Effects of vitamin E and selenium administration on transportation stress in pregnant dairy heifers

We investigated the effects of road transportation and administration of the vitamin E and selenium (ESe) on circulating cortisol, haptoglobin, blood metabolites, oxidative biomarkers, white blood cell profiles, and behaviors in pregnant dairy heifers. Forty pregnant Holstein heifers were randomly assigned to one of 4 treatments: no transportation and no ESe administration, no transportation and ESe administration, transportation and no administration, and transportation and ESe administration. The ESe (70 IU/kg dry matter feed of dl-α-tocopheryl acetate and 0.3 mg/kg dry matter feed of sodium selenite) was orally delivered once a day from 7 d before transportation to 3 d after transportation. The heifers were transported in trucks designed for cattle transportation. Blood was collected 1 h before transportation, immediately after transportation (IAT), and at 6, 24, and 48 h after transportation. Behaviors were recorded using a video camera for 2 consecutive days after transportation. Transported/non-ESe-administered heifers had greater cortisol at IAT, haptoglobin at 6 and 24 h after transportation, total oxidative status at 6 h after transportation, and nonesterified fatty acid levels, white blood cell numbers, and neutrophil percentages at IAT and 6 h after transportation in the blood than nontransported heifers. Transported/non-ESe-administered heifers had lower total antioxidative status levels at 48 h after transportation and lymphocyte percentages at IAT and 6 h after transportation than nontransported heifers. Lying time was shorter in transported heifers than nontransported/non-ESe-administered heifers. Transported/ESe-administered heifers had lower cortisol, total oxidative status, nonesterified fatty acid levels at IAT, and haptoglobin concentrations at 6 and 24 h after transportation than transported/non-ESe-administered heifers. Transported/ESe-administered heifers had greater total antioxidative status levels at 48 h after transportation than transported/non-ESe-administered heifers. No ESe administration effects were observed for white blood cell number and neutrophil and lymphocyte percentages and lying time. In conclusion, road transportation caused temporary oxidative stress. Administrating ESe partially alleviated the stress, suggesting that ESe administration could be a viable strategy to reduce stress in transported pregnant heifers, providing a novel role of vitamin E and selenium for improving animal welfare.

Effects of isoenergetic supplementation as water use mitigation strategy on water footprint and health of nursing bull calves

Sustainable livestock systems focus on mitigating natural resource use such as water. Dietary management strategies can significantly reduce the water footprint of livestock animals; however, animal health is of concern when animals reduce water intake due to subacute dehydration. To evaluate potential consequences of this nutritional management intervention, a total of 23, 60 ± 3 days old nursing Holstein bull calves, weighing 94.7 ± 12.07 kg, were distributed in a completely randomized design and received one of three diets. Control was a basal diet composed of a non-medicated milk replacer (milk replacer; n = 7), and the additional two diets, were composed of the same non-medicated milk replacer in addition to either lipid [n = 8; milk replacer + menhaden fish oil (3 %)] or soluble carbohydrate [n = 8; milk replacer + corn starch (7%) isoenergetic to fat group] supplements. Animals were offered ad libitum mineral mix and water, as well as 120 g/day of a composite mix of dried microbrewery's spent grains. Data were analyzed as linear and generalized linear mixed models with diet as a fixed effect and animal as random utilizing R studio (R Core Team, 2021, Vienna, Austria; SAS Inst., Cary, NC). Within supplementation groups, lipid supplemented calves had the highest lymphocyte (63.24 vs 57.69 counts/100 lymphocytes; P < 0.033), and lowest neutrophil counts (29.3 vs 35.3 counts/100 lymphocytes; P < 0.047). Supplementation significantly increased total serum protein (P = 0.001) and skin moisture (P < 0.011), with carbohydrate group having the highest skin moisture (5.30 vs 3.99; P < 0.047). Supplementation also decreased fecal fluidity scores (P < 0.001) with no significant change in serum electrolytes (P > 0.256). No significant differences were found amongst treatments for the ingestive behavior (P > 0.338). The carbohydrate-supplemented calves significantly decreased all daily water footprints compared to the control and fat-supplemented groups: blue a 47.55 L decrease, (P < 0.001), green a 265.62 L decrease (P = 0.005), and gray a 55.87 L decrease (P = 0.009) water footprint, as well as total water footprint (369.04 L, P = 0.004). Our results indicate the potential to maintain animal performance while increasing water use efficiency through diet supplementation tailored to mitigate water use, without adverse effects on animal health.

Current Knowledge on the Transportation by Road of Cattle, including Unweaned Calves

Transport conditions have the potential to alter the physiological responses of animals to the psychological or physical stress of transport. Transportation may introduce multiple physical and psychological stressors to unweaned calves and adult cattle, including noise, overcrowding, food and water deprivation, extreme temperatures, commingling with unfamiliar animals, handling by unfamiliar humans, and being placed in a novel environment upon arrival. Apart from these factors, the type of road and even driving skill may affect the welfare of animals. One of the concerns regarding cattle transport is that the handling and marketing of animals prior to a journey may lengthen the period of feed withdrawal. Furthermore, feed withdrawal can impact animal welfare through hunger and metabolic stress. Transportation is also associated with a decrease in animal performance as well as an increase in the incidence of bovine respiratory disease. It is well established that the transportation of cattle is a stressor that causes a quantifiable response; however, excessive stress during transport resulting in physiological or pathological changes can be reduced with best management practices. The objective of this review was to analyse the available scientific literature pertaining to the transport by road of cattle, including unweaned calves.

Dynamics of protozoal excretion in the faeces of calves during the first 28 days after arrival at the fattening farm indicate infection before regrouping and show poor temporal correlation with diarrhoea

BACKGROUND

Calves in dairy cattle production in Switzerland are transported to a fattening farm at the age of 3-5 weeks, and frequently suffer from diarrhoea within the first 14 days after arrival. To characterise the role of intestinal protozoa in this, we investigated the excretion dynamics of Eimeria, Cryptosporidium and Giardia during the first 28 days after the arrival and regrouping of calves at fattening farms.

METHODS

A total of 610 faecal samples from 122 calves (mean age 37.3 days; mean body weight 79.8 kg) were collected on seven different fattening farms during the first 28 days after the arrival and regrouping of the animals. The farms were visited between January and April (cold season; n = 4) and between June and August (warm season; n = 3). The samples were collected rectally on days 1, 4, 7, 14 and 28, assessed for consistency, and analysed using the McMaster method for quantitative determination of the number of Eimeria oocysts per gram of faeces (OPG), flotation for morphological differentiation of the unsporulated Eimeria oocysts, a concentration method for the semi-quantitative determination of Giardia cysts, and modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining for semi-quantitative determination of Cryptosporidium oocysts.

RESULTS

Overall, 50.8% (62/122) of the animals had diarrhoea during the study period. However, the faecal excretion of protozoal pathogens was neither associated with diarrhoea nor with body weight gain of the animals. Altogether, 90.2% (110/122) of the calves were Eimeria positive. Eimeria zuernii was excreted by 51 (41.8%) and Eimeria bovis by 68 (55.7%) animals. In the warm season more animals tested positive for Eimeria and OPGs were higher than in the cold season. There was no correlation between the age of the calves and the OPG values. Overall, 64.8% (79/122) of the calves excreted Eimeria oocysts within the first 7 days, indicating that they had been infected with the parasite on the dairy farm of origin. Eighty-nine calves (73.0%) excreted Giardia cysts, with more positive animals in the cold (80.3%) compared with the warm season (64.3%). Only Giardia duodenalis assemblage E was identified. Cryptosporidium oocysts were microscopically detected in 14 animals (11.5%) on five farms. Cryptosporidium spp. were present in a total of 12 animals, i.e. Cryptosporidium parvum in nine, Cryptosporidium ryanae in two, and Cryptosporidium bovis in one animal.

CONCLUSIONS

A better understanding of the temporal dynamics of protozoal infections in calves is helpful for the implementation of appropriate measures to protect the health of these animals at a critical phase in their lives. Our results indicate that factors other than those examined in the present study contributed to the onset of diarrhoea in the calves.

