Electrochemical Sensors Based on Carbon Nanomaterial Used in Diagnosing Metabolic Disease

Cortisol: Biosensing and detection strategies

Cortisol, a crucial steroid hormone synthesized by the adrenal glands, has diverse impacts on multiple physiological processes, such as metabolism, immune function, and stress management. Disruption in cortisol levels can result in conditions like Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease. This review provides an in-depth exploration of cortisol, covering its structure, various forms in the body, detection methodologies, and emerging trends in cancer treatment and detection. Various techniques for cortisol detection, including electrochemical, chromatographic, and immunoassay methods were discussed and highlighted for their merits and applications. Electrochemical immunosensing emerges as a promising approach, which offered high sensitivity and low detection limits. Moreover, the review delves into the intricate relationship between cortisol and cancer, emphasizing cortisol's role in cancer progression and treatment outcomes. Lastly, the utilization of biomarkers, in-silico modeling, and machine learning for electrochemical cortisol detection were explored, which showcased innovative strategies for stress monitoring and healthcare advancement.

Flexible electronics for heavy metal ion detection in water: a comprehensive review

Flexible electronics offer a versatile, rapid, cost-effective and portable solution to monitor water contamination, which poses serious threat to the environment and human health. This review paper presents a comprehensive exploration of the versatile platforms of flexible electronics in the context of heavy metal ion detection in water systems. The review overviews of the fundamental principles of heavy metal ion detection, surveys the state-of-the-art materials and fabrication techniques for flexible sensors, analyses key performance metrics and limitations, and discusses future opportunities and challenges. By highlighting recent advances in nanomaterials, polymers, wireless integration, and sustainability, this review aims to serve as an essential resource for researchers, engineers, and policy makers seeking to address the critical challenge of heavy metal contamination in water resources. The versatile promise of flexible electronics is thoroughly elucidated to inspire continued innovation in this emerging technology arena.

Incorporation of Bismuth(III) Oxide Nanoparticles into Carbon Ceramic Composite: Electrode Material with Improved Electroanalytical Performance in 4-Chloro-3-Methylphenol Determination

In this study, a carbon ceramic electrode (CCE) with improved electroanalytical performance was developed by bulk-modifying it with bismuth(III) oxide nanoparticles (Bi-CCE). Characterization of the Bi-CCE was conducted employing atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Comparative analysis was conducted using an unmodified CCE. The findings proved that the incorporation of Bi2O3 nanoparticles into the CCE significantly altered the morphology and topography of the ceramic composite, and it improved the electrochemical properties of CCE. Notably, the Bi-CCE demonstrated a prolonged operational lifespan of at least three months, and there was a high reproducibility of the electrode preparation procedure. The developed Bi-CCE was effectively employed to explore the electrochemical behavior and quantify the priority environmental pollutant 4-chloro-3-methylphenol (PCMC) using CV and square-wave voltammetry (SWV), respectively. Notably, the developed SWV procedure utilizing Bi-CCE exhibited significantly enhanced sensitivity (0.115 µA L mol-1), an extended linearity (0.5-58.0 µmol L-1), and a lower limit of detection (0.17 µmol L-1) in comparison with the unmodified electrode. Furthermore, the Bi-CCE was utilized effectively for the detection of PCMC in a river water sample intentionally spiked with the compound. The selectivity toward PCMC determination was also successfully assessed.

Nanomaterial-based Electrochemical Sensors for Multiplex Medicinal Applications

This review explores the advancements in nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors for the multiplex detection of medicinal compounds. The growing demand for efficient and selective detection methods in the pharmaceutical field has prompted significant research into the development of electrochemical sensors employing nanomaterials. These materials, defined as functional materials with at least one dimension between 1 and 100 nanometers, encompass metal nanoparticles, polymers, carbon-based nanocomposites, and nano-bioprobes. These sensors are characterized by their enhanced sensitivity and selectivity, playing a crucial role in simultaneous detection and offering a comprehensive analysis of multiple medicinal complexes within a single sample. The review comprehensively examines the design, fabrication, and application of nanomaterial- based electrochemical sensors, focusing on their ability to achieve multiplex detection of various medicinal substances. Insights into the strategies and nanomaterials employed for enhancing sensor performance are discussed. Additionally, the review explores the challenges and future perspectives of this evolving field, highlighting the potential impact of nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors on the advancement of medicinal detection technologies.

