Regulation of the pancreatic pro-endocrine gene neurogenin3

Effects of Neurogenin 3 Induction on Endocrine Differentiation and Delamination in Adult Human Pancreatic Ductal Organoids

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by the loss of pancreatic insulin-secreting β-cells in the Islets of Langerhans. Understanding the regenerative potential of human islet cells is relevant in the context of putative restoration of islet function after damage and novel islet cell replacement therapies. Adult human pancreatic tissue can be cultured as three-dimensional organoids with the capacity for long-term expansion and the promise of endocrine cell formation. Here, we characterize the endocrine differentiation potential of human adult pancreatic organoids. Because exocrine-to-endocrine differentiation is dependent on the expression of Neurogenin 3 (NEUROG3), we first generated NEUROG3-inducible organoid lines. We show that doxycycline-induced NEUROG3 expression in the organoids leads to the formation of chromogranin A positive (CHGA+) endocrine progenitor cells. The efficiency of this differentiation was improved with the addition of thyroid hormone T3 and the AXL inhibitor R428. Further, compound screening demonstrated that modifying the pivotal embryonic endocrine pancreas signalling pathways driven by Notch, YAP, and EGFR led to increased NEUROG3 expression in organoids. In a similar fashion to embryonic development, adult ductal cells delaminated from the organoids after NEUROG3 induction. Thus, mechanisms in islet (re)generation including the initiation of endocrine differentiation and delamination can be achieved by NEUROG3 induction.

LINC MIR503HG Controls SC-β Cell Differentiation and Insulin Production by Targeting CDH1 and HES1

Stem cell-derived pancreatic progenitors (SC-PPs), as an unlimited source of SC-derived β (SC-β) cells, offers a robust tool for diabetes treatment in stem cell-based transplantation, disease modeling, and drug screening. Whereas, PDX1+/NKX6.1+ PPs enhances the subsequent endocrine lineage specification and gives rise to glucose-responsive SC-β cells in vivo and in vitro. To identify the regulators that promote induction efficiency and cellular function maturation, single-cell RNA-sequencing is performed to decipher the transcriptional landscape during PPs differentiation. The comprehensive evaluation of functionality demonstrated that manipulating LINC MIR503HG using CRISPR in PP cell fate decision can improve insulin synthesis and secretion in mature SC-β cells, without effects on liver lineage specification. Importantly, transplantation of MIR503HG-/- SC-β cells in recipients significantly restored blood glucose homeostasis, accompanied by serum C-peptide release and an increase in body weight. Mechanistically, by releasing CtBP1 occupying the CDH1 and HES1 promoters, the decrease in MIR503HG expression levels provided an excellent extracellular niche and appropriate Notch signaling activation for PPs following differentiation. Furthermore, this exhibited higher crucial transcription factors and mature epithelial markers in CDH1High expressed clusters. Altogether, these findings highlighted MIR503HG as an essential and exclusive PP cell fate specification regulator with promising therapeutic potential for patients with diabetes.

Biochemical pancreatic β-cell lineage reprogramming: Various cell fate shifts

The incidence of pancreatic diseases has been continuously rising in recent years. Thus, research on pancreatic regeneration is becoming more popular. Chronic hyperglycemia is detrimental to pancreatic β-cells, leading to impairment of insulin secretion which is the main hallmark of pancreatic diseases. Obtaining plenty of functional pancreatic β-cells is the most crucial aspect when studying pancreatic biology and treating diabetes. According to the International Diabetes Federation, diabetes has become a global epidemic, with about 3 million people suffering from diabetes worldwide. Hyperglycemia can lead to many dangerous diseases, including amputation, blindness, neuropathy, stroke, and cardiovascular and kidney diseases. Insulin is widely used in the treatment of diabetes; however, innovative approaches are needed in the academic and preclinical stages. A new approach aims at synthesizing patient-specific functional pancreatic β-cells. The present article focuses on how cells from different tissues can be transformed into pancreatic β-cells.

The role of noncoding RNAs in pancreatic birth defects

Congenital defects in the pancreas can cause severe health issues such as pancreatic cancer and diabetes which require lifelong treatment. Regenerating healthy pancreatic cells to replace malfunctioning cells has been considered a promising cure for pancreatic diseases including birth defects. However, such therapies are currently unavailable in the clinic. The developmental gene regulatory network underlying pancreatic development must be reactivated for in vivo regeneration and recapitulated in vitro for cell replacement therapy. Thus, understanding the mechanisms driving pancreatic development will pave the way for regenerative therapies. Pancreatic progenitor cells are the precursors of all pancreatic cells which use epigenetic changes to control gene expression during differentiation to generate all of the distinct pancreatic cell types. Epigenetic changes involving DNA methylation and histone modifications can be controlled by noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs). Indeed, increasing evidence suggests that ncRNAs are indispensable for proper organogenesis. Here, we summarize recent insight into the role of ncRNAs in the epigenetic regulation of pancreatic development. We further discuss how disruptions in ncRNA biogenesis and expression lead to developmental defects and diseases. This review summarizes in vivo data from animal models and in vitro studies using stem cell differentiation as a model for pancreatic development.

Notch receptor/ligand diversity: contribution to colorectal cancer stem cell heterogeneity

Cancer cell heterogeneity is a key contributor to therapeutic failure and post-treatment recurrence. Targeting cell subpopulations responsible for chemoresistance and recurrence seems to be an attractive approach to improve treatment outcome in cancer patients. However, this remains challenging due to the complexity and incomplete characterization of tumor cell subpopulations. The heterogeneity of cells exhibiting stemness-related features, such as self-renewal and chemoresistance, fuels this complexity. Notch signaling is a known regulator of cancer stem cell (CSC) features in colorectal cancer (CRC), though the effects of its heterogenous signaling on CRC cell stemness are only just emerging. In this review, we discuss how Notch ligand-receptor specificity contributes to regulating stemness, self-renewal, chemoresistance and cancer stem cells heterogeneity in CRC.

USP7 controls NGN3 stability and pancreatic endocrine lineage development

Understanding the factors and mechanisms involved in beta-cell development will guide therapeutic efforts to generate fully functional beta cells for diabetes. Neurogenin 3 (NGN3) is the key transcription factor that marks endocrine progenitors and drives beta-cell differentiation. Here we screen for binding partners of NGN3 and identify the deubiquitylating enzyme USP7 as a key regulator of NGN3 stability. Mechanistically, USP7 interacts with, deubiquitinates and stabilizes NGN3. In vivo, conditional knockout of Usp7 in the mouse embryonic pancreas causes a dramatic reduction in islet formation and hyperglycemia in adult mice, due to impaired NGN3-mediated endocrine specification during pancreatic development. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition of USP7 during endocrine specification in human iPSC models of beta-cell differentiation decreases NGN3 expressing progenitor cell numbers and impairs beta cell differentiation. Thus, the USP7-NGN3 axis is an essential mechanism for driving endocrine development and beta-cell differentiation, which can be therapeutically exploited.