Non-Invasive Techniques Reveal Heifer Response to Fescue Endophyte Type in Grazing Studies

Cattle grazing tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceous) infected with wild-type endophytes (WE) leads to a syndrome commonly known as fescue toxicosis. Replacing WE tall fescue with a novel endophyte-infected (NE) tall fescue can mitigate this problem but adoption of this technology has been limited. This study measured and determined the physiological and behavioral responses of heifers that grazed either WE or NE tall fescue, utilizing relatively non-invasive techniques including hair cortisol, thermography (for extremity temperatures), small loggers for intravaginal temperature, and remote observation of in-field behavior. Heifers that grazed WE had greater (p < 0.0001) hair cortisol levels, lower extremity temperatures (p ≤ 0.0075), and 0.3-0.9 °C greater (p ≤ 0.02) intravaginal temperatures (particularly during the daytime) than heifers that grazed NE. From 1200 h-1700 h each day, heifers on WE pastures spent 1.5 more (p = 0.0003) hours standing up and 0.9 fewer (p = 0.0402) hours lying down than heifers on NE pastures. Differences (p = 0.0160) in ADG were small (0.1 kg d^-1) and were only observed in the first year of these 8-week studies. However, even in the mild environment of the study site, grazing NE tall fescue provided clear welfare benefits as evidenced by heifer behavioral changes, temperature differentials, and hair cortisol levels. This study underscores the potential utility of non-invasive techniques, such as thermographic imaging and hair cortisol analysis, for evaluating animal responses to stress in extensive grazing systems.

Non-Invasive Biomarkers in Saliva and Eye Infrared Thermography to Assess the Stress Response of Calves during Transport

Animal transport is currently a stressful procedure. Therefore, animal-based indicators are needed for reliable and non-invasive welfare assessment. Saliva is a biospecimen with potential validity for the determination of cortisol and oxidative stress, although its use to assess calf welfare during transport has never been tested. Similarly, the applicability and reliability of infrared thermography to assess temperature change during calves' transport have never been evaluated. These objectives were outlined following the known and growing need to identify non-invasive methodologies for stress assessment in bovines. This study was conducted on 20 calves of the Arouquesa autochthone breed, at about nine months of age, during their transport to slaughter. For each animal, saliva samples and thermographic images of the eye were collected at three time points: before transport, after transport, and at slaughter. The saliva was then processed to measure cortisol levels and oxidative stress parameters (reactive oxygen species, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance, carbonyls, and advanced oxidation protein products), and the images were analyzed using FLIR Tools+ software. There was an increase in cortisol concentration and oxidative stress parameters (reactive oxygen species, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance, carbonyls, and advanced oxidation protein products) in saliva after transport. An increase in eye temperature triggered by transport was also observed. The cortisol and eye temperature results at slaughter were returned to values similar to those before transport; however, the values of oxidative stress remained increased (mainly TBARS values). These non-invasive techniques seem to be reliable indicators of stress in bovine transport, and oxidative stress parameters in saliva may be a persistent marker for welfare assessment.

Evaluation of the Immune Response to Transport Stress in the Aosta Valley Breed

Transportation is a recurring event in a farm animal's life, and it is considered one of the main stressors with possible negative repercussions for both the health and welfare of farm animals. The objective of the present study was to examine the effect of transportation on some blood variables of 45 young bulls moved from their original farms to a livestock collection centre. Transportation took no more than 8 h and was carried out between January and March 2021. Blood samples were taken before transportation (T0), upon arrival at the collection centre (T1), and 7 days after arrival (T2). Samples were processed for blood cell count, clinical chemistry analyses, serum protein electrophoresis, and the evaluation of innate immunity parameters. The results showed a typical stress leukogram with neutrophilia and changes in the neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio. No significant alterations were observed in either serum proteins or pro-inflammatory cytokines. Significant, albeit transient, alterations were observed in some clinical chemistry parameters after transportation, which could be accounted for by stressful conditions such as the transportation itself and handling and mixing with other animals. Our results indicated that the adopted transportation conditions only slightly affected the blood variables under study with no significant impact on animal welfare.

A mapping review of refinements to laboratory rat housing and husbandry

Refining the housing and husbandry of laboratory rats is an important goal, both for ethical reasons and to allow better quality research. We conducted a mapping review of 1,017 studies investigating potential refinements of housing and husbandry of the laboratory rat to assess what refinements have, and have not, been studied, and to briefly assess whether there is evidence to support any impact on rat welfare. Among the many refinements studied, the majority involve changes to the cage, but some also involve alterations to the wider environment. The effects of these refinements were assessed using a range of readouts, many of which are difficult to interpret from a welfare perspective. Preference studies, which are easier to interpret, provide evidence that rats prefer complex environments, including shelters and multiple objects, which offer different areas/resources allowing the rat to engage in diverse behaviors. The reporting of methodology in papers was often poor, indicating that studies were potentially subject to biases. Given that many refinements co-occurred, it was often difficult to tease apart which ones were most beneficial for rat welfare. Effects of refinements were also moderated by a number of factors including age, sex, strain and photoperiod. Altogether our findings show that a one-size-fits-all approach to refinements is not appropriate, because different refinements will impact different rats in different ways. Our review has also produced a database of >1,000 articles that can be used for further and more detailed analyses. Our findings have also highlighted areas where future research is likely to be valuable, including refinements to rat transport, handling and the use of training.

Temperature Fluctuations Modulate Molecular Mechanisms in Skeletal Muscle and Influence Growth Potential in Beef Steers

Our investigation elucidated the effects of severe temperature fluctuations on cellular and physiological responses in beef cattle. Eighteen Red Angus beef steers with an average body weight of 351 ± 24.5 kg were divided into three treatment groups: 1) Control (CON), exposed to a temperature-humidity index (THI) of 42 for 6 h without any temperature changes; 2) Transport (TP), subjected to a one-mile trailer trip with a THI of 42 for 6 h; and 3) Temperature swing (TS), exposed to a one-mile trailer trip with a THI shift from 42 to 72-75 for 3 h. Our findings indicate that TS can induce thermal stress in cattle, regardless of whether the overall temperature level is excessively high or not. Behavioral indications of extreme heat stress in the cattle were observed, including extended tongue protrusion, reduced appetite, excessive salivation, and increased respiratory rate. Furthermore, we observed a pronounced overexpression (P < 0.05) of heat shock proteins (HSPs) 20, 27, and 90 in response to the TS treatment in the longissimus muscle (LM). Alterations in signaling pathways associated with skeletal muscle growth were noted, including the upregulation (P < 0.01) of Pax7, Myf5, and myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms. In addition, an increase (P < 0.05) in transcription factors associated with adipogenesis was detected (P < 0.05), such as PPARγ, C/EBPα, FAS, and SCD in the TS group, suggesting the potential for adipose tissue accumulation due to temperature fluctuations. Our data illustrated the potential impacts of these temperature fluctuations on the growth of skeletal muscle and adipose tissue in beef cattle.

Welfare of cattle during transport

In the framework of its Farm to Fork Strategy, the Commission is undertaking a comprehensive evaluation of the animal welfare legislation. The present Opinion deals with protection of cattle (including calves) during transport. Welfare of cattle during transport by road is the main focus, but other means of transport are also covered. Current practices related to transport of cattle during the different stages (preparation, loading/unloading, transit and journey breaks) are described. Overall, 11 welfare consequences were identified as being highly relevant for the welfare of cattle during transport based on severity, duration and frequency of occurrence: group stress, handling stress, heat stress, injuries, motion stress, prolonged hunger, prolonged thirst, respiratory disorders, restriction of movement, resting problems and sensory overstimulation. These welfare consequences and their animal-based measures are described. A variety of hazards, mainly relating to inexperienced/untrained handlers, inappropriate handling, structural deficiencies of vehicles and facilities, poor driving conditions, unfavourable microclimatic and environmental conditions, and poor husbandry practices leading to these welfare consequences were identified. The Opinion contains general and specific conclusions relating to the different stages of transport for cattle. Recommendations to prevent hazards and to correct or mitigate welfare consequences have been developed. Recommendations were also developed to define quantitative thresholds for microclimatic conditions within the means of transport and spatial thresholds (minimum space allowance). The development of welfare consequences over time was assessed in relation to maximum journey duration. The Opinion covers specific animal transport scenarios identified by the European Commission relating to transport of unweaned calves, cull cows, the export of cattle by livestock vessels, the export of cattle by road, roll-on-roll-off ferries and 'special health status animals', and lists welfare concerns associated with these.

