sum of both toxins of 1302±541 μg kg(-1) in wet-milled and 820±831 μg kg(-1) in dry-milled maize germ. The lower incidence of FB1, FB2 and DON in edible oil and margarine (4-8%) may be related with the industrial processes for their obtaining besides the high water-solubility of these mycotoxins. In contrast, 25% of maize germ samples were positive for ZEA as well as 32% of corn oil and 24% of margarine, which may be related with its lipophilic nature. A number of samples exceeded the maximum limits indicating that strict control is needed, though estimated dietary exposure was less than 0.2% tolerable daily intakes in all cases.

Phthalate metabolites in obese individuals undergoing weight loss: Urinary levels and estimation of the phthalates daily intake

Human exposure to chemicals commonly encountered in our environment, like phthalates, is routinely assessed through urinary measurement of their metabolites. A particular attention is given to the specific population groups, such as obese, for which the dietary intake of environmental chemicals is higher. To evaluate the exposure to phthalates, nine phthalate metabolites (PMs) were analyzed in urine collected from obese individuals and a control population. Obese individuals lost weight through either bariatric surgery or a conservative weight loss program with dietary and lifestyle counseling. Urine samples were also collected from the obese individuals after 3, 6 and 12months of weight loss. Individual daily intakes of the corresponding phthalate diesters were estimated based on the urinary PM concentrations. A high variability was recorded for the levels of each PM in both obese and control urine samples showing the exposure to high levels of PMs in specific subgroups. The most important PM metabolite as percentage contribution to the total PM levels was mono-ethyl phthalate followed by the metabolites of di-butyl phthalate and di 2-ethyl-hexyl phthalate (DEHP). No differences in the PM levels and profiles between obese entering the program and controls were observed. Although paralleled by a significant decrease of their weight, an increase in the urinary PM levels after 3 to 6months loss was seen. Constant figures for the estimated phthalates daily intake were observed over the studied period, suggesting that besides food consumption, other human exposure sources to phthalates (e.g. air, dust) might be also important. The weight loss treatment method followed by obese individuals influenced the correlations between PM levels, suggesting a change of the intake sources with time. Except for few gender differences recorded between the urinary DEHP metabolites correlations, no other differences were observed for the urinary PM levels as a function of age, body mass index or waist circumference. Linear regression analysis showed almost no significance of the relationship between measured urinary PMs and serum free thyroxine, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) for all obese individuals participating to the study, while for the control samples, several PMs were significantly associated with the serum TSH levels.

Development and application of simple pharmacokinetic models to study human exposure to di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP)

In a published controlled dosing experiment, a single individual consumed 5mg each of labeled di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP) on separate occasions and tracked metabolites in his blood and urine over 48h. Data from this study were used to structure and calibrate simple pharmacokinetic (PK) models for these two phthalates, which predict urine and blood metabolite concentrations with a given phthalate intake scenario (times and quantities). The calibrated models were applied to a second published experiment in which 5 individuals fasted over the course of a 48-h weekend (bottled water only), and their full urine voids were captured and measured for DnBP and DiBP metabolites. One goal of this model application was to confirm the validity of the calibrated models - their validity would be demonstrated if a profile of intakes could be found which adequately duplicated the metabolite concentrations measured in the urine. A second goal was to study patterns of exposure for this group. It was found that all metabolites could be duplicated very well with individual-specific "best-fit" intake scenarios, with one exception. It appears that the model predicted much lower concentrations of the metabolite, 3carboxy-mono-propylphthalate (MCPP), than were observed in all individuals. Modeled as a metabolite of DnBP, this suggests that DnBP was not the major source of MCPP in the urine. For all 5 individuals, the reconstructed dose profiles of the two phthalates were similar: about 6 small bolus doses per day and an intake of about 0.5μg/kg-day. The intakes did not appear to be associated with diary-reported activities (personal hygiene and medication) of the participants. The modeled frequent intakes suggested one (or both) of two possibilities: ongoing exposures such as an inhalation exposure, or no exposure but rather an ongoing release of body stores of the phthalate metabolites from past exposures.

Bisphenol A and human health: a review of the literature

There is growing evidence that bisphenol A (BPA) may adversely affect humans. BPA is an endocrine disruptor that has been shown to be harmful in laboratory animal studies. Until recently, there were relatively few epidemiological studies examining the relationship between BPA and health effects in humans. However, in the last year, the number of these studies has more than doubled. A comprehensive literature search found 91 studies linking BPA to human health; 53 published within the last year. This review outlines this body of literature, showing associations between BPA exposure and adverse perinatal, childhood, and adult health outcomes, including reproductive and developmental effects, metabolic disease, and other health effects. These studies encompass both prenatal and postnatal exposures, and include several study designs and population types. While it is difficult to make causal links with epidemiological studies, the growing human literature correlating environmental BPA exposure to adverse effects in humans, along with laboratory studies in many species including primates, provides increasing support that environmental BPA exposure can be harmful to humans, especially in regards to behavioral and other effects in children.