Methylcellulose colony assay and single-cell micro-manipulation reveal progenitor-like cells in adult human pancreatic ducts

Progenitor cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation in the adult human pancreas are an under-explored resource for regenerative medicine. Using micro-manipulation and three-dimensional colony assays we identify cells within the adult human exocrine pancreas that resemble progenitor cells. Exocrine tissues were dissociated into single cells and plated into a colony assay containing methylcellulose and 5% Matrigel. A subpopulation of ductal cells formed colonies containing differentiated ductal, acinar, and endocrine lineage cells, and expanded up to 300-fold with a ROCK inhibitor. When transplanted into diabetic mice, colonies pre-treated with a NOTCH inhibitor gave rise to insulin-expressing cells. Both colonies and primary human ducts contained cells that simultaneously express progenitor transcription factors SOX9, NKX6.1, and PDX1. In addition, in silico analysis identified progenitor-like cells within ductal clusters in a single-cell RNA sequencing dataset. Therefore, progenitor-like cells capable of self-renewal and tri-lineage differentiation either pre-exist in the adult human exocrine pancreas, or readily adapt in culture.

Extracellular matrix-derived peptide stimulates the generation of endocrine progenitors and islet organoids from iPSCs

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have enormous potential in producing human tissues endlessly. We previously reported that type V collagen (COL5), a pancreatic extracellular matrix protein, promotes islet development and maturation from iPSCs. In this study, we identified a bioactive peptide domain of COL5, WWASKS, through bioinformatic analysis of decellularized pancreatic ECM (dpECM)-derived collagens. RNA-sequencing suggests that WWASKS induces the formation of pancreatic endocrine progenitors while suppressing the development of other types of organs. The expressions of hypoxic genes were significantly downregulated in the endocrine progenitors formed under peptide stimulation. Furthermore, we unveiled an enhancement of iPSC-derived islets' (i-islets) glucose sensitivity under peptide stimulation. These i-islets secrete insulin in a glucose responsive manner. They were comprised of α, β, δ, and γ cells and were assembled into a tissue architecture similar to that of human islets. Mechanistically, the peptide is able to activate the canonical Wnt signaling pathway, permitting the translocation of β-catenin from the cytoplasm to the nucleus for pancreatic progenitor development. Collectively, for the first time, we demonstrated that an ECM-derived peptide dictates iPSC fate toward the generation of endocrine progenitors and subsequent islet organoids.

Pancreatic Transdifferentiation Using β-Cell Transcription Factors for Type 1 Diabetes Treatment

Type 1 diabetes is a chronic illness in which the native beta (β)-cell population responsible for insulin release has been the subject of autoimmune destruction. This condition requires patients to frequently measure their blood glucose concentration and administer multiple daily exogenous insulin injections accordingly. Current treatments fail to effectively treat the disease without significant side effects, and this has led to the exploration of different approaches for its treatment. Gene therapy and the use of viral vectors has been explored extensively and has been successful in treating a range of diseases. The use of viral vectors to deliver β-cell transcription factors has been researched in the context of type 1 diabetes to induce the pancreatic transdifferentiation of cells to replace the β-cell population destroyed in patients. Studies have used various combinations of pancreatic and β-cell transcription factors in order to induce pancreatic transdifferentiation and have achieved varying levels of success. This review will outline why pancreatic transcription factors have been utilised and how their application can allow the development of insulin-producing cells from non β-cells and potentially act as a cure for type 1 diabetes.

In vitro generation of transplantable insulin-producing cells from canine adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Canine mesenchymal stem cells (cMSCs) have potential applications for regenerative therapy, including the generation of insulin-producing cells (IPCs) for studying and treating diabetes. In this study, we established a useful protocol for generating IPCs from canine adipose mesenchymal stem cells (cAD-MSCs). Subsequently, in vitro preservation of pluronic F127-coated alginate (ALGPA)-encapsulated cAD-MSC-derived IPCs was performed to verify ready-to-use IPCs. IPCs were induced from cAD-MSCs with the modulated three-stepwise protocol. The first step of definitive endoderm (DE) induction showed that the cooperation of Chir99021 and Activin A created the effective production of Sox17-expressed DE cells. The second step for pancreatic endocrine (PE) progenitor induction from DE indicated that the treatment with taurine, retinoic acid, FGF2, EGF, TGFβ inhibitor, dorsomorphin, nicotinamide, and DAPT showed the significant upregulation of the pancreatic endocrine precursor markers Pdx1 and Ngn3. The last step of IPC production, the combination of taurine, nicotinamide, Glp-1, forskolin, PI3K inhibitor, and TGFβ inhibitor, yielded efficiently functional IPCs from PE precursors. Afterward, the maintenance of ALGPA-encapsulated cAD-MSC-derived IPCs with VSCBIC-1, a specialized medium, enhanced IPC properties. Conclusion, the modulated three-stepwise protocol generates the functional IPCs. Together, the encapsulation of cAD-MSC-derived IPCs and the cultivation with VSCBIC-1 enrich the maturation of generated IPCs.

A Pro-Endocrine Pancreatic Islet Transcriptional Program Established During Development Is Retained in Human Gallbladder Epithelial Cells

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Pancreatic islet β-cells are factories for insulin production; however, ectopic expression of insulin also is well recognized. The gallbladder is a next-door neighbor to the developing pancreas. Here, we wanted to understand if gallbladders contain functional insulin-producing cells.

METHODS

We compared developing and adult mouse as well as human gallbladder epithelial cells and islets using immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, RNA sequencing, real-time polymerase chain reaction, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and functional studies.

RESULTS

We show that the epithelial lining of developing, as well as adult, mouse and human gallbladders naturally contain interspersed cells that retain the capacity to actively transcribe, translate, package, and release insulin. We show that human gallbladders also contain functional insulin-secreting cells with the potential to naturally respond to glucose in vitro and in situ. Notably, in a non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of type 1 diabetes, we observed that insulin-producing cells in the gallbladder are not targeted by autoimmune cells. Interestingly, in human gallbladders, insulin splice variants are absent, although insulin splice forms are observed in human islets.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, our biochemical, transcriptomic, and functional data in mouse and human gallbladder epithelial cells collectively show the evolutionary and developmental similarities between gallbladder and the pancreas that allow gallbladder epithelial cells to continue insulin production in adult life. Understanding the mechanisms regulating insulin transcription and translation in gallbladder epithelial cells would help guide future studies in type 1 diabetes therapy.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomal miR-146a reverses diabetic β-cell dedifferentiation

Background

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) show promising therapeutic potential in treating type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in clinical studies. Accumulating evidence has suggested that the therapeutic effects of MSCs are not due to their direct differentiation into functional β-cells but are instead mediated by their paracrine functions. Among them, exosomes, nano-sized extracellular vesicles, are important substances that exert paracrine functions. However, the underlying mechanisms of exosomes in ameliorating T2DM remain largely unknown.

Methods

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (bmMSC)-derived exosomes (bmMDEs) were administrated to T2DM rats and high-glucose-treated primary islets in order to detect their effects on β-cell dedifferentiation. Differential miRNAs were then screened via miRNA sequencing, and miR-146a was isolated after functional verification. TargetScan, reporter gene detection, insulin secretion assays, and qPCR validation were used to predict downstream target genes and involved signaling pathways of miR-146a.