Navel Healing and Calf Fitness for Transport

Simple Summary

In the dairy industry, for male calves, the costing and balancing of animal welfare and farmers’ interests when determining the optimum age for a calf to leave the farm of origin is a challenge. In the European Union, calves whose navel has not “completely healed” cannot be transported. This study aimed to clarify what is meant by “navel healing”, as no specific definition is provided by the law, giving raise to different interpretations. The navels of 299 dairy calves (55 males, 244 females) aged 0–90 days were examined and scored. Our results show that a completely dry and shriveled navel stump entails a high risk of transporting too young calves, whilst the presence of a scab covering the umbilical wound could be considered acceptable for short journeys, as the risk of transporting calves that are too young is low. “Navel healing” should be defined as the scarring of the umbilical wound, which occurs no earlier than 3–4 weeks of life. Transporting calves with a completely healed navel should be considered best practice because it ensures that calves that are too young are not transported and therefore guarantees higher animal welfare standards.

Abstract

Dairy male calves are at risk of welfare compromise as they are usually transported at a very young age. The European Union has set a “completely healed navel” requirement for calf transport; moreover, a minimum age is established for longer journeys. However, this requirement has proven to be prone to misinterpretation. This study aimed to clarify what is meant by “navel healing” and to provide strong elements for reaching a consensus. The navels of 299 dairy calves (55 males, 244 females) aged 0–90 days were examined and scored 1 to 5 according to their healing status. Based on our results, a completely dry and shriveled navel (score 3) would imply a 25.5–38.0% risk of transporting too young calves. Alternatively, the presence of a scab covering the umbilical wound (score 4) would entail a 4.3% risk of transporting calves less than 10 days old and could be considered good practice for transporting calves (except for journeys exceeding 8 h). Conversely, complete navel healing (score 5) guarantees that calves that are too young are not transported; therefore, it should be considered best practice for transporting calves in general and the minimum requirement for transporting calves for journeys exceeding 8 h.

A review of factors affecting the welfare of dairy calves in pasture-based production systems

Current research on factors affecting the welfare of dairy calves is predominantly based on indoor, year-round calving systems. Calf rearing in these systems differs from that in more seasonal, pasture-based dairy production, meaning that risks to the welfare of dairy calves may not always be comparable between the two systems. The aim of this review was to consolidate the scientific literature relating to calf welfare in pasture-based dairy systems from birth until weaning, allowing for (1) the identification of current and emerging risks to calf welfare and (2) the formation of recommendations to mitigate these risks. Many of the risks to calf welfare discussed in this review are not exclusive to pasture-based dairies. This includes a global trend for increasing perinatal mortalities, a significant number of calves failing to achieve effective passive transfer of immunity, the low uptake of best practice pain relief when calves are disbudded, and the feeding of restricted milk volumes. In addition to these persisting welfare risks, two factors discussed in this review pose an immediate threat to the social license of dairy farming; the separation of cow and calf soon after birth and the management of surplus calves (i.e. calves not needed by the dairy industry). Several recommendations are made to improve the uptake of best-practice calf rearing and progress the development of alternative pasture-based rearing systems that accommodate changing community expectations. These include communication strategies that strengthen farmer beliefs regarding the welfare and productivity benefits achieved by best practice calf rearing and challenge beliefs regarding the associated costs. Farmers should also be encouraged to benchmark their rearing practices through improved record keeping of key rearing inputs and outcomes. Biological research is needed to advise the development of new calf rearing recommendations and the evolution of existing recommendations. Research priorities identified by this review include the effects of dystocia on the neonate and strategies to mitigate these effects, relationships between features of pen design and calf health and welfare, feasibility of dam rearing in large pasture-based dairy systems, and strategies that increase the value of the surplus calf.

Caspase activity in post mortem muscle and its relation to cattle handling practices

BACKGROUND

Animal handling practices are one of the factors majorly affecting animal metabolism prior to slaughter. This phenomenon increases the occurrence of meat quality defects such as dark cutting-beef, causing high economical losses in the meat industry. Under this framework, the assessment of apoptosis onset in post mortem muscle was proposed as a novel approach to reveal biochemical characteristics in several Spanish bovine breeds (Asturiana de los Valles, Retinta and Rubia Gallega) managed under different production systems (intensive versus semi-extensive) and transport/lairage conditions (mixing versus not mixing with unfamiliar animals). To do so, the activities of initiator caspase 9 and executioner caspases 3/7 were determined in Longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle at three early post mortem times (2, 8, and 24 h).

RESULTS

Breed effect and transport/lairage conditions were the most relevant factors that influenced both caspase activities over post mortem time, showing Rubia Gallega breed a completely different behavior compared to Asturiana de los Valles and Retinta breeds. Moreover, it is postulated that apoptosis cascade is initiated via the activation of caspase 9 under hypoxic or metabolic stress followed by the activation of executioner caspases 3/7.

CONCLUSIONS

Assessment of apoptosis on post mortem muscle can be a novel approach to study the influence of animal handling on muscle metabolism and post mortem cell death and its consequences on meat quality traits. © 2021 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of stress after road transportation and oral administration of chromium and meloxicam on plasma cortisol concentrations and behavior in dairy calves

Objective

This study was performed to determine the effects of stress after road transportation and oral administration of chromium and meloxicam on growth performance, plasma cortisol, serum metabolites, and behavior in dairy calves.

Methods

A total of 50 Holstein heifers (average body weight [BW]: 172±4.19 kg; average age: 5.53±0.12 months) were randomly assigned to five groups including NL (not transported + D-lactose; 1 mg/kg BW), TL (transported + D-lactose; 1 mg/kg BW), TC (transported + chromium; 0.5 mg/kg dry matter [DM] feed), TM (transported + meloxicam; 1 mg/kg BW), and TMC (transported + combination of meloxicam and chromium; 1 mg/kg BW and 0.5 mg/kg DM, respectively). Doses of D-lactose monohydrate, meloxicam, and chromium were prepared for oral administration by suspension in 15 mL of water in a 20-mL dosing syringe. Blood was collected before transportation, immediately after 120 km of transportation (IAT), and at 6, 24, and 48 h after transportation.

Results

Neither transportation nor administration of meloxicam and/or chromium affected (p = 0.99) average daily gain and feed intake. Plasma cortisol concentrations in the NL group (average 0.13 and 0.18 nmol/L, respectively) were lower (p<0.001) compared to the TL group (average 0.39 and 0.61 nmol/L, respectively) at IAT and 48 h after transportation. At 48 h after transportation, cortisol concentrations were lower (p<0.05) in the TC group (average 0.22 nmol/L) than in the TL group (average 0.61 nmol/L), and TC calves had similar cortisol concentrations to NL calves. Lying duration (min/d) was shorter (p<0.05) in the TL group than in the NL group at 2 d after transportation. Lying duration was longer (p<0.05) for the TC and TMC groups than for the TL group at 2 d after transportation.

Conclusion

Transportation increased cortisol concentrations and affected lying behavior, while chromium administration reduced cortisol concentrations and changed lying behavior. Thus, chromium administration before transportation may be a viable strategy to alleviate stress elicited by road transportation.