Electrochemical DNA biosensors developed for the monitoring of biointeractions with drugs: a review

The interaction of drugs with DNA is important for the discovery of novel drug molecules and for understanding the therapeutic effects of drugs as well as the monitoring of side effects. For this reason, many studies have been carried out to investigate the interactions of drugs with nucleic acids. In recent years, a large number of studies have been performed to electrochemically detect drug-DNA interactions. The fast, sensitive, and accurate results of electrochemical techniques have resulted in a leading role for their implementation in this field. By means of electrochemical techniques, it is possible not only to demonstrate drug-DNA interactions but also to quantitatively analyze drugs. In this context, electrochemical biosensors for drug-DNA interactions have been examined under different headings including anticancer, antiviral, antibiotic, and central nervous system drugs as well as DNA-targeted drugs. An overview of the studies related to electrochemical DNA biosensors developed for the detection of drug-DNA interactions that were reported in the last two decades in the literature is presented herein along with their applications and they are discussed together with their future perspectives.

Effect of Ambient Environment on Laser Reduction of Graphene Oxide for Applications in Electrochemical Sensing

Electrochemical sensors play an important role in a variety of applications. With the potential for enhanced performance, much of the focus has been on developing nanomaterials, in particular graphene, for such sensors. Recent work has looked towards laser scribing technology for the reduction of graphene oxide as an easy and cost-effective option for sensor fabrication. This work looks to develop this approach by assessing the quality of sensors produced with the effect of different ambient atmospheres during the laser scribing process. The graphene oxide was reduced using a laser writing system in a range of atmospheres and sensors characterised with Raman spectroscopy, XPS and cyclic voltammetry. Although providing a slightly higher defect density, sensors fabricated under argon and nitrogen atmospheres exhibited the highest average electron transfer rates of approximately 2 × 10-3 cms-1. Issues of sensor reproducibility using this approach are discussed.

Review on Surface-Modified Electrodes for the Enhanced Electrochemical Detection of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are one of the most commonly prescribed classes of antidepressants used for the treatment of moderate to severe depressive disorder, personality disorders and various phobias. This class of antidepressants was created with improved margins of safety. However, genetic polymorphism may be responsible for the high variability in patients' responses to treatment, ranging from failure to delayed therapeutic responses to severe adverse effects of treatment. It is crucial that the appropriate amount of SSRI drugs is administered to ensure the optimum therapeutic efficacy and intervention to minimise severe and toxic effects in patients, which may be the result of accidental and deliberate cases of poisoning. Determining SSRI concentration in human fluids and the environment with high sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility, and at a low cost and real-time monitoring, is imperative. Electrochemical sensors with advanced functional materials have drawn the attention of researchers as a result of these advantages over conventional techniques. This review article aims to present functional materials such as polymers, carbon nanomaterials, metal nanomaterials as well as composites for surface modification of electrodes for sensitive detection and quantification of SSRIs, including fluoxetine, citalopram, paroxetine, fluvoxamine and sertraline. Sensor fabrication, sensor/analyte interactions, design rationale and properties of functional material and the electrocatalytic effect of the modified electrode on SSRI detection are discussed.

A Microfluidic Device for Tobacco Ringspot Virus Detection by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

Aiming at the problem of how to achieve the rapid detection of pathogenic microorganisms, this paper takes tobacco ringspot virus as the detection object, designs the impedance detection and analysis platform of tobacco ringspot virus based on microfluidic impedance method, establishes an equivalent circuit model to analyze the experimental results, and determines the optimal detection frequency of tobacco ringspot virus detection. Based on this frequency, an impedance-concentration regression model was established for the detection of tobacco ringspot virus in a tobacco ringspot virus detection device. Based on this model, a tobacco ringspot virus detection device was designed by using an AD5933 impedance detection chip. A comprehensive test study was carried out on the developed tobacco ringspot virus detection device through various testing methods, which verified the feasibility of the tobacco ringspot virus detection device and provided technical support for the field detection of pathogenic microorganisms.