Results

Our results showed that bmMDEs reversed diabetic β-cell dedifferentiation and improved β-cell insulin secretion both in vitro and in vivo. Results of miRNA sequencing in bmMDEs and subsequent functional screening demonstrated that miR-146a, a highly conserved miRNA, improved β-cell function. We further found that miR-146a directly targeted Numb, a membrane-bound protein involved in cell fate determination, leading to activation of β-catenin signaling in β-cells. Exosomes derived from miR-146a-knockdown bmMSCs lost the ability to improve β-cell function.

Conclusions

These findings demonstrate that bmMSC-derived exosomal miR-146a protects against diabetic β-cell dysfunction by acting on the NUMB/β-catenin signaling pathway, which may represent a novel therapeutic strategy for T2DM.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13287-021-02371-0.

Engineering islets from stem cells for advanced therapies of diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder that affects more than 460 million people worldwide. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is caused by autoimmune destruction of β-cells, whereas type 2 diabetes (T2D) is caused by a hostile metabolic environment that leads to β-cell exhaustion and dysfunction. Currently, first-line medications treat the symptomatic insulin resistance and hyperglycaemia, but do not prevent the progressive decline of β-cell mass and function. Thus, advanced therapies need to be developed that either protect or regenerate endogenous β-cell mass early in disease progression or replace lost β-cells with stem cell-derived β-like cells or engineered islet-like clusters. In this Review, we discuss the state of the art of stem cell differentiation and islet engineering, reflect on current and future challenges in the area and highlight the potential for cell replacement therapies, disease modelling and drug development using these cells. These efforts in stem cell and regenerative medicine will lay the foundations for future biomedical breakthroughs and potentially curative treatments for diabetes.

Hippo Signaling Pathway in Pancreas Development

The Hippo signaling pathway is a vital regulator of pancreatic development and homeostasis, directing cell fate decisions, morphogenesis, and adult pancreatic cellular plasticity. Through loss-of-function research, Hippo signaling has been found to play key roles in maintaining the proper balance between progenitor cell renewal, proliferation, and differentiation in pancreatic organogenesis. Other studies suggest that overactivation of YAP, a downstream effector of the pathway, promotes ductal cell development and suppresses endocrine cell fate specification via repression of Ngn3. After birth, disruptions in Hippo signaling have been found to lead to de-differentiation of acinar cells and pancreatitis-like phenotype. Further, Hippo signaling directs pancreatic morphogenesis by ensuring proper cell polarization and branching. Despite these findings, the mechanisms through which Hippo governs cell differentiation and pancreatic architecture are yet to be fully understood. Here, we review recent studies of Hippo functions in pancreatic development, including its crosstalk with NOTCH, WNT/β-catenin, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways.

Molecular mechanisms of β-cell dysfunction and death in monogenic forms of diabetes

Monogenetic forms of diabetes represent 1%-5% of all diabetes cases and are caused by mutations in a single gene. These mutations, that affect genes involved in pancreatic β-cell development, function and survival, or insulin regulation, may be dominant or recessive, inherited or de novo. Most patients with monogenic diabetes are very commonly misdiagnosed as having type 1 or type 2 diabetes. The severity of their symptoms depends on the nature of the mutation, the function of the affected gene and, in some cases, the influence of additional genetic or environmental factors that modulate severity and penetrance. In some patients, diabetes is accompanied by other syndromic features such as deafness, blindness, microcephaly, liver and intestinal defects, among others. The age of diabetes onset may also vary from neonatal until early adulthood manifestations. Since the different mutations result in diverse clinical presentations, patients usually need different treatments that range from just diet and exercise, to the requirement of exogenous insulin or other hypoglycemic drugs, e.g., sulfonylureas or glucagon-like peptide 1 analogs to control their glycemia. As a consequence, awareness and correct diagnosis are crucial for the proper management and treatment of monogenic diabetes patients. In this chapter, we describe mutations causing different monogenic forms of diabetes associated with inadequate pancreas development or impaired β-cell function and survival, and discuss the molecular mechanisms involved in β-cell demise.

Response of Pluripotent Stem Cells to Environmental Stress and Its Application for Directed Differentiation

Simple Summary

Environmental changes in oxygen concentration, temperature, and mechanical stimulation lead to the activation of specific transcriptional factors and induce the expression of each downstream gene. In general, these responses are protective machinery against such environmental stresses, while these transcriptional factors also regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, and organ development in mammals. In the case of pluripotent stem cells, similar response mechanisms normally work and sometimes stimulate the differentiation cues. Up to now, differentiation protocols utilizing such environmental stresses have been reported to obtain various types of somatic cells from pluripotent stem cells. Basically, environmental stresses as hypoxia (low oxygen), hyperoxia, (high oxygen) and mechanical stress from cell culture plates are relatively safer than chemicals and gene transfers, which affect the genome irreversibly. Therefore, protocols designed with such environments in mind could be useful for the technology development of cell therapy and regenerative medicine. In this manuscript, we summarize recent findings of environmental stress-induced differentiation protocols and discuss their mechanisms.

Abstract

Pluripotent stem cells have unique characteristics compared to somatic cells. In this review, we summarize the response to environmental stresses (hypoxic, oxidative, thermal, and mechanical stresses) in embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and their applications in the differentiation methods directed to specific lineages. Those stresses lead to activation of each specific transcription factor followed by the induction of downstream genes, and one of them regulates lineage specification. In short, hypoxic stress promotes the differentiation of ESCs to mesodermal lineages via HIF-1α activation. Concerning mechanical stress, high stiffness tends to promote mesodermal differentiation, while low stiffness promotes ectodermal differentiation via the modulation of YAP1. Furthermore, each step in the same lineage differentiation favors each appropriate stiffness of culture plate; for example, definitive endoderm favors high stiffness, while pancreatic progenitor favors low stiffness during pancreatic differentiation of human ESCs. Overall, treatments utilizing those stresses have no genotoxic or carcinogenic effects except oxidative stress; therefore, the differentiated cells are safe and could be useful for cell replacement therapy. In particular, the effect of mechanical stress on differentiation is becoming attractive for the field of regenerative medicine. Therefore, the development of a stress-mediated differentiation protocol is an important matter for the future.

Pancreas development and the Polycomb group protein complexes

The dual nature of pancreatic tissue permits both endocrine and exocrine functions. Enzymatic secretions by the exocrine pancreas help digestive processes while the pancreatic hormones regulate glucose homeostasis and energy metabolism. Pancreas organogenesis is defined by a conserved array of signaling pathways that act on common gut progenitors to bring about the generation of diverse cell types. Multiple cellular processes characterize development of the mature organ. These processes are mediated by signaling pathways that regulate lineage-specific transcription factors and chromatin modifications guiding long-term gene expression programs. The chromatin landscape is altered chiefly by DNA or histone modifications, chromatin remodelers, and non-coding RNAs. Amongst histone modifiers, several studies have identified Polycomb group (PcG) proteins as crucial determinants mediating transcriptional repression of genes involved in developmental processes. Although PcG-mediated chromatin modifications define cellular transitions and influence cell identity of multipotent progenitors, much remains to be understood regarding coordination between extracellular signals and their impact on Polycomb functions during the pancreas lineage progression. In this review, we discuss interactions between sequence-specific DNA binding proteins and chromatin regulators underlying pancreas development and insulin producing β-cells, with particular focus on Polycomb group proteins. Understanding such basic molecular mechanisms would improve current strategies for stem cell-based differentiation while also help elucidate the pathogenesis of several pancreas-related maladies, including diabetes and pancreatic cancer.