Effects of Transportation Stress on Complete Blood Count, Blood Chemistry, and Cytokine Gene Expression in Heifers

Blood samples were obtained from 16 high-risk heifers; eight were newly arrived from a 40 h road trip (0 days post-arrival (DPA)), whereas the other eight heifers had been in the feedlot at 25 DPA. Both groups were transported from the southeast tropical region of Mexico to a feedlot in the northeast and were sampled on the same day. The complete blood count, blood chemistry, and cytokine gene expression were analyzed. Gene expression was analyzed using specific primers to amplify and quantify the cDNA reverse transcribed from the mRNA transcripts for tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-γ, and interleukin (IL)-2. Higher values for hematocrit (p = 0.029), hemoglobin (p = 0.002), eosinophils (0.029), albumin (p = 0.014), alanine aminotransferase (p = 0.004), bilirubin (p = 0.003), cholesterol (p = 0.014), and cortisol (p = 0.051) were observed in the 0 DPA group than the 25 DPA group. In the electrophoresis of TNF-α amplification products, two non-specific bands were observed in the 0 DPA group. These bands were sequenced, and BLAST analysis suggested that they corresponded to bovine lymphotoxin and have not been reported previously related to stress. The TNF-α expression level was higher (p = 0.001) in the 25 DPA group than the 0 DPA group according to the semi-quantitative expression analysis. This may indicate a persistent inflammatory process that could be related to trauma and disease, which can negatively impact their subsequent health and growth performance. In conclusion, homeostatic disruption was apparent in the 0 DPA heifers, which showed higher cortisol and reductions in TNF-α levels and stress-induced bovine lymphotoxin (SIBL) co-expression.

Quality of Death in Fighting Bulls during Bullfights: Neurobiology and Physiological Responses

During bullfights, bulls undergo physiometabolic responses such as glycolysis, anaerobic reactions, cellular oedema, splenic contraction, and hypovolemic shock. The objective of this review article is to present the current knowledge on the factors that cause stress in fighting bulls during bullfights, including their dying process, by discussing the neurobiology and their physiological responses. The literature shows that biochemical imbalances occur during bullfights, including hypercalcaemia, hypermagnesaemia, hyperphosphataemia, hyperlactataemia, and hyperglycaemia, associated with increased endogenous cortisol and catecholamine levels. Creatine kinase, citrate synthase, and lactate dehydrogenase levels also increase, coupled with decreases in pH, blood bicarbonate levels, excess base, partial oxygen pressure, and oxygen saturation. The intense exercise also causes a marked decrease of glycogen in type I and II muscle fibres that can produce myoglobinuria and muscular necrosis. Other observations suggest the presence of osteochondrosis. The existing information allows us to conclude that during bullfights, bulls face energy and metabolic demands due to the high intensity and duration of the exercise performed, together with muscular injuries, physiological changes, and high enzyme concentrations. In addition, the final stage of the bullfight causes a slow dying process for an animal that is sentient and conscious of its surroundings.

The effect of vitamin E treatment on selected immune and oxidative parameters in Kivircik ewes suffering from transport stress

The study aimed to investigate the effects of vitamin E injection for the prevention of transport stress on ewes. Kivircik ewes (2-3 years old, n = 24) were randomly separated into three groups; G1 (Control) and G2 treated with 14 ml. saline as the placebo, G3 treated with 2100 IU/ind. DL-alpha-tocopherol acetate prior to transport. G2 and G3 were transported at 80 km/h for 4 h on a truck. Serum samples were obtained before (T0) and after (T1) transport. Serum cortisol, catalase, IgG, ceruloplasmin, C-reactive protein, complement component 4, interleukin-1 beta, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase, malondialdehyde analyses performed by ELISA, and serum alpha-tocopherol concentrations were evaluated by HPLC-UV. Wilcoxon and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used for statistical assessments (p < 0.05). Alpha-tocopherol concentrations were founded 1.22 ± 0.82, 0.27 ± 0.14 and 0.14 ± 0.07 µmol/L, respectively, in G1, G2 and G3 at T1. Alpha-tocopherol concentration decreased significantly in G2 between T0 and T1. GPx concentrations were increased twofold in G2 and G3 between T0 and T1 (p < 0.01). As a result, G2 alpha-tocopherol concentrations decreased but, the stress and oxidative parameters tested in this study were not affected by treating 2100 IU/ind. DL-alpha-tocopherol acetate before transport.

Effects of pre-transport diet, transport duration and transport condition on immune cell subsets, haptoglobin, cortisol and bilirubin in young veal calves

The aim of this study was to investigate effects of pre-transport diets, transport durations and transport conditions on immune cell subsets, haptoglobin, cortisol and bilirubin of young calves upon arrival at the veal farm. An experiment was conducted with a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with 3 factors: 1) provision of rearing milk or electrolytes at the collection center (CC); 2) transport duration (6 or 18 hours) and 3) transport condition (open truck or conditioned truck). Holstein-Friesian and cross-bred calves were used (N = 368; 18 ± 4 days; 45.3 ± 3.3 kg). Blood samples were collected from calves (N = 128) at the collection center, immediately post-transport (T0) and 4, 24, 48 hours, week 1, 3 and 5 post-transport. Blood was analyzed for cortisol, bilirubin, haptoglobin, IgG and IgM. Moreover, cell counts of neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils and eosinophils were measured in blood samples taken at the collection center and T0. In these same blood samples, different lymphocyte populations were characterized by flow cytometry, including CD14+ cells, NK cells, δγ+ T cells, CD8+ cells, CD4+ cells and CD21+ cells. Calves transported in the conditioned truck had higher amounts of white blood cell count (WBC) (Δ = 1.39 × 10⁹/l; P = 0.01), monocytes (Δ = 0.21 × 10⁹/l; P = 0.04), neutrophils (Δ = 0.93 × 10⁹/l; P = 0.003), than calves transported in the open truck regardless, of pre-transport diet or transport duration. The study showed that transport condition and duration influenced parts of the innate immune system of young veal calves. Cortisol, bilirubin and WBC seemed to be connected by similar underlying mechanisms in relation to transport conditions. However, it is unclear which specific pathways in the immune system of young calves are affected by different transport conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity, draught).

Measurement of the three-axis vibration, temperature, and relative humidity profiles of commercial transport trailers for pigs

The objective of this study was to collect and interpret three-axis acceleration, temperature, and relative humidity data from six locations within commercial transport trailers shipping market-weight pigs. Transport was observed in Kansas (n = 15) and North Carolina (n = 20). Prior to loading, three-axis accelerometers were affixed to six locations on the trailers: top fore (TF), top center (TC), top aft (TA), bottom fore (BF), bottom center (BC), and bottom aft (BA) compartments. Data were post-processed to calculate root-mean-square (RMS) accelerations and vibration dose values (VDV) in the vertical direction and the horizontal plane. These values were compared with exposure action values (EAV) and exposure limit values (ELV), vibration levels deemed uncomfortable and potentially dangerous to humans. Additionally, RMS and VDV were compared among the trailer compartments. The vertical RMS accelerations for all compartments exceeded the EAV for loads measured in Kansas, and for the majority of the compartments measured in North Carolina. Many compartments, specifically the BA compartment from all trips, exceeded the vertical ELV. Regardless of where the data were collected, fewer compartments exceeded the EAV in the horizontal orientation. Only BA compartments exceeded the ELV in the horizontal orientation. There were Area × Level interactions for vertical and horizontal RMS and VDV (P < 0.01). The BF compartment had a greater vertical RMS value than the TF, TC, and BC (P < 0.02) compartments, but did not differ (P = 0.06) from the TA compartment. The vertical RMS of the TA compartment did not differ from the TF, TC, and BC compartments (P > 0.13). The BF compartment had a greater (P = 0.02) vertical VDV value than the TC location, but did not differ from the other locations (P > 0.16). All other locations did not differ in vertical VDV (P > 0.12). The BF compartment had greater horizontal RMS than the TC and TA compartments (P < 0.01), but did not differ from TF and BC compartments (P > 0.12). All other compartments did not differ in horizontal RMS (P > 0.34). All compartments, aside from the BA compartment, did not differ in horizontal VDV (P > 0.19). Vibration analyses indicated the BA compartment had the greatest vertical and horizontal vibrations and a large percentage of the compartments exceed the EAV and ELV, which indicated pigs may have experienced uncomfortable trips that could cause discomfort or fatigue.