Electrochemical Sensing of Dopamine Using Polypyrrole/Molybdenum Oxide Bilayer-Modified ITO Electrode

The electrochemical sensing of biomarkers has attracted more and more attention due to the advantages of electrochemical biosensors, including their ease of use, excellent accuracy, and small analyte volumes. Thus, the electrochemical sensing of biomarkers has a potential application in early disease diagnosis diagnosis. Dopamine neurotransmitters have a vital role in the transmission of nerve impulses. Here, the fabrication of a polypyrrole/molybdenum dioxide nanoparticle (MoO3 NP)-modified ITO electrode based on a hydrothermal technique followed by electrochemical polymerization is reported. Several techniques were used to investigate the developed electrode's structure, morphology, and physical characteristics, including SEM, FTIR, EDX, N2 adsorption, and Raman spectroscopy. The results imply the formation of tiny MoO3 NPs with an average diameter of 29.01 nm. The developed electrode was used to determine low concentrations of dopamine neurotransmitters based on cyclic voltammetry and square wave voltammetry techniques. Furthermore, the developed electrode was used for monitoring dopamine in a human serum sample. The LOD for detecting dopamine by using MoO3 NPs/ITO electrodes based on the SWV technique was around 2.2 nmol L-1.

Neuro-nanotechnology: diagnostic and therapeutic nano-based strategies in applied neuroscience

Artificial, de-novo manufactured materials (with controlled nano-sized characteristics) have been progressively used by neuroscientists during the last several decades. The introduction of novel implantable bioelectronics interfaces that are better suited to their biological targets is one example of an innovation that has emerged as a result of advanced nanostructures and implantable bioelectronics interfaces, which has increased the potential of prostheses and neural interfaces. The unique physical-chemical properties of nanoparticles have also facilitated the development of novel imaging instruments for advanced laboratory systems, as well as intelligently manufactured scaffolds and microelectrodes and other technologies designed to increase our understanding of neural tissue processes. The incorporation of nanotechnology into physiology and cell biology enables the tailoring of molecular interactions. This involves unique interactions with neurons and glial cells in neuroscience. Technology solutions intended to effectively interact with neuronal cells, improved molecular-based diagnostic techniques, biomaterials and hybridized compounds utilized for neural regeneration, neuroprotection, and targeted delivery of medicines as well as small chemicals across the blood-brain barrier are all purposes of the present article.

Nanomaterial Gas Sensors for Biosensing Applications: A Review

BACKGROUND

Nanomaterial is one of the most used materials for various gas sensing applications to detect toxic gases, human breath, and other specific gas sensing. One of the most important applications of nanomaterial based gas sensors is biosensing applications. In this review article, the gas sensors for biosensing are discussed on the basis of crystalline structure and different categories of nanomaterial.

METHODS

In this paper, firstly, rigorous efforts have been made to find out research questions by going through a structured and systematic survey of available peer reviewed high quality articles in this field. The papers related to nanomaterial based biosensors are then reviewed qualitatively to provide substantive findings from the recent developments in this field.

RESULTS

In this mini-review article, firstly, classifications of nanomaterial gas sensors have been presented on the basis of the crystalline structure of nanomaterial and different types of nanomaterial available for biosensing applications. Further, the gas sensors based on nanomaterial for biosensing applications are collected and reviewed in terms of their performance parameters such as sensing material used, target gas component, detection ranges (ppm-ppb), response time, operating temperature and method of detection, etc. The different nanomaterials possess slightly different sensing and morphological properties due to their structure; therefore, it can be said that a nanomaterial must be selected carefully for a particular application. The 1D nanomaterials show the best selectivity and sensitivity for gases available in low concentration ranges due to their miniaturised structure compared to 2D and 3D nanomaterials. However, these 2D and 3D nanomaterials also so good sensing properties compared to bulk semiconductor materials. The polymer and nanocomposites which are also discussed in this patent article have opened the door for future research and have great potential for new generation gas sensors for detecting biomolecules.

CONCLUSION

These nanomaterials extend great properties towards sensing the application of different gases for a lower concentration of particular gas particles. Nano polymer and nanocomposites have great potential to be used as gas sensors for the detection of biomolecules.

A Portable Electrochemical Sensor Based on Manganese Porphyrin-Functionalized Carbon Cloth for Highly Sensitive Detection of Nitroaromatics and Gaseous Phenol

Organic pollutants (OPs) have garnered a considerable amount of attention in recent times due to their extreme toxicity toward humans and the ecosystem. The need for an inexpensive yet robust, sensitive, selective, and easy-to-operate method for detecting OPs remains a challenge. Herein, a portable electrochemical sensor is proposed based on manganese porphyrin-functionalized carbon cloth (CC). To explain the electrochemical performance of the sensor, cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) were employed. The presence of manganese(III) ion in the center of the porphyrin ligand acted as an agent for the transfer of electrons and enhanced sensitivity toward analyte-specific redox catalysis. Moreover, it allowed for the concurrent detection of multiple analytes in a complex environment. The modified CC electrode can selectively detect nitroaromatic and phenolic compounds with accessible data collected through wireless means onto a smartphone device. The as-synthesized electrode demonstrated a higher sensitivity toward the detection of nitrobenzene (NB) and aqueous phenol with a limit of detection (LOD) found to be 5.9268 × 10^-10 M and 4.0178 × 10^-10 M, respectively. Additionally, our proposed portable electrochemical sensor demonstrates a high selectivity and reproducibility toward nitroaromatic and phenolic compounds, which can be employed in real complex water samples. With regard to the sensor's remarkable electrochemical performance, it is envisaged that such a sensor could pave the way for environmental point of care (POC) testing.