Cell fate specification and differentiation in the adult mammalian intestine

Intestinal stem cells at the bottom of crypts fuel the rapid renewal of the different cell types that constitute a multitasking tissue. The intestinal epithelium facilitates selective uptake of nutrients while acting as a barrier for hostile luminal contents. Recent discoveries have revealed that the lineage plasticity of committed cells - combined with redundant sources of niche signals - enables the epithelium to efficiently repair tissue damage. New approaches such as single-cell transcriptomics and the use of organoid models have led to the identification of the signals that guide fate specification of stem cell progeny into the six intestinal cell lineages. These cell types display context-dependent functionality and can adapt to different requirements over their lifetime, as dictated by their microenvironment. These new insights into stem cell regulation and fate specification could aid the development of therapies that exploit the regenerative capacity and functionality of the gut.

Fine-tuning of microRNAs in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease widely spread across industrialized countries. Sedentary lifestyle and unhealthy alimentary habits lead to obesity, boosting both glucose and fatty acid in the bloodstream and eventually, insulin resistance, pancreas inflammation and faulty insulin production or secretion, all of them very well-defined hallmarks of type 2 diabetes mellitus. miRNAs are small sequences of non-coding RNA that may regulate several processes within the cells, fine-tuning protein expression, with an unexpected and subtle precision and in time-frames ranging from minutes to days. Since the discovery of miRNA and their possible implication in pathologies, several groups aimed to find a relationship between type 2 diabetes mellitus and miRNAs. Here we discuss the pattern of expression of different miRNAs in cultured cells, animal models and diabetic patients. We summarize the role of the most important miRNAs involved in pancreas growth and development, insulin secretion and liver, skeletal muscle or adipocyte insulin resistance in the context of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Essential Role of Protein Arginine Methyltransferase 1 in Pancreas Development by Regulating Protein Stability of Neurogenin 3

BACKGROUND

Protein arginine methyltransferase 1 (PRMT1) is a major enzyme responsible for the formation of methylarginine in mammalian cells. Recent studies have revealed that PRMT1 plays important roles in the development of various tissues. However, its role in pancreas development has not yet been elucidated.

METHODS

Pancreatic progenitor cell-specific Prmt1 knock-out (Prmt1 PKO) mice were generated and characterized for their metabolic and histological phenotypes and their levels of Neurog3 gene expression and neurogenin 3 (NGN3) protein expression. Protein degradation assays were performed in mPAC cells.

RESULTS

Prmt1 PKO mice showed growth retardation and a severely diabetic phenotype. The pancreatic size and β-cell mass were significantly reduced in Prmt1 PKO mice. Proliferation of progenitor cells during the secondary transition was decreased and endocrine cell differentiation was impaired. These defects in pancreas development could be attributed to the sustained expression of NGN3 in progenitor cells. Protein degradation assays in mPAC cells revealed that PRMT1 was required for the rapid degradation of NGN3.

CONCLUSION

PRMT1 critically contributes to pancreas development by destabilizing the NGN3 protein.

A Comprehensive Structure-Function Study of Neurogenin3 Disease-Causing Alleles during Human Pancreas and Intestinal Organoid Development

Neurogenin3 (NEUROG3) is required for endocrine lineage formation of the pancreas and intestine. Patients with NEUROG3 mutations are born with congenital malabsorptive diarrhea due to complete loss of enteroendocrine cells, whereas endocrine pancreas development varies in an allele-specific manner. These findings suggest a context-dependent requirement for NEUROG3 in pancreas versus intestine. We utilized human tissue differentiated from NEUROG3^-/- pluripotent stem cells for functional analyses. Most disease-associated alleles had hypomorphic or null phenotype in both tissues, whereas the S171fsX68 mutation had reduced activity in the pancreas but largely null in the intestine. Biochemical studies revealed NEUROG3 variants have distinct molecular defects with altered protein stability, DNA binding, and gene transcription. Moreover, NEUROG3 was highly unstable in the intestinal epithelium, explaining the enhanced sensitivity of intestinal defects relative to the pancreas. These studies emphasize that studies of human mutations in the endogenous tissue context may be required to assess structure-function relationships.

Direct cell reprogramming for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine

Direct cell reprogramming, also called transdifferentiation, allows for the reprogramming of one somatic cell type directly into another, without the need to transition through an induced pluripotent state. Thus, it is an attractive approach to develop novel tissue engineering applications to treat diseases and injuries where there is a shortage of proliferating cells for tissue repair. In certain tissue damage, terminally differentiated somatic cells lose their ability to proliferate, as a result, damaged tissues cannot heal by themselves. Examples of these scenarios include myocardial infarctions, neurodegenerative diseases, and cartilage injuries. Transdifferentiation is capable of reprogramming cells that are abundant in the body into desired cell phenotypes that are able to restore tissue function in damaged areas. Therefore, direct cell reprogramming is a promising direction in the cell and tissue engineering and regenerative medicine fields.

In recent years, several methods for transdifferentiation have been developed, ranging from the overexpression of transcription factors via viral vectors, to small molecules, to clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and its associated protein (Cas9) for both genetic and epigenetic reprogramming. Overexpressing transcription factors by use of a lentivirus is currently the most prevalent technique, however it lacks high reprogramming efficiencies and can pose problems when transitioning to human subjects and clinical trials. CRISPR/Cas9, fused with proteins that modulate transcription, has been shown to improve efficiencies greatly. Transdifferentiation has successfully generated many cell phenotypes, including endothelial cells, skeletal myocytes, neuronal cells, and more. These cells have been shown to emulate mature adult cells such that they are able to mimic major functions, and some are capable of promoting regeneration of damaged tissue in vivo. While transdifferentiated cells have not yet seen clinical use, they have had promise in mice models, showing success in treating liver disease and several brain-related diseases, while also being utilized as a cell source for tissue engineered vascular grafts to treat damaged blood vessels. Recently, localized transdifferentiated cells have been generated in situ, allowing for treatments without invasive surgeries and more complete transdifferentiation. In this review, we summarized the recent development in various cell reprogramming techniques, their applications in converting various somatic cells, their uses in tissue regeneration, and the challenges of transitioning to a clinical setting, accompanied with potential solutions.

Pancreatic Cell Fate Determination Relies on Notch Ligand Trafficking by NFIA

Notch is activated globally in pancreatic progenitors; however, for progenitors to differentiate into endocrine cells, they must escape Notch activation to express Neurogenin-3. Here, we find that the transcription factor nuclear factor I/A (NFIA) promotes endocrine development by regulating Notch ligand Dll1 trafficking. Pancreatic deletion of NFIA leads to cell fate defects, with increased duct and decreased endocrine formation, while ectopic expression promotes endocrine formation in mice and human pancreatic progenitors. NFIA-deficient mice exhibit dysregulation of trafficking-related genes including increased expression of Mib1, which acts to target Dll1 for endocytosis. We find that NFIA binds to the Mib1 promoter, with loss of NFIA leading to an increase in Dll1 internalization and enhanced Notch activation with rescue of the cell fate defects after Mib1 knockdown. This study reveals NFIA as a pro-endocrine factor in the pancreas, acting to repress Mib1, inhibit Dll1 endocytosis and thus promote escape from Notch activation.