Oxytocin alters leukogram composition in Bos indicus cattle exposed to short-duration transportation

Context Transportation, a common practice in cattle production, activates the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, ultimately increasing glucocorticoids and altering the cellular immune system in cattle. Oxytocin attenuates the HPA axis in mammals. Intra-nasal oxytocin supplementation has been investigated in human and rodent models, revealing anxiolytic effects. The aim of this study was to assess the ability of exogenous oxytocin to mitigate stress and inflammatory responses in transported cattle. Aims We hypothesised that Bos indicus cattle treated with intra-nasal oxytocin would demonstrate more stable cortisol and inflammatory responses when subjected to handling and 6 h of road transportation compared with cattle treated with intra-nasal saline. Methods Thirty, Bos indicus steers were allocated to one of three treatments: (1) intra-nasal sterile saline and held in the yard for 6 h (S-NT; n = 10), (2) intra-nasal sterile saline and transported for 6 h (S-T; n = 10), and (3) intra-nasal oxytocin (0.3 IU/kg bodyweight) and transported for 6 h (OXT-T; n = 10). Blood was collected at 0, 6, 48, and 72 h and analysed for haematological parameters, cortisol, glucose and lactate. Key results A treatment × time effect (P &lt; 0.05) was detected for lymphocytes and basophils, such that oxytocin helped maintain baseline counts. A treatment × time effect was detected for neutrophils and eosinophils such that counts were greater and lesser, respectively, directly following transport (P &lt; 0.01) for transported treatments. Total leukocyte counts were not different between treatments (P = 0.96). No differences were observed between treatments or over time for plasma cortisol concentration (P = 0.46). A treatment × time interaction (P &lt; 0.03) was detected for bodyweight such that transportation, independent of intra-nasal treatment, resulted in increased weight loss compared with the non-transported treatment. Conclusion Oxytocin altered circulating basophils in Bos indicus cattle exposed to short-duration transport. Although no effect on the HPA axis was detected via changes in cortisol concentration, road transport induced some signs of an acute inflammatory response directly following transportation. Implications Providing exogenous oxytocin improved the maintenance and recovery of some cellular immune system parameters in Bos indicus steers subject to short duration transport and more research is needed to explicate a more comprehensive understanding of such effects.

Short communication: Associations of serum biomarkers of stress and inflammation measured at arrival with health, mortality, and growth of calves transported within the first 4 days of life

The objective of this study was to assess the association between serum concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp), cortisol, and l-lactate following transport of dairy heifer calves within their first week of life with health, mortality, and growth during the preweaning period. Blood samples were collected at arrival and included a cohort of 168 Jersey and Jersey-cross calves from 8 different sources located in Minnesota. All calves were raised at a single facility in New Mexico. Incidence of respiratory disease (BRD) and mortality during the preweaning period (60 d of life) were extracted from the farm's software database. Individual body weight was measured at birth and at weaning to estimate average daily gain. No simple linear correlations were found between the biomarkers. The incidence of BRD during the preweaning period was 7.7%. While cortisol and l-lactate serum concentrations were not associated with BRD, Hp was negatively associated with BRD. Receiving operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to determine the optimal threshold value for Hp [threshold ≤0.63 μmol/L (63 μg/mL), area under the curve = 0.65]. A Cox's proportional hazards model revealed that calves with Hp concentration ≤0.63 μmol/L were more likely to be diagnosed with BRD (hazard ratio = 5.0, 95% confidence interval = 1.3-19.0). A mixed linear model showed that calves with Hp concentration ≤0.63 μmol/L tended to have lower average daily gain (454.4 vs. 479.9 g/d) during the preweaning period than calves with Hp >0.63 μmol/L at arrival. Overall mortality of the cohort was 3.5%, and Hp was not associated with mortality. Although circulating concentrations of l-lactate and cortisol measured at arrival were not associated with BRD incidence during the preweaning period of heifer calves transported within the first 4 d of life, calves with serum Hp concentration >0.63 μmol/L were less likely to be diagnosed with BRD and tended to grow more than calves with Hp ≤0.63 μmol/L. Further research is needed to replicate these results in a larger cohort and to better understand the possible influence of greater inflammatory status at arrival on health and growth of calves transported to a calf-raising facility.

Effects of long-distance transportation on blood constituents and composition of the nasal microbiota in healthy donkeys

BACKGROUND

This study aims to determine the effects of transportation on the nasal microbiota of healthy donkeys using 16S rRNA sequencing.

RESULTS

Deep nasal swabs and blood were sampled from 14 donkeys before and after 21 hours' long-distance transportation. The values of the plasma hormone (cortisol (Cor), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)), biochemical indicators (total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), creatinine (CREA), lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), aspartate transaminase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), blood urea (UREA), plasma glucose (GLU)) and blood routine indices (white blood cell (WBC), lymphocyte (LYM), neutrophil (NEU), red blood cell (RBC), hemoglobin (HGB)) were measured. 16S rRNA sequencing was used to assess the nasal microbiota, including alpha diversity, beta diversity, and phylogenetic structures. Results showed that levels of Cor, ACTH, and heat-shock protein 90 (HSP90) were significantly increased (p < 0.05) after long-distance transportation. Several biochemical indicators (AST, CK) and blood routine indices (Neu, RBC, and HGB) increased markedly (p < 0.05), but the LYM decreased significantly (p < 0.05). Nine families and eight genera had a mean relative abundance over 1%. The predominant phyla in nasal microbiota after and before transportation were Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes. Transportation stress induced significant changes in terms of nasal microbiota structure compared with those before transportation based on principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) coupled with analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) (p < 0.05). Among these changes, a notably gain in Proteobacteria and loss in Firmicutes at the phylum level was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest transportation can cause stress to donkeys and change the richness and diversity of nasal microbiota. Further studies are required to understand the potential effect of these microbiota changes on the development of donkey respiratory diseases.

Effect of information on geographical origin, duration of transport and welfare condition on consumer's acceptance of lamb meat

Animal production system and welfare conditions can influence consumers’ acceptance, as meat from animals grazing in natural pasture and labelled with information about high standards of welfare is preferred. In addition, geographical origin of food is recently considered one of the main information influencing the consumers’ acceptance. Local products are collectively associated with high quality attributes by the consumers related to shorter transport and good welfare. Lamb meat is considered local and typical food; however, it is common to find in the same market both local and imported lamb meat. The present investigation aimed at understanding the importance of information about geographical origin, transport duration, and welfare condition of lambs for consumers and their actual liking. Moreover, the quality of lamb meat from local and imported animals as affected by short or long transport was assessed. Data demonstrated that both short and long transport did not affect organoleptic quality of meat; this result was corroborated by an absence of both metabolic and immune stressors in long term transport lambs except for haptoglobin, cortisol and glucose. However, the expected and actual acceptability were affected by the information with higher scores for local lamb when information on the geographical origin, transport duration, and welfare condition was provided to the consumers.