Taiwan food scandal: the illegal use of phthalates as a clouding agent and their contribution to maternal exposure

In 2011 the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration reported that plasticizers di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-iso-nonyl phthalate (DiNP), endocrine disruptors, were illegally added to clouding agents used in foods and beverages. 965 products were found contaminated, of which 206 were exported to 22 countries. This study's purpose was to obtain English names for 28 contaminated products for which DEHP levels were reported, calculate estimated average daily intake (mg/kg/day) for a 50 kg woman consuming one portion, and compare to U.S. and E.U. guidelines for daily intake. We found that drinking just one bottle (500 ml) of sports drinks would result in an average DEHP intake of 0.14 mg/kg bw/day (range 0.091-0.341), which exceeds by several fold government guidelines (0.02-0.06 mg/kg bw/day). One (2 g) serving from 4/14 samples of contaminated dietary supplements exceeds the guideline of 0.02 mg/kg bw/day. In conclusion, consuming even one portion of tainted drinks and some powders would lead to daily intake of DEHP that greatly exceeds established safety guidelines, raising concerns about potential adverse effects, particularly reproductive tract development in the male fetus. Global distribution of DEHP-contaminated and other adulterated products should prompt governments to become proactive in food safety regulations and chemical testing.

Complex mixtures: relevance of combined exposure to substances at low dose levels

Upon analysis of chemically complex food matrices a forest of peaks is likely to be found. Identification of these peaks and concurrent determination of the toxicological relevance upon exposure is very time consuming, expensive and often requires animal studies. Recently, a safety assessment framework based on the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) was published to assess the safety of chemically complex matrices more efficiently. In this safety assessment framework, the toxicological relevance of exposure to unidentified substances in chemically complex food matrices can be related to the Cramer class III TTC threshold, currently set at 90 μg/day. However, possible additive or synergistic effects of combined exposure is not covered. The current evaluation describes the relevance of combined low dose exposure to unidentified substances in chemically complex food matrices. It is concluded that to some extent cumulative effects at exposure levels for each substance at or below the Cramer class III TTC threshold, being present in a complex mixture including food, might occur. However the health relevance of possible cumulative effects at this dose level is considered to be that low that a need for a correction factor to cover possible cumulative effects is very low to absent.

Critical evaluation of key evidence on the human health hazards of exposure to bisphenol A

Despite the fact that more than 5000 safety-related studies have been published on bisphenol A (BPA), there seems to be no resolution of the apparently deadlocked controversy as to whether exposure of the general population to BPA causes adverse effects due to its estrogenicity. Therefore, the Advisory Committee of the German Society of Toxicology reviewed the background and cutting-edge topics of this BPA controversy. The current tolerable daily intake value (TDI) of 0.05 mg/kg body weight [bw]/day, derived by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), is mainly based on body weight changes in two- and three-generation studies in mice and rats. Recently, these studies and the derivation of the TDI have been criticized. After having carefully considered all arguments, the Committee had to conclude that the criticism was scientifically not justified; moreover, recently published additional data further support the reliability of the two- and three-generation studies demonstrating a lack of estrogen-dependent effects at and below doses on which the current TDI is based. A frequently discussed topic is whether doses below 5 mg/kg bw/day may cause adverse health effects in laboratory animals. Meanwhile, it has become clear that positive results from some explorative studies have not been confirmed in subsequent studies with higher numbers of animals or a priori defined hypotheses. Particularly relevant are some recent studies with negative outcomes that addressed effects of BPA on the brain, behavior, and the prostate in rodents for extrapolation to the human situation. The Committee came to the conclusion that rodent data can well be used as a basis for human risk evaluation. Currently published conjectures that rats are insensitive to estrogens compared to humans can be refuted. Data from toxicokinetics studies show that the half-life of BPA in adult human subjects is less than 2 hours and BPA is completely recovered in urine as BPA-conjugates. Tissue deconjugation of BPA-glucuronide and -sulfate may occur. Because of the extremely low quantities, it is only of minor relevance for BPA toxicity. Biomonitoring studies have been used to estimate human BPA exposure and show that the daily intake of BPA is far below the TDI for the general population. Further topics addressed in this article include reasons why some studies on BPA are not reproducible; the relevance of oral versus non-oral exposure routes; the degree to which newborns are at higher systemic BPA exposure; increased BPA exposure by infusions in intensive care units; mechanisms of action other than estrogen receptor activation; and the current regulatory status in Europe, as well as in the USA, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, and Australia. Overall, the Committee concluded that the current TDI for BPA is adequately justified and that the available evidence indicates that BPA exposure represents no noteworthy risk to the health of the human population, including newborns and babies.