Redefining the signaling pathways from pluripotency to pancreas development: In vitro β-cell differentiation

Pancreatic β-cells are destroyed by the immune system, in type 1 diabetes (T1D) and are impaired by glucose insensitivity in type 2 diabetes (T2D). Islet-cells transplantation is a promising therapeutic approach based on in vitro differentiation of pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) to insulin-producing cells (IPCs). According to evolutionary stages in β-cell development, there are several distinct checkpoints; each one has a unique characteristic, including definitive endoderm (DE), primitive gut (PG), posterior foregut (PF), pancreatic epithelium (PE), endocrine precursor (EP), and immature β-cells up to functional β-cells. A better understanding of the gene regulatory networks (GRN) and associated transcription factors in each specific developmental stage, guarantees the achievement of the next successful checkpoints and ensures an efficient β-cell differentiation procedure. The new findings in signaling pathways, related to the development of the pancreas are discussed here, including Wnt, Activin/Nodal, FGF, BMP, retinoic acid (RA), sonic hedgehog (Shh), Notch, and downstream regulators, required for β-cell commitment. We also summarized different approaches in the IPCs protocol to conceptually define a standardized system, leading to the creation of a reproducible method for β-cell differentiation. To normalize blood glucose level in diabetic mice, the replacement therapy in the early differentiation stage, such as EP stages was associated with better outcome when compared with the fully differentiated β-cells' graft.

ROCK-nmMyoII, Notch and Neurog3 gene-dosage link epithelial morphogenesis with cell fate in the pancreatic endocrine-progenitor niche

During mouse pancreas organogenesis, endocrine cells are born from progenitors residing in an epithelial plexus niche. After a period in a lineage-primed Neurog3^LO state, progenitors become endocrine committed via upregulation of Neurog3 We find that the Neurog3^LO to Neurog3^HI transition is associated with distinct stages of an epithelial egression process: narrowing the apical surface of the cell, basalward cell movement and eventual cell-rear detachment from the apical lumen surface to allow clustering as nascent islets under the basement membrane. Apical narrowing, basalward movement and Neurog3 transcriptional upregulation still occur without Neurog3 protein, suggesting that morphogenetic cues deployed within the plexus initiate endocrine commitment upstream or independently of Neurog3. Neurog3 is required for cell-rear detachment and complete endocrine-cell birth. The ROCK-nmMyoII pathway coordinates epithelial-cell morphogenesis and the progression through Neurog3-expressing states. NmMyoII is necessary for apical narrowing, basalward cell displacement and Neurog3 upregulation, but all three are limited by ROCK activity. We propose that ROCK-nmMyoII activity, Neurog3 gene-dose and Notch signaling integrate endocrine fate allocation with epithelial plexus growth and morphogenesis, representing a feedback control circuit that coordinates morphogenesis with lineage diversification in the endocrine-birth niche.

The Role of Notch Signaling and Leptin-Notch Crosstalk in Pancreatic Cancer

There is accumulating evidence that deregulated Notch signaling affects cancer development, and specifically pancreatic cancer (PC) progression. Notch canonical and non-canonical signaling has diverse impact on PC. Moreover, the actions of RBP-Jk (nuclear partner of activated Notch) independent of Notch signaling pathway seem to affect differently cancer progression. Recent data show that in PC and other cancer types the adipokine leptin can modulate Notch/RBP-Jk signaling, thereby, linking the pandemic obesity with cancer and chemoresistance. The potential pivotal role of leptin on PC, and its connection with Notch signaling and chemoresistance are still not completely understood. In this review, we will describe the most important aspects of Notch-RBP-Jk signaling in PC. Further, we will discuss on studies related to RBP-Jk-independent Notch and Notch-independent RPB-Jk signaling. We will also discuss on the novel crosstalk between leptin and Notch in PC and its implications in chemoresistance. The effects of leptin-Notch/RBP-Jk signaling on cancer cell proliferation, apoptosis, and drug resistance require more investigation. Data from these investigations could help to open unexplored ways to improve PC treatment success that has shown little progress for many years.

Treatment with specific soluble factors promotes the functional maturation of transcription factor-mediated, pancreatic transdifferentiated cells

Pancreatic lineage-specific transcription factors (TFs) display instructive roles in converting adult cells to endocrine pancreatic cells through a process known as transdifferentiation. However, little is known about potential factors capable of accelerating transdifferentiation following transduction to achieve the functional maturation of transdifferentiated cells. In this study, we demonstrated, using adult liver-derived progenitor cells, that soluble factors utilized in pancreatic differentiation protocols of pluripotent stem cells promote functional maturation of TFs-mediated transdifferentiated cells. Treatment with an N2 supplement in combination with three soluble factors (glucagon-like peptide-1 [GLP-1] receptor agonist, notch inhibitor, and transforming growth factor-β [TGF-β] inhibitor) enhanced liver-to-pancreas transdifferentiation based on the following findings: i) the incidence of c-peptide-positive cells increased by approximately 1.2-fold after the aforementioned treatment; ii) the c-peptide expression level in the treated cells increased by approximately 12-fold as compared with the level in the untreated cells; iii) the treated cells secreted insulin in a glucose-dependent manner, whereas the untreated cells did not; and iv) transplantation of treated-transdifferentiated cells into streptozotocin-induced immunodeficient diabetic mice led to the amelioration of hyperglycemia. These results suggest that treatment with specific soluble factors promotes the functional maturation of transdifferentiated cells. Our findings could facilitate the development of new modalities for cell-replacement therapy for patients with diabetes.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms coordinating pancreas development

The pancreas is an endoderm-derived glandular organ that participates in the regulation of systemic glucose metabolism and food digestion through the function of its endocrine and exocrine compartments, respectively. While intensive research has explored the signaling pathways and transcriptional programs that govern pancreas development, much remains to be discovered regarding the cellular processes that orchestrate pancreas morphogenesis. Here, we discuss the developmental mechanisms and principles that are known to underlie pancreas development, from induction and lineage formation to morphogenesis and organogenesis. Elucidating such principles will help to identify novel candidate disease genes and unravel the pathogenesis of pancreas-related diseases, such as diabetes, pancreatitis and cancer.

GLIS1-3: emerging roles in reprogramming, stem and progenitor cell differentiation and maintenance

Recent studies have provided evidence for a regulatory role of GLI-similar (GLIS) transcription factors in reprogramming, maintenance and differentiation of several stem and progenitor cell populations. GLIS1, in conjunction with several other reprogramming factors, was shown to markedly increase the efficiency of generating induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) from somatic cells. GLIS2 has been reported to contribute to the maintenance of the pluripotent state in hPSCs. In addition, GLIS2 has a function in regulating self-renewal of hematopoietic progenitors and megakaryocytic differentiation. GLIS3 plays a critical role during the development of several tissues. GLIS3 is able to promote reprogramming of human fibroblasts into retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells. Moreover, GLIS3 is essential for spermatogonial stem cell renewal and spermatogonial progenitor cell differentiation. During pancreas development, GLIS3 protein is first detectable in bipotent pancreatic progenitors and pro-endocrine progenitors and plays a critical role in the generation of pancreatic beta cells. Here, we review the current status of the roles of GLIS proteins in the maintenance and differentiation of these different stem and progenitor cells.

