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Peng H, Moore C, Zhang Y, Saha D, Jiang S, Timmerman R. An AI-based approach for modeling the synergy between radiotherapy and immunotherapy. Sci Rep 2024; 14:8250. [PMID: 38589494 PMCID: PMC11001871 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58684-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Personalized, ultra-fractionated stereotactic adaptive radiotherapy (PULSAR) is designed to administer tumoricidal doses in a pulsed mode with extended intervals, spanning weeks or months. This approach leverages longer intervals to adapt the treatment plan based on tumor changes and enhance immune-modulated effects. In this investigation, we seek to elucidate the potential synergy between combined PULSAR and PD-L1 blockade immunotherapy using experimental data from a Lewis Lung Carcinoma (LLC) syngeneic murine cancer model. Employing a long short-term memory (LSTM) recurrent neural network (RNN) model, we simulated the treatment response by treating irradiation and anti-PD-L1 as external stimuli occurring in a temporal sequence. Our findings demonstrate that: (1) The model can simulate tumor growth by integrating various parameters such as timing and dose, and (2) The model provides mechanistic interpretations of a "causal relationship" in combined treatment, offering a completely novel perspective. The model can be utilized for in-silico modeling, facilitating exploration of innovative treatment combinations to optimize therapeutic outcomes. Advanced modeling techniques, coupled with additional efforts in biomarker identification, may deepen our understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying the combined treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Peng
- Departments of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
- Medical Artificial Intelligence and Automation Laboratory, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
| | - Casey Moore
- Departments of Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Yuanyuan Zhang
- Departments of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Debabrata Saha
- Departments of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Steve Jiang
- Departments of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Medical Artificial Intelligence and Automation Laboratory, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Robert Timmerman
- Departments of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
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Léost F, Barbet J, Beyler M, Chérel M, Delpon G, Garcion E, Lacerda S, Lepareur N, Rbah-Vidal L, Vaugier L, Visvikis D. ["New Modalities in Cancer Imaging and Therapy" XVth edition of the workshop organized by the network "Tumor Targeting, Imaging, Radiotherapies" of the Cancéropôle Grand-Ouest, 5-8 October 2022, France]. Bull Cancer 2023; 110:1322-1331. [PMID: 37880044 DOI: 10.1016/j.bulcan.2023.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
The fifteenth edition of the international workshop organized by the "Tumour Targeting and Radiotherapies network" of the Cancéropôle Grand-Ouest focused on the latest advances in internal and external radiotherapy from different disciplinary angles: chemistry, biology, physics, and medicine. The workshop covered several deliberately diverse topics: the role of artificial intelligence, new tools for imaging and external radiotherapy, theranostic aspects, molecules and contrast agents, vectors for innovative combined therapies, and the use of alpha particles in therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Léost
- Cancéropôle Grand-Ouest, IRS-UN, 8, quai Moncousu, 44007 Nantes cedex 1, France.
| | | | - Maryline Beyler
- Université de Brest, UMR CNRS-UBO 6521 CEMCA, 6, avenue V.-Le-Gorgeu, 29200 Brest, France
| | - Michel Chérel
- Nantes Université, Inserm, CNRS, Université d'Angers, CRCI(2)NA, Nantes, France
| | - Grégory Delpon
- Institut de cancérologie de l'Ouest, département de physique médicale, boulevard Jacques-Monod, 44800 Saint-Herblain, France; Laboratoire SUBATECH, UMR 6457 CNRS-IN2P3, IMT Atlantique, 4, rue Alfred-Kastler, 44307 Nantes cedex 3, France
| | - Emmanuel Garcion
- Université d'Angers, Inserm, CNRS, Nantes Université, CRCI(2)NA, Angers, France
| | - Sara Lacerda
- Université d'Orléans, centre de biophysique moléculaire, CNRS UPR 4301, rue Charles-Sadron, 45071 Orléans cedex 2, France
| | - Nicolas Lepareur
- Université de Rennes, Inrae, Inserm, CLCC Eugène-Marquis, institut nutrition, métabolismes et cancer (NUMECAN), UMR 1317, Rennes, France
| | - Latifa Rbah-Vidal
- Nantes Université, Inserm, CNRS, Université d'Angers, CRCI(2)NA, Nantes, France
| | - Loïg Vaugier
- Institut de cancérologie de l'Ouest, département de physique médicale, boulevard Jacques-Monod, 44800 Saint-Herblain, France; Laboratoire SUBATECH, UMR 6457 CNRS-IN2P3, IMT Atlantique, 4, rue Alfred-Kastler, 44307 Nantes cedex 3, France
| | - Dimitris Visvikis
- Inserm, LaTIM, UMR 1101, IBSAM, UBO, UBL, 22, rue Camille-Desmoulins, 29238 Brest, France
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Putralis R, Korotkaja K, Kaukulis M, Rudevica Z, Jansons J, Nilova O, Rucins M, Krasnova L, Domracheva I, Plotniece M, Pajuste K, Sobolev A, Rumnieks F, Bekere L, Zajakina A, Plotniece A, Duburs G. Styrylpyridinium Derivatives for Fluorescent Cell Imaging. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1245. [PMID: 37765053 PMCID: PMC10535741 DOI: 10.3390/ph16091245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