Animal welfare in the U.S. slaughter industry-a focus on fed cattle

Animal welfare within the U.S. slaughter industry continues to prevail as one of the top priorities for livestock producers, businesses, and consumers alike. There are federal regulations that enforce the humane transport, handling, and slaughter of cattle. The journey that cattle must make to the slaughter facility is comprised of many environmental and human factors that can positively or negatively affect animal welfare. Cattle may be exposed to multiple stressors, such as noise, unfamiliar animals and humans, temperature extremes, temporary food/water deprivation, variable transport distances and experiences, and new pen conditions. The animal caretakers involved in these processes attempt to minimize stress and discomfort for the animals, but research is needed to focus on the gaps in knowledge and to support the implementation of strategies known to enhance the human-animal interactions that occur from farm to slaughter. This literature review will provide a summary of fed cattle welfare topics, research, and industry tools that span across the beef animal's journey from the farm/feedlot through the slaughter process. In addition, areas that have had little research focus are identified to highlight the need for future work and development of industry tools. Some of these topics include examining trailer design, the use of trailer slats during weather extremes, the welfare aspects of cattle destined for salvage slaughter, multiple preslaughter factors and interactions, abnormal mobility and nonambulatory cattle, lairage environmental conditions, new stunning methods, and the impact of a well-trained, motivated, and stable workforce on cattle and people welfare. The authors conducted a survey at the 2019 North American Meat Institute Animal Care and Handling Conference, which comprised of stakeholders within the meat packing industry, packing plant employees, and food company employees, educators, and auditors. The survey responses identified training/education and communication as areas of need in animal welfare, whereas the majority of survey responses focused on the aspects of the human-animal interaction as the top challenges for the industry. By continuously identifying, measuring, monitoring, and managing animal welfare challenges within the beef cattle slaughter industry, prioritization and execution of programs and training that improve the welfare of cattle can be achieved as animals move through this final stage of the meat production system.

Level and source of fat in the diet of gestating beef cows: II. Effects on the postpartum performance of the dam and the progeny

A study was conducted to evaluate the effects of level and source of fat in the diet of gestating beef cows on the postpartum performance of the dam and the progeny. Each year, 75 mature pregnant (183±4.8 d until calving) Angus cows with similar BW (663±21.5 kg) and BCS (2.6±0.12; 1 to 5 scale) were randomly assigned to one of 15 outdoor pens. Each pen was assigned to one of three iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous treatments: a low-fat diet (LF; 1.4±0.12% EE), and two high-fat diets (HF; 3.3±0.20% EE) including a canola seed (CAN) or a flaxseed (FLX) based pelleted feed. Diets were formulated to meet the requirements of pregnant beef cows and fed until calving. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design with contrasts for the effects of level (LF vs. HF) and source (CAN vs. FLX) of fat. No differences (P≥0.21) were found for BW or calving to weaning ADG of cows. The average BCS during the first 42 d of lactation was greater (P<0.01) for LF compared to HF (2.63 vs. 2.51) with no difference (P=0.35) for CAN vs. FLX cows. Subcutaneous fat thickness over the ribs was greater (P≤0.01) for LF compared to that of HF cows at calving (5.7 vs. 4.3 mm) and at weaning (4.3 vs. 3.7 mm) with no difference (P≥0.11) for CAN vs. FLX cows. Over the first 42 d of lactation, no difference (P≥0.23) was observed for 12-h milk yield. Milk protein concentration was greater (P=0.03) for CAN compared to FLX (3.11 vs. 3.01%) cows while no difference (P≥0.28) was observed for any other milk component. Milk fat from FLX cows had greater (P < 0.01) CLA and CLnA concentrations than that of CAN cows during the first 42 d of lactation. Pregnancy rate of HF cows tended (P=0.07) to be greater than that of LF cows with no difference (P=0.77) for CAN vs. FLX cows. Calves from HF cows were heavier (P≤0.01) at birth (42.9 vs. 40.2 kg) than those from LF cows. From calving to weaning, ADG of calves born to CAN cows was greater (P=0.03) that that of calves born to FLX cows (1.19 vs. 1.13 kg/d) with no difference (P=0.18) for calves born to LF vs. HF cows. At slaughter, progeny of HF cows had greater (P≤0.03) shrunk BW (605 vs. 579 kg) and HCW (355 vs. 339 kg) compared to those from LF cows with no difference (P≥0.16) for progeny of CAN vs. FLX cows. These results show that feeding a HF diet over gestation results in heavier calves at birth and at slaughter, and superior calf gains from birth to slaughter as well as heavier carcasses, possibly due to a developmental programming effect.

Effects of transportation on cattle health and production: a review

The goal of this review is to present a concise and critical assessment of the literature related to physiologic responses in cattle that are subjected to transportation. Over two-thirds of US cattle are transported. Understanding trends in circulating physiologic parameters is an important part of mitigating the negative effects of transportation. For the producer, linking these effects after transportation to morbidity outcomes within the first 45 days on feed (i.e. especially development of bovine respiratory disease) is critical. Physiologic parameters in circulation are of primary importance and may have value for prediction of bovine respiratory disease on arrival and for the understanding of disease pathogenesis. The results of our literature survey indicated that post-transportation immune function, increased acute phase proteins, glucocorticoids, and inflammation are a pivotal starting point for understanding disease. These potential biomarkers may have utility in identifying disease for targeted therapeutics so that traditional protocols that rely heavily on metaphylaxis can be avoided. Additional research is needed to develop strategies for physiological marker identification, treatment methods, or predictive behaviors to prevent respiratory disease before and after transport. This review examines the significant deleterious effects of transportation handling and stress, and current immune system translation and non-antimicrobial mitigation strategies.

Risk factors associated with beef cattle losses on intensive fattening farms in Austria, Germany and Italy

The aim of this study was to investigate management and feeding practices associated with on-farm loss rate (mortality) on 63 beef cattle farms in Austria, Germany and Italy with housing systems other than fully slatted pens. Information on mortality and 56 categorised factors relating to the cleanliness of animal facilities, health and feeding management, animal-human interaction, cattle transport and origin were gathered during on-farm visits. Samples of total mixed rations (TMRs) were collected and analysed for chemical composition and particle size distribution. Twenty-eight categorised factors were removed from the initial 56 due to exclusion criteria (missing data≥20% and/or monolevel factors with≥80% answers in one category). Mortality was the response variable in the risk factor analysis and the remaining 10 continuous covariates from TMR analyses and 28 categorised factors were independent predictors. Mean (±standard deviation) mortality, representing the proportion of dead, euthanased and early culled animals over the total number of animals bought in or reared in the previous year, was 2.8±3.5%. Fourteen factors were significantly associated with mortality in the bivariable analyses; seven factors were not considered further in the multivariable analysis due to collinearity. None of the factors related to TMR were associated with mortality. Four categorical factors, referring to biosecurity measures and management, were retained in the final multivariable model, with country effect. Buying cattle from only one farm, no mixing of animals during transport, presence of a dedicated sick pen and keeping production records were associated with lower percentage mortality.

Assessment of transport stress on cattle travelling a long distance (≈648 km), from Jessore (Indian border) to Chittagong, Bangladesh

The effect of long-distance transport on cattle health has not frequently been studied in Bangladesh. The current study investigated the health conditions, and the extent and pattern of cattle injuries, along with haemato-biochemical and hormonal changes, before and after long-distance transportation (≈648 km) from the market of origin to the market of destination. A total of 100 adult cattle were selected at the Benapole live cattle market, Bangladesh, for physical examination before and after transportation. Fifty of these cattle were randomly selected for additional haemato-biochemical evaluation just before the start of transportation (0 hour), immediately after arrival at the destination market (13.8±0.9 hours after the start of transportation) and 24 hours after arrival at the destination market. The external health conditions and injuries were assessed. Animals were fasting in the vehicle during transportation and provided only with paddy straw and water before sale at the destination market. Before and after transportation, the overall frequency of cattle injuries varied significantly (26 per cent before v 47 per cent after transportation; P<0.001). Cattle health conditions diverged significantly (such as nasal discharge: 15 per cent v 28 per cent; P=0.03). The values of haemoglobin (P=0.01), total erythrocyte count (P=0.001), total leucocyte count (P<0.001), lymphocyte (P=0.005), neutrophil (P=0.01) and eosinophil (P=0.01) varied significantly. The values of serum total protein (P=0.006), creatine kinase (P<0.001), triglyceride (P=0.04), calcium (P=0.003), phosphorus (P<0.001) and alkaline phosphatase (P=0.04) significantly differed. The overall findings indicate a high degree of transport stress and poor animal welfare.