Expression of transcription factors in MEN1-associated pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors

MEN1-associated pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (pNETs) may potentially express distinct hormones, but the mechanism has not been elucidated. Transcription factors such as MafA and Pdx1 have been identified to lead to beta cell differentiation, while Arx and Brn4 to alpha cell differentiation in developing pancreas. We hypothesized those transcription factors are important to produce specific hormones in pNETs, similarly to developing pancreas, and examined the expression of transcription factors in a case of MEN1 who showed immunohistological coexistence of several hormone-producing pNETs including insulinoma. A 70-year-old woman was found to manifest hypoglycemia with non-suppressed insulinemia and hypercalcemia with elevated PTH level. She was diagnosed as MEN1 based on the manifestation of primary hyperparathyroidism, pituitary adenoma and insulinoma, with genetic variation of MEN1 gene. She had pylorus-preserving pancreaticoduodenectomy because CT scan and SACI test indicated that insulinoma was localized in the head of the pancreas. Histopathological finding was MEN1-associated NET, G1. Interestingly, immunohistological examination of the resected pancreas revealed that two insulinomas, a glucagon-positive NET and a multiple hormone-positive NET coexisted. Hence, we examined the expression of transcription factors immunohistochemically to elucidate the role of the transcription factors in MEN1-associated hormone-producing pNETs. We observed homogeneous expressions of MafA and Pdx1 in insulinomas and Arx in glucagon-positive NET, respectively. Moreover, multiple hormone-positive NETs expressed several transcription factors heterogeneously. Collectively, our results suggested that transcription factors could play important roles in the production of specific hormones in MEN1-associated pNETs, similar to islet differentiation.

Integrative computational analysis of transcriptional and epigenetic alterations implicates DTX1 as a putative tumor suppressor gene in HNSCC

Over a half million new cases of Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) are diagnosed annually worldwide, however, 5 year overall survival is only 50% for HNSCC patients. Recently, high throughput technologies have accelerated the genome-wide characterization of HNSCC. However, comprehensive pipelines with statistical algorithms that account for HNSCC biology and perform independent confirmatory and functional validation of candidates are needed to identify the most biologically relevant genes. We applied outlier statistics to high throughput gene expression data, and identified 76 top-scoring candidates with significant differential expression in tumors compared to normal tissues. We identified 15 epigenetically regulated candidates by focusing on a subset of the genes with a negative correlation between gene expression and promoter methylation. Differential expression and methylation of 3 selected candidates (BANK1, BIN2, and DTX1) were confirmed in an independent HNSCC cohorts from Johns Hopkins and TCGA (The Cancer Genome Atlas). We further performed functional evaluation of NOTCH regulator, DTX1, which was downregulated by promoter hypermethylation in tumors, and demonstrated that decreased expression of DTX1 in HNSCC tumors maybe associated with NOTCH pathway activation and increased migration potential.

Modeling coexistence of oscillation and Delta/Notch-mediated lateral inhibition in pancreas development and neurogenesis

During pancreas development, Neurog3 positive endocrine progenitors are specified by Delta/Notch (D/N) mediated lateral inhibition in the growing ducts. During neurogenesis, genes that determine the transition from the proneural state to neuronal or glial lineages are oscillating before their expression is sustained. Although the basic gene regulatory network is very similar, cycling gene expression in pancreatic development was not investigated yet, and previous simulations of lateral inhibition in pancreas development excluded by design the possibility of oscillations. To explore this possibility, we developed a dynamic model of a growing duct that results in an oscillatory phase before the determination of endocrine progenitors by lateral inhibition. The basic network (D/N + Hes1 + Neurog3) shows scattered, stable Neurog3 expression after displaying transient expression. Furthermore, we included the Hes1 negative feedback as previously discussed in neurogenesis and show the consequences for Neurog3 expression in pancreatic duct development. Interestingly, a weakened HES1 action on the Hes1 promoter allows the coexistence of stable patterning and oscillations. In conclusion, cycling gene expression and lateral inhibition are not mutually exclusive. In this way, we argue for a unified mode of D/N mediated lateral inhibition in neurogenic and pancreatic progenitor specification.

A distal intergenic region controls pancreatic endocrine differentiation by acting as a transcriptional enhancer and as a polycomb response element

Lineage-selective expression of developmental genes is dependent on the interplay between activating and repressive mechanisms. Gene activation is dependent on cell-specific transcription factors that recognize transcriptional enhancer sequences. Gene repression often depends on the recruitment of Polycomb group (PcG) proteins, although the sequences that underlie the recruitment of PcG proteins, also known as Polycomb response elements (PREs), remain poorly understood in vertebrates. While distal PREs have been identified in mammals, a role for positive-acting enhancers in PcG-mediated repression has not been described. Here we have used a highly efficient procedure based on lentiviral-mediated transgenesis to carry out in vivo fine-mapping of, cis-regulatory sequences that control lineage-specific activation of Neurog3, a master regulator of pancreatic endocrine differentiation. Our findings reveal an enhancer region that is sufficient to drive correct spacio-temporal expression of Neurog3 and demonstrate that this same region serves as a PRE in alternative lineages where Neurog3 is inactive.

Emerging roles of GLIS3 in neonatal diabetes, type 1 and type 2 diabetes

GLI-similar 3 (GLIS3), a member of the Krüppel-like zinc finger protein subfamily, is predominantly expressed in the pancreas, thyroid and kidney. Glis3 mRNA can be initially detected in mouse pancreas at embryonic day 11.5 and is largely restricted to β cells, pancreatic polypeptide-expressing cells, as well as ductal cells at later stage of pancreas development. Mutations in GLIS3 cause a neonatal diabetes syndrome, characterized by neonatal diabetes, congenital hypothyroidism and polycystic kidney. Importantly, genome-wide association studies showed that variations of GLIS3 are strongly associated with both type 1 diabetes (T1D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) in multiple populations. GLIS3 cooperates with pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 (PDX1), v-maf musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma oncogene family, protein A (MAFA), as well as neurogenic differentiation 1 (NEUROD1) and potently controls insulin gene transcription. GLIS3 also plays a role in β cell survival and likely in insulin secretion. Any perturbation of these functions may underlie all three forms of diabetes. GLIS3, synergistically with hepatocyte nuclear factor 6 (HNF6) and forkhead box A2 (FOXA2), controls fetal islet differentiation via transactivating neurogenin 3 (NGN3) and impairment of this function leads to neonatal diabetes. In addition, GLIS3 is also required for the compensatory β cell proliferation and mass expansion in response to insulin resistance, which if disrupted may predispose to T2D. The increasing understanding of the mechanisms of GLIS3 in β cell development, survival and function maintenance will provide new insights into disease pathogenesis and potential therapeutic target identification to combat diabetes.