A set of styrylpyridinium (SP) compounds was synthesised in order to study their spectroscopic and cell labelling properties. The compounds comprised different electron donating parts (julolidine, p-dimethylaminophenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl), conjugated linkers (vinyl, divinyl), and an electron-withdrawing N-alkylpyridinium part. Geminal or bis-compounds incorporating two styrylpyridinium (bis-SP) moieties at the 1,3-trimethylene unit were synthesised. Compounds comprising a divinyl linker and powerful electron-donating julolidine donor parts possessed intensive fluorescence in the near-infrared region (maximum at ~760 nm). The compounds had rather high cytotoxicity towards the cancerous cell lines HT-1080 and MH-22A; at the same time, basal cytotoxicity towards the NIH3T3 fibroblast cell line ranged from toxic to harmful. SP compound 6e had IC50 values of 1.0 ± 0.03 µg/mL to the cell line HT-1080 and 0.4 µg/mL to MH-22A; however, the basal toxicity LD50 was 477 mg/kg (harmful). The compounds showed large Stokes' shifts, including 195 nm for 6a,b, 240 nm for 6e, and 325 and 352 nm for 6d and 6c, respectively. The highest photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) values were observed for 6a,b, which were 15.1 and 12.2%, respectively. The PLQY values for the SP derivatives 6d,e (those with a julolidinyl moiety) were 0.5 and 0.7%, respectively. Cell staining with compound 6e revealed a strong fluorescent signal localised in the cell cytoplasm, whereas the cell nuclei were not stained. SP compound 6e possessed self-assembling properties and formed liposomes with an average diameter of 118 nm. The obtained novel data on near-infrared fluorescent probes could be useful for the development of biocompatible dyes for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinis Putralis
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Riga Stradiņš University, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia;
| | - Ksenija Korotkaja
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia; (K.K.); (Z.R.); (J.J.); (O.N.); (F.R.); (A.Z.)
| | - Martins Kaukulis
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
- Faculty of Materials Science and Applied Chemistry, Riga Technical University, LV-1048 Riga, Latvia
| | - Zhanna Rudevica
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia; (K.K.); (Z.R.); (J.J.); (O.N.); (F.R.); (A.Z.)
| | - Juris Jansons
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia; (K.K.); (Z.R.); (J.J.); (O.N.); (F.R.); (A.Z.)
| | - Olga Nilova
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia; (K.K.); (Z.R.); (J.J.); (O.N.); (F.R.); (A.Z.)
| | - Martins Rucins
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
| | - Laura Krasnova
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
| | - Ilona Domracheva
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
| | - Mara Plotniece
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Riga Stradiņš University, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia;
- Faculty of Materials Science and Applied Chemistry, Riga Technical University, LV-1048 Riga, Latvia
| | - Karlis Pajuste
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
| | - Arkadij Sobolev
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
| | - Felikss Rumnieks
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia; (K.K.); (Z.R.); (J.J.); (O.N.); (F.R.); (A.Z.)
| | - Laura Bekere
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
| | - Anna Zajakina
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia; (K.K.); (Z.R.); (J.J.); (O.N.); (F.R.); (A.Z.)
| | - Aiva Plotniece
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Riga Stradiņš University, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia;
| | - Gunars Duburs
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.K.); (M.R.); (L.K.); (I.D.); (K.P.); (A.S.); (L.B.)
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He A, Li X, Dai Z, Li Q, Zhang Y, Ding M, Wen ZF, Mou Y, Dong H. Nanovaccine-based strategies for lymph node targeted delivery and imaging in tumor immunotherapy. J Nanobiotechnology 2023; 21:236. [PMID: 37482608 PMCID: PMC10364424 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-023-01989-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic tumor vaccines have attracted considerable attention in the past decade; they can induce tumor regression, eradicate minimal residual disease, establish lasting immune memory and avoid non-specific and adverse side effects. However, the challenge in the field of therapeutic tumor vaccines is ensuring the delivery of immune components to the lymph nodes (LNs) to activate immune cells. The clinical response rate of traditional therapeutic tumor vaccines falls short of expectations due to inadequate lymph node delivery. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, a large number of nanoplatform-based LN-targeting nanovaccines have been exploited for optimizing tumor immunotherapies. In addition, some nanovaccines possess non-invasive visualization performance, which is benefit for understanding the kinetics of nanovaccine exposure in LNs. Herein, we present the parameters of nanoplatforms, such as size, surface modification, shape, and deformability, which affect the LN-targeting functions of nanovaccines