Evaluating Potential Biomarkers of Health and Performance in Veal Calves

Veal calves undergo many challenges in the early stages of their life. Such challenges, including mixing procedures and transportation of calves to the veal farm, may have a negative influence on growth rate, feed intake, metabolism, immunity and disease susceptibility of calves. As a consequence, many hematological, physiological, metabolic and immunological parameters of stressed calves might be altered on arrival at the veal farm. Some of these response variables might be useful as biomarkers of performance of calves at the veal farm as they might provide information about an ongoing disease process, or may predict future diseases. Biomarkers might be helpful to group and manage calves in different risk categories after arrival. By adopting treatment decisions and protocols on a risk-group or individual basis, it would be possible to improve animal health and reduce both disease incidence and antibiotic use. Moreover, the use of biomarkers might be an economically feasible approach as some of them do not need invasive techniques and others can be measured in blood already taken during routine checks. Previous literature mainly assessed the physiological responses of calves to transportation. However, information on the link between on-farm arrival data and future health and performance of veal calves is limited. This review, therefore, examined a wide range of papers and aimed to identify potential biomarkers of future health and performance.

Rapid Dwarfing of an Insular Mammal - The Feral Cattle of Amsterdam Island

The island rule describes a graded trend in insular populations of vertebrates from gigantism in small species to dwarfism in large species. The dwarfing of large mammals on islands has been observed both in the present fauna and in the fossil record. Elephants, hippopotami, deer, and other species became dwarfed on islands scattered all over the world, from the Mediterranean Sea to Indonesia, from the Eastern to Western Pacific Ocean, from the Caribbean to Canary Islands. The most rapid and well documented cases of island dwarfing known thus far took place over thousands of years. Here, we describe a rapid example of dwarfing of a large mammal - the feral cattle of Amsterdam Island, southern Indian Ocean, which dwarfed to about three quarters of its body size in slightly more than one century. This population provides us with a rare opportunity to assess the rapidity of demographic, life history, and morphological responses of large mammals to a very isolated and ecologically simple, insular environment.

Invited review: Relationship between cattle transport, immunity and respiratory disease

The association between transportation and the occurrence of the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC) has long been recognised. Many hypotheses regarding this association have been declared through the past decades, and it is agreed upon by most researchers that the multiple stressors that calves experience during transportation result in an overall immunosuppression that allows the respiratory tract to be invaded by numerous opportunistic pathogens. Furthermore, the innate immune cells, neutrophils, may be trapped in a paradox whereby their crucial defence and pathogen-killing activities are counteracted by excessive inflammation and tissue damage that may exacerbate disease, including the BRDC. Neutrophilia in response to glucocorticoids has been attributed to an influx of immature neutrophils newly released from the bone marrow, a decrease in neutrophil margination along endothelial walls, and a decrease in neutrophil apoptosis. Several of these explanations have been confirmed by altered expression of genes and proteins important for neutrophil margination and apoptosis.

Farm to abattoir conditions, animal factors and their subsequent effects on cattle behavioural responses and beef quality - A review

The current review seeks to highlight the concerns that have been raised on pre-slaughter stress, contributing factors and its consequent effects on cattle behavioural responses and the quality of beef; inter-linking the activities involved from birth to slaughter. Such information is crucial in light of the consumer concerns on overall animal welfare, quality of meat and food security. Slaughter animals are exposed to different conditions during production and transportation to abattoirs on a daily basis. However; the majority of studies that have been done previously singled out different environments in the meat production chain, while conclusions have been made that the welfare of slaughter animals and the quality of meat harvested from them is dependent on the whole chain. Behaviour is a critical component used to evaluate the animals' wellbeing and it has been reported to have an effect on product quality. Apart from the influence of on-farm, transportation and abattoir conditions, the genetic background of the animal also affects how it perceives and responds to certain encounters. Stress activates the animals' hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity, triggering release of various stress hormones such as catecholamines and cortisol, thus glycogen depletion prior slaughter, elevated ultimate pH and poor muscle-meat conversion. Pre-slaughter stress sometimes results to cattle attaining bruises, resulting to the affected parts of the carcass being trimmed and condemned for human consumption, downgrading of the carcass and thus profit losses.

National Beef Quality Audit-2016: Transportation, mobility, and harvest-floor assessments of targeted characteristics that affect quality and value of cattle, carcasses, and by-products

The National Beef Quality Audit-2016 (NBQA-2016) was conducted to assess current transportation, mobility, and quality characteristics of U.S. fed steers and heifers. Data were collected at 17 beef processing facilities between March and November 2016. About 8,000 live cattle were evaluated for transportation and mobility, and about 25,000 carcasses were evaluated on the slaughter floor. Cattle were in transit to the slaughter facility for a mean duration of 2.7 h from a mean distance of 218.5 km using trailers with dimensions ranging from 17.84 m² to 59.09 m². Area allotted per animal averaged 1.13 m² and ranged from 0.85 m² to 2.28 m². A total of 96.8% of cattle received a mobility score of 1 (walks easily, no apparent lameness). Identification types (35.1% had multiple) were lot visual tags (61.5%), individual tags (55.0%), electronic tags (16.9%), metal-clip tags (9.2%), bar-coded tags (0.05%), wattles (0.01%), and other (2.6%). Cattle were black-hided (57.8%), Holstein (20.4%), red-hided (10.5%), yellow-hided (4.8%), gray-hided (2.9%), brown-hided (1.3%), and white-hided (1.1%). Unbranded hides were observed on 74.3% of cattle; 18.6% had brands located on the butt, 6.3% on the side, and 1.3% on the shoulder (values exceed 100% due to multiple brands). For hide-on carcasses, 37.7% displayed no mud or manure; specific locations for mud or manure were legs (40.8%), belly (33.0%), tail region (15.5%), side (6.8%), and top-line (3.9%). Cattle without horns represented 83.3% of the sample, and cattle that did have horns measured: < 2.54 cm (5.5%), 2.54 to 12.7 cm (8.3%), and > 12.7 cm (2.9%). Carcasses without bruises represented 61.1% of those sampled, whereas 28.2% had 1, 8.2% had 2, 2.1% had 3, and 0.3% had 4 bruises. Of those carcasses with a bruise, the bruise was located on the loin (29.7%), round (27.8%), chuck (16.4%), rib (14.4%), and brisket/plate/flank (11.6%). Frequencies of offal condemnations were livers (30.8%), lungs (18.2%), viscera (16.3%), hearts (11.1%), heads (2.7%), and tongues (2.0%). Compared to NBQA-2011, fewer cattle were identified for traceability, fewer were black-hided, a greater number were Holstein cattle, more with no brand and no horns, fewer without bruises, more liver, lung, and viscera condemnations, and fewer heads and tongues were condemned. The NBQA remains an influential survey for the U.S. beef industry to provide benchmarks and strategic plans for continued improvement of beef quality and consistency.

Pre-transport factors affecting the welfare of cattle during road transport for slaughter – a review

In terms of animal welfare, transportper seis very important in the course of the transportation process and transport duration is considered as one of the determining factors, however, the phase that precedes the actual transport is also of great importance (and often even more important) as to stress induction. This pre-transport phase includes many aspects, such as on-farm handling, rearing conditions, assembly of animals, classifying, weighing, repenning in a new environment, re-grouping, mixing with unfamiliar animals, and handling at loading, which is regarded as the most significant factor affecting animal welfare. Therefore, the present work focuses on the factors that play a role during this phase. Those factors are naturally interconnected and their adverse consecutive effects on animal welfare can hardly be separated.

Effects of travel distance and season of the year on transport-related mortality in cattle

The number of animals that die during transport to a slaughterhouse or shortly after being delivered to a slaughterhouse may serve as an indicator of animal welfare during transport. The aim of this study was to determine the mortality rate in cattle resulting from transport to slaughter in the Czech Republic in the period from 2009 to 2014, and to investigate the effect of travel distance and season of the year. Transport-related mortality rates were recorded for all categories of cattle for the following travel distances: up to 50 km, 51-100 km, 101-200 km and over 200 km. Higher mortality rates occurred with shorter travel distances (<50 km and 51-100 km) when compared to longer travel distances (101-200 km and > 200 km), with a significant difference (P < 0.01) between short and long travel distances being found in feeders and dairy cows. Also, the season of the year had a significant impact on the mortality rate among transported cattle. The highest mortality rate in all categories was observed in spring months. The lowest mortality rate was found in autumn months for fat cattle and dairy cows and in winter months for feeders and calves.