The molecular and morphogenetic basis of pancreas organogenesis

The pancreas is an essential endoderm-derived organ that ensures nutrient metabolism via its endocrine and exocrine functions. Here we review the essential processes governing the embryonic and early postnatal development of the pancreas discussing both the mechanisms and molecules controlling progenitor specification, expansion and differentiation. We elaborate on how these processes are orchestrated in space and coordinated with morphogenesis. We draw mainly from experiments conducted in the mouse model but also from investigations in other model organisms, complementing a recent comprehensive review of human pancreas development (Jennings et al., 2015) [1]. The understanding of pancreas development in model organisms provides a framework to interpret how human mutations lead to neonatal diabetes and may contribute to other forms of diabetes and to guide the production of desired pancreatic cell types from pluripotent stem cells for therapeutic purposes.

PAX6 maintains β cell identity by repressing genes of alternative islet cell types

Type 2 diabetes is thought to involve a compromised β cell differentiation state, but the mechanisms underlying this dysfunction remain unclear. Here, we report a key role for the TF PAX6 in the maintenance of adult β cell identity and function. PAX6 was downregulated in β cells of diabetic db/db mice and in WT mice treated with an insulin receptor antagonist, revealing metabolic control of expression. Deletion of Pax6 in β cells of adult mice led to lethal hyperglycemia and ketosis that were attributed to loss of β cell function and expansion of α cells. Lineage-tracing, transcriptome, and chromatin analyses showed that PAX6 is a direct activator of β cell genes, thus maintaining mature β cell function and identity. In parallel, we found that PAX6 binds promoters and enhancers to repress alternative islet cell genes including ghrelin, glucagon, and somatostatin. Chromatin analysis and shRNA-mediated gene suppression experiments indicated a similar function of PAX6 in human β cells. We conclude that reduced expression of PAX6 in metabolically stressed β cells may contribute to β cell failure and α cell dysfunction in diabetes.

Neurogenin 3 is regulated by neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor type 2 (TRKB) signaling in the adult human exocrine pancreas

BACKGROUND

Reports of exocrine-to-endocrine reprogramming through expression or stabilization of the transcription factor neurogenin 3 (NGN3) have generated renewed interest in harnessing pancreatic plasticity for therapeutic applications. NGN3 is expressed by a population of endocrine progenitor cells that give rise exclusively to hormone-secreting cells within pancreatic islets and is necessary and sufficient for endocrine differentiation during development. In the adult human pancreas, NGN3 is expressed by dedifferentiating exocrine cells with a phenotype resembling endocrine progenitor cells and the capacity for endocrine differentiation in vitro. Neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor type 2 (TRKB), which regulates neuronal cell survival, differentiation and plasticity, was identified as highly overexpressed in the NGN3 positive cell transcriptome compared to NGN3 negative exocrine cells. This study was designed to determine if NGN3 is regulated by TRKB signaling in the adult human exocrine pancreas.

METHODS

Transcriptome analysis, quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RTPCR) and immunochemistry were used to identify TRKB isoform expression in primary cultures of human islet-depleted exocrine tissue and human cadaveric pancreas biopsies. The effects of pharmacological modulation of TRKB signaling on the expression of NGN3 were assessed by Student's t-test and ANOVA.

RESULTS

Approximately 30 % of cultured exocrine cells and 95 % of NGN3+ cells express TRKB on their cell surface. Transcriptome-based exon splicing analyses, isoform-specific quantitative RTPCR and immunochemical staining demonstrate that TRKB-T1, which lacks a tyrosine kinase domain, is the predominant isoform expressed in cultured exocrine tissue and is expressed in histologically normal cadaveric pancreas biopsies. Pharmacological inhibition of TRKB significantly decreased the percentage of NGN3+ cells, while a TRKB agonist significantly increased this percentage. Inhibition of protein kinase B (AKT) blocked the effect of the TRKB agonist, while inhibition of tyrosine kinase had no effect. Modulation of TRKB and AKT signaling did not significantly affect the level of NGN3 mRNA.

CONCLUSIONS

In the adult human exocrine pancreas, TRKB-T1 positively regulates NGN3 independent of effects on NGN3 transcription. Targeting mechanisms controlling the NGN3+ cell population size and endocrine cell fate commitment represent a potential new approach to understand pancreas pathobiology and means whereby cell populations could be expanded for therapeutic purposes.

Precommitment low-level Neurog3 expression defines a long-lived mitotic endocrine-biased progenitor pool that drives production of endocrine-committed cells

Bechard et al. show that a cell population defined as Neurog3 transcriptionally active and Sox9⁺ and often containing nonimmunodetectable Neurog3 protein has a relatively high mitotic index and prolonged epithelial residency. They propose that this endocrine-biased mitotic progenitor state is functionally separated from a pro-ductal pool and endows them with long-term capacity to make endocrine fate-directed progeny.

The current model for endocrine cell specification in the pancreas invokes high-level production of the transcription factor Neurogenin 3 (Neurog3) in Sox9⁺ bipotent epithelial cells as the trigger for endocrine commitment, cell cycle exit, and rapid delamination toward proto-islet clusters. This model posits a transient Neurog3 expression state and short epithelial residence period. We show, however, that a Neurog3^TA.LO cell population, defined as Neurog3 transcriptionally active and Sox9⁺ and often containing nonimmunodetectable Neurog3 protein, has a relatively high mitotic index and prolonged epithelial residency. We propose that this endocrine-biased mitotic progenitor state is functionally separated from a pro-ductal pool and endows them with long-term capacity to make endocrine fate-directed progeny. A novel BAC transgenic Neurog3 reporter detected two types of mitotic behavior in Sox9⁺Neurog3^TA.LO progenitors, associated with progenitor pool maintenance or derivation of endocrine-committed Neurog3^HI cells, respectively. Moreover, limiting Neurog3 expression dramatically increased the proportional representation of Sox9⁺Neurog3^TA.LO progenitors, with a doubling of its mitotic index relative to normal Neurog3 expression, suggesting that low Neurog3 expression is a defining feature of this cycling endocrine-biased state. We propose that Sox9⁺Neurog3^TA.LO endocrine-biased progenitors feed production of Neurog3^HI endocrine-committed cells during pancreas organogenesis.

Genome-edited human stem cell-derived beta cells: a powerful tool for drilling down on type 2 diabetes GWAS biology

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a disease of pandemic proportions, one defined by a complex aetiological mix of genetic, epigenetic, environmental, and lifestyle risk factors. Whilst the last decade of T2D genetic research has identified more than 100 loci showing strong statistical association with disease susceptibility, our inability to capitalise upon these signals reflects, in part, a lack of appropriate human cell models for study. This review discusses the impact of two complementary, state-of-the-art technologies on T2D genetic research: the generation of stem cell-derived, endocrine pancreas-lineage cells and the editing of their genomes. Such models facilitate investigation of diabetes-associated genomic perturbations in a physiologically representative cell context and allow the role of both developmental and adult islet dysfunction in T2D pathogenesis to be investigated. Accordingly, we interrogate the role that patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell models are playing in understanding cellular dysfunction in monogenic diabetes, and how site-specific nucleases such as the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 system are helping to confirm genes crucial to human endocrine pancreas development. We also highlight the novel biology gleaned in the absence of patient lines, including an ability to model the whole phenotypic spectrum of diabetes phenotypes occurring both in utero and in adult cells, interrogating the non-coding 'islet regulome' for disease-causing perturbations, and understanding the role of other islet cell types in aberrant glycaemia. This article aims to reinforce the importance of investigating T2D signals in cell models reflecting appropriate species, genomic context, developmental time point, and tissue type.