Enzyme Nanosheet-Based Electrochemical Aspartate Biosensor for Fish Point-of-Care Applications

Bacterial infections in marine fishes are linked to mass mortality issues; hence, rapid detection of an infection can contribute to achieving a faster diagnosis using point-of-care testing. There has been substantial interest in identifying diagnostic biomarkers that can be detected in major organs to predict bacterial infections. Aspartate was identified as an important biomarker for bacterial infection diagnosis in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) fish. To determine aspartate levels, an amperometric biosensor was designed based on bi-enzymes, namely, glutamate oxidase (GluOx) and aspartate transaminase (AST), which were physisorbed on copolymer reduced graphene oxide (P-rGO), referred to as enzyme nanosheets (GluOx-ASTENs). The GluOx-ASTENs were drop casted onto a Prussian blue electrodeposited screen-printed carbon electrode (PB/SPCE). The proposed biosensor was optimized by operating variables including the enzyme loading amount, coreactant (α-ketoglutarate) concentration, and pH. Under optimal conditions, the biosensor displayed the maximum current responses within 10 s at the low applied potential of -0.10 V vs. the internal Ag/AgCl reference. The biosensor exhibited a linear response from 1.0 to 2.0 mM of aspartate concentrations with a sensitivity of 0.8 µA mM^-1 cm^-2 and a lower detection limit of approximately 500 µM. Moreover, the biosensor possessed high reproducibility, good selectivity, and efficient storage stability.

Simple Synthesis of CeO2 Nanoparticle Composites In Situ Grown on Carbon Nanotubes for Phenol Detection

via simple hydrothermal method, CeO2 was in-situ grown onto the CNTs to form CeO2/CNTs nanocomposites were synthesized with cerium nitrate as Ce resource. The morphology and structure were characterized by transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The characterizations reveal that CeO2 nanoparticles are uniformly dispersed onto the surface of the pre-acidified CNTs. The electrochemical property of the synthesized nanocomposite was investigated in 0.1 M KCl electrolyte containing 2 mM [Fe(CN)6]3-/4-. The nanocomposites were employed to fabricate electrochemical sensor for phenol detection. The linear range for phenol detection measured by the differential pulse voltammetry method is 1–500 μM. The sensor also exhibits good selectivity, reproducibility and stability. When applied for the river and tap water analysis, it shows good recovery rate.

Electrochemical Biosensing Interface Based on Carbon Dots-Fe3O4 Nanomaterial for the Determination of Escherichia coli O157:H7

Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157:H7 can cause many food safety incidents, which seriously affect human health and economic development. Therefore, the sensitive, accurate, and rapid determination of E. coli O157:H7 is of great significance for preventing the outbreak and spread of foodborne diseases. In this study, a carbon dots-Fe3O4 nanomaterial (CDs-Fe3O4)-based sensitive electrochemical biosensor for E. coli O157:H7 detection was developed. The CDs have good electrical conductivity, and the surface of carbon dots contains abundant carboxyl groups, which can be used to immobilize probe DNA. Meanwhile, the CDs can be used as a reducing agent to prepare CDs-Fe3O4 nanomaterial. The Fe3O4 nanomaterial can improve the performance of the electrochemical biosensor; it also can realize the recovery of CDs-Fe3O4 due to its magnetism. As expected, the electrochemical biosensor has excellent specificity of E. coli O157:H7 among other bacteria. The electrochemical biosensor also exhibited good performance for detecting E. coli O157:H7 with the detection range of 10-108 CFU/ml, and the detection limit of this electrochemical biosensor was 6.88 CFU/ml (3S/N). Furthermore, this electrochemical biosensor was successfully used for monitoring E. coli O157:H7 in milk and water samples, indicating that this electrochemical biosensor has good application prospect. More importantly, this research can provide a new idea for the detection of other bacteria and viruses.