Association of Temperament and Acute Stress Responsiveness with Productivity, Feed Efficiency, and Methane Emissions in Beef Cattle: An Observational Study

The aim of this study was to assess individual differences in temperament and stress response and quantify their impact on feed efficiency, performance, and methane (CH₄) emissions in beef cattle. Eighty-four steers (castrated males) (Charolais or Luing) were used. Temperament was assessed using two standardized tests: restlessness when restrained [crush score (CS)] and flight speed (FS) on release from restraint. Over a 56-day period individual animal dry matter intake (DMI) and weekly body weight was measured. Ultrasound fat depth was measured at the end of 56 days. Average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and residual feed intake (RFI) were calculated. After the 56-day test period, animals were transported in groups of six/week to respiration chamber facilities. Blood samples were taken before and 0, 3, 6, and 9 h after transport. Plasma cortisol, creatine kinase (CK), glucose, and free fatty acids (FFA) were determined to assess physiological stress response. Subsequently, CH₄ emissions were measured over a 3-day period in individual respiration chambers. CS (1.7 ± 0.09) and FS (1.6 ± 0.60 m/s) were repeatable (0.63 and 0.51, respectively) and correlated (r = 0.36, P < 0.001). Plasma cortisol, CK, and FFA concentrations increased after transport (P = 0.038, P = 0.006, and P < 0.001, respectively). Temperament (CS) and CK concentration were correlated (r = 0.29; P = 0.015). The extreme group analysis reveals that excitable animals (FS; P = 0.032) and higher stress response (cortisol, P = 0.007; FFA, P = 0.007; and CK, P = 0.003) were associated with lower DMI. ADG was lower in more temperamental animals (CS, P = 0.097, and FS, P = 0.030). Fat depth was greater in steers showing calmer CS (P = 0.026) and lower plasma CK (P = 0.058). Temperament did not show any relationship with RFI or CH₄ emissions. However, steers with higher cortisol showed improved feed efficiency (lower FCR and RFI) (P < 0.05) and greater CH₄ emissions (P = 0.017). In conclusion, agitated temperament and higher stress responsiveness is detrimental to productivity. A greater stress response is associated with a reduction in feed intake that may both increase the efficiency of consumed feed and the ratio of CH₄ emissions/unit of feed. Therefore, temperament and stress response should be considered when designing strategies to improve efficiency and mitigate CH₄ emissions in beef cattle.

Effects of road transportation on metabolic and immunological responses in Holstein heifers

This study examined the effects of road transportation on metabolic and immunological responses in dairy heifers. Twenty Holstein heifers in early pregnancy were divided into non-transported (NT; n = 7) and transported (T; n = 13) groups. Blood was collected before transportation (BT), immediately after transportation for 100 km (T1) and 200 km (T2), and 24 h after transportation (AT). The T heifers had higher (P < 0.05) blood cortisol and non-esterified fatty acid concentrations after T1 and T2 than did NT heifers. By contrast, the T heifers had lower (P < 0.05) serum triglyceride concentrations after T1 and T2 than had the NT heifers. The serum cortisol and triglyceride concentrations returned (P > 0.05) to the BT concentrations at 24 h AT in the T heifers. The granulocyte-to-lymphocyte ratio and the percentage of monocytes were higher (P < 0.05) after T2 in the T heifers than in the NT heifers, suggesting that transportation stress increased the numbers of innate immune cells. T heifers had higher (P < 0.01) plasma haptoglobin concentrations than NT heifers 24 h AT. In conclusion, transportation increased cortisol secretion and was correlated with increased metabolic responses and up-regulation of peripheral innate immune cells in dairy heifers.

Beef cattle welfare in the USA: identification of priorities for future research

This review identifies priorities for beef cattle welfare research in the USA. Based on our professional expertise and synthesis of existing literature, we identify two themes in intensive aspects of beef production: areas where policy-based actions are needed and those where additional research is required. For some topics, considerable research informs best practice, yet gaps remain between scientific knowledge and implementation. For example, many of the risk factors and management strategies to prevent respiratory disease are understood, but only used by a relatively small portion of the industry. This is an animal health issue that will require leadership and discussion to gain widespread adoption of practices that benefit cattle welfare. There is evidence of success when such actions are taken, as illustrated by the recent improvements in handling at US slaughter facilities. Our highest priorities for additional empirical evidence are: the effect of technologies used to either promote growth or manage cattle in feedlots, identification of management risk factors for disease in feedlots, and management decisions about transport (rest stops, feed/water deprivation, climatic conditions, stocking density). Additional research is needed to inform science-based recommendations about environmental features such as dry lying areas (mounds), shade, water and feed, as well as trailer design.

The Impacts of Climate Change Mitigation Strategies on Animal Welfare

The objective of this review is to point out that the global dialog on reducing greenhouse gas emissions in animal agriculture has, thus far, not adequately considered animal welfare in proposed climate change mitigation strategies. Many suggested approaches for reducing emissions, most of which could generally be described as calls for the intensification of production, can have substantial effects on the animals. Given the growing world-wide awareness and concern for animal welfare, many of these approaches are not socially sustainable. This review identifies the main emission abatement strategies in the climate change literature that would negatively affect animal welfare and details the associated problems. Alternative strategies are also identified as possible solutions for animal welfare and climate change, and it is suggested that more attention be focused on these types of options when allocating resources, researching mitigation strategies, and making policy decisions on reducing emissions from animal agriculture.

Bill E. Kunkle Interdisciplinary Beef Symposium: Practical developments in managing animal welfare in beef cattle: what does the future hold?

Interest in the welfare of cattle in the beef industry has intensified over time because of ethical concerns and varying societal perceptions that exist about the treatment and living conditions of farm animals. The definition of welfare will vary according to an individual's philosophies (how one defines and prioritizes what is "good"), experiences (societal and cultural influences of animal roles and relationships), and involvement in the livestock industry (knowledge of how livestock operations work and why). Many welfare concerns in the beef industry could be mitigated by enhancing traditional husbandry practices that utilize practical improvements to alleviate or eliminate heat stress, pain from routine husbandry procedures, negative cattle handling, and the transitional effects of weaning, dry feeding, transportation, and comingling of calves. Recent concerns about the potential welfare effects of feeding technologies such as β-adrenergic agonists (BAA) have emerged and led to industry-wide effects, including the removal of a single BAA product from the market and the development of BAA-specific welfare audits. Altogether, the beef industry continues to be challenged by welfare issues that question a large range of practices, from traditional husbandry to newer technological advancements. As welfare awareness increases, efforts to improve livestock care and management must focus on scientific investigations, practical solutions, consumer perceptions, and educational tools that advance knowledge and training in livestock welfare. Furthermore, the future of beef cattle welfare must align welfare concerns with other aspects of sustainable beef production such as environmental quality, profitability, food safety, and nutritional quality.

Livestock transport from the perspective of the pre-slaughter logistic chain: a review

New developments in livestock transport within the pre-slaughter chain are discussed in terms of three logistic nodes: origin, stopovers and slaughterhouse. Factors as transport cost, haulier, truck specifications, micro-environment conditions, loading density, route planning, vehicle accidents and journey length are discussed as well as causes of morbidity, mortality, live weight and carcass damage. Taking into account current trends towards increased transport times, logistics stopovers and mixed transport, there is a need to develop systems of evaluation and decision-making that provide tools and protocols that can minimize the biological cost to animals, which may have been underestimated in the past.

The Nexus of Environmental Quality and Livestock Welfare

In recent years, the livestock production industry has been receiving pressure to assess and improve production practices in two seemingly unrelated areas: environmental quality and animal welfare. In this article, we argue that the nexus of these two areas of study should be a priority for future research and that the integration of these disciplines in research, extension, and education efforts has the potential to improve the sustainability of production livestock agriculture.