Stem Cells in the Intestine: Possible Roles in Pathogenesis of Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome is one of the most common functional gastrointestinal (GI) disorders that significantly impair quality of life in patients. Current available treatments are still not effective and the pathophysiology of this condition remains unclearly defined. Recently, research on intestinal stem cells has greatly advanced our understanding of various GI disorders. Alterations in conserved stem cell regulatory pathways such as Notch, Wnt, and bone morphogenic protein/TGF-β have been well documented in diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases and cancer. Interaction between intestinal stem cells and various signals from their environment is important for the control of stem cell self-renewal, regulation of number and function of specific intestinal cell types, and maintenance of the mucosal barrier. Besides their roles in stem cell regulation, these signals are also known to have potent effects on immune cells, enteric nervous system and secretory cells in the gut, and may be responsible for various aspects of pathogenesis of functional GI disorders, including visceral hypersensitivity, altered gut motility and low grade gut inflammation. In this article, we briefly summarize the components of these signaling pathways, how they can be modified by extrinsic factors and novel treatments, and provide evidenced support of their roles in the inflammation processes. Furthermore, we propose how changes in these signals may contribute to the symptom development and pathogenesis of irritable bowel syndrome.

Lineage Reprogramming: A Promising Road for Pancreatic β Cell Regeneration

Cell replacement therapy is a promising method to restore pancreatic β cell function and cure diabetes. Distantly related cells (fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and muscle cells) and developmentally related cells (hepatocytes, gastrointestinal, and pancreatic exocrine cells) have been successfully reprogrammed into β cells in vitro and in vivo. However, while some reprogrammed β cells bear similarities to bona fide β cells, others do not develop into fully functional β cells. Here we review various strategies currently used for β cell reprogramming, including ectopic expression of specific transcription factors associated with islet development, repression of maintenance factors of host cells, regulation of epigenetic modifications, and microenvironmental changes. Development of simple and efficient reprogramming methods is a key priority for developing fully functional β cells suitable for cell replacement therapy.

Endocrine Pancreas Development and Regeneration: Noncanonical Ideas From Neural Stem Cell Biology

Loss of insulin-producing pancreatic islet β-cells is a hallmark of type 1 diabetes. Several experimental paradigms demonstrate that these cells can, in principle, be regenerated from multiple endogenous sources using signaling pathways that are also used during pancreas development. A thorough understanding of these pathways will provide improved opportunities for therapeutic intervention. It is now appreciated that signaling pathways should not be seen as "on" or "off" but that the degree of activity may result in wildly different cellular outcomes. In addition to the degree of operation of a signaling pathway, noncanonical branches also play important roles. Thus, a pathway, once considered as "off" or "low" may actually be highly operational but may be using noncanonical branches. Such branches are only now revealing themselves as new tools to assay them are being generated. A formidable source of noncanonical signal transduction concepts is neural stem cells because these cells appear to have acquired unusual signaling interpretations to allow them to maintain their unique dual properties (self-renewal and multipotency). We discuss how such findings from the neural field can provide a blueprint for the identification of new molecular mechanisms regulating pancreatic biology, with a focus on Notch, Hes/Hey, and hedgehog pathways.

Feedback control of growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis of pancreatic endocrine progenitors in an epithelial plexus niche

In the mammalian pancreas, endocrine cells undergo lineage allocation upon emergence from a bipotent duct/endocrine progenitor pool, which resides in the "trunk epithelium." Major questions remain regarding how niche environments are organized within this epithelium to coordinate endocrine differentiation with programs of epithelial growth, maturation, and morphogenesis. We used EdU pulse-chase and tissue-reconstruction approaches to analyze how endocrine progenitors and their differentiating progeny are assembled within the trunk as it undergoes remodeling from an irregular plexus of tubules to form the eventual mature, branched ductal arbor. The bulk of endocrine progenitors is maintained in an epithelial "plexus state," which is a transient intermediate during epithelial maturation within which endocrine cell differentiation is continually robust and surprisingly long-lived. Within the plexus, local feedback effects derived from the differentiating and delaminating endocrine cells nonautonomously regulate the flux of endocrine cell birth as well as proliferative growth of the bipotent cell population using Notch-dependent and Notch-independent influences, respectively. These feedback effects in turn maintain the plexus state to ensure prolonged allocation of endocrine cells late into gestation. These findings begin to define a niche-like environment guiding the genesis of the endocrine pancreas and advance current models for how differentiation is coordinated with the growth and morphogenesis of the developing pancreatic epithelium.

Chronology of endocrine differentiation and beta-cell neogenesis

Diabetes is a chronic and incurable disease, which results from absolute or relative insulin insufficiency. Therefore, pancreatic beta cells, which are the only type of cell that expresses insulin, is considered to be a potential target for the cure of diabetes. Although the findings regarding beta-cell neogenesis during pancreas development have been exploited to induce insulin-producing cells from non-beta cells, there are still many hurdles towards generating fully functional beta cells that can produce high levels of insulin and respond to physiological signals. To overcome these problems, a solid understanding of pancreas development and beta-cell formation is required, and several mouse models have been developed to reveal the unique features of each endocrine cell type at distinct developmental time points. Here I review our understanding of pancreas development and endocrine differentiation focusing on recent progresses in improving temporal cell labeling in vivo.

Transcription factor regulation of pancreatic organogenesis, differentiation and maturation

Lineage tracing studies have revealed that transcription factors play a cardinal role in pancreatic development, differentiation and function. Three transitions define pancreatic organogenesis, differentiation and maturation. In the primary transition, when pancreatic organogenesis is initiated, there is active proliferation of pancreatic progenitor cells. During the secondary transition, defined by differentiation, there is growth, branching, differentiation and pancreatic cell lineage allocation. The tertiary transition is characterized by differentiated pancreatic cells that undergo further remodeling, including apoptosis, replication and neogenesis thereby establishing a mature organ. Transcription factors function at multiple levels and may regulate one another and auto-regulate. The interaction between extrinsic signals from non-pancreatic tissues and intrinsic transcription factors form a complex gene regulatory network ultimately culminating in the different cell lineages and tissue types in the developing pancreas. Mutations in these transcription factors clinically manifest as subtypes of diabetes mellitus. Current treatment for diabetes is not curative and thus, developmental biologists and stem cell researchers are utilizing knowledge of normal pancreatic development to explore novel therapeutic alternatives. This review summarizes current knowledge of transcription factors involved in pancreatic development and β-cell differentiation in rodents.

Notch Signaling in Pancreatic Development

The Notch signaling pathway plays a significant role in embryonic cell fate determination and adult tissue homeostasis. Various studies have demonstrated the deep involvement of Notch signaling in the development of the pancreas and the lateral inhibition of Notch signaling in pancreatic progenitor differentiation and maintenance. The targeted inactivation of the Notch pathway components promotes premature differentiation of the endocrine pancreas. However, there is still the contrary opinion that Notch signaling specifies the endocrine lineage. Here, we review the current knowledge of the Notch signaling pathway in pancreatic development and its crosstalk with the Wingless and INT-1 (Wnt) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) pathways.