Technological advances in electrochemical biosensors for the detection of disease biomarkers

With an increasing focus on health in contemporary society, interest in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases has grown rapidly. Accordingly, the demand for biosensors for the early diagnosis of disease is increasing. However, the measurement range of existing electrochemical sensors is relatively high, which is not suitable for early disease diagnosis, requiring the detection of small amounts of biocomponents. Various attempts have been made to overcome this and amplify the signal, including binding with various labeling molecules, such as DNA, enzymes, nanoparticles, and carbon materials. Efforts are also being made to increase the sensitivity of electrochemical sensors, and the combination of nanomaterials, materials, and biotechnology offers the potential to increase sensitivity in a variety of ways. Recent studies suggest that electrochemical sensors can be a powerful tool in providing comprehensive insights into the targeting and detection of disease-associated biomarkers. Significant advances in nanomaterial and biomolecule approaches for improved sensitivity have resulted in the development of electrochemical biosensors capable of detecting multiple biomarkers in real time in clinically relevant samples. In this review, we have discussed the recent studies on electrochemical sensors for detection of diseases such as diabetes, degenerative diseases, and cancer. Further, we have highlighted new technologies to improve sensitivity using various materials, including DNA, enzymes, nanoparticles, and carbon materials.

Functional Ionic Liquids Decorated Carbon Hybrid Nanomaterials for the Electrochemical Biosensors

Ionic liquids are gaining high attention due to their extremely unique physiochemical properties and are being utilized in numerous applications in the field of electrochemistry and bio-nanotechnology. The excellent ionic conductivity and the wide electrochemical window open a new avenue in the construction of electrochemical devices. On the other hand, carbon nanomaterials, such as graphene (GR), graphene oxide (GO), carbon dots (CDs), and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), are highly utilized in electrochemical applications. Since they have a large surface area, high conductivity, stability, and functionality, they are promising in biosensor applications. Nevertheless, the combination of ionic liquids (ILs) and carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) results in the functional ILs-CNMs hybrid nanocomposites with considerably improved surface chemistry and electrochemical properties. Moreover, the high functionality and biocompatibility of ILs favor the high loading of biomolecules on the electrode surface. They extremely enhance the sensitivity of the biosensor that reaches the ability of ultra-low detection limit. This review aims to provide the studies of the synthesis, properties, and bonding of functional ILs-CNMs. Further, their electrochemical sensors and biosensor applications for the detection of numerous analytes are also discussed.

Electrochemical Peptide-Based Sensors for Foodborne Pathogens Detection

Food safety and quality control pose serious issues to food industry and public health domains, in general, with direct effects on consumers. Any physical, chemical, or biological unexpected or unidentified food constituent may exhibit harmful effects on people and animals from mild to severe reactions. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), unsafe foodstuffs are especially dangerous for infants, young children, elderly, and chronic patients. It is imperative to continuously develop new technologies to detect foodborne pathogens and contaminants in order to aid the strengthening of healthcare and economic systems. In recent years, peptide-based sensors gained much attention in the field of food research as an alternative to immuno-, apta-, or DNA-based sensors. This review presents an overview of the electrochemical biosensors using peptides as molecular bio-recognition elements published mainly in the last decade, highlighting their possible application for rapid, non-destructive, and in situ analysis of food samples. Comparison with peptide-based optical and piezoelectrical sensors in terms of analytical performance is presented. Methods of foodstuffs pretreatment are also discussed.

Recent advances in nanomaterial-modified electrical platforms for the detection of dopamine in living cells

Dopamine is a key neurotransmitter that plays essential roles in the central nervous system, including motor control, motivation, arousal, and reward. Thus, abnormal levels of dopamine directly cause several neurological diseases, including depressive disorders, addiction, and Parkinson's disease (PD). To develop a new technology to treat such diseases and disorders, especially PD, which is currently incurable, dopamine release from living cells intended for transplantation or drug screening must be precisely monitored and assessed. Owing to the advantages of miniaturisation and rapid detection, numerous electrical techniques have been reported, mostly in combination with various nanomaterials possessing specific nanoscale geometries. This review highlights recent advances in electrical biosensors for dopamine detection, with a particular focus on the use of various nanomaterials (e.g., carbon-based materials, hybrid gold nanostructures, metal oxides, and conductive polymers) on electrode surfaces to improve both sensor performance and biocompatibility. We conclude that this review will accelerate the development of electrical biosensors intended for the precise detection of metabolite release from living cells, which will ultimately lead to advances in therapeutic materials and techniques to cure various neurodegenerative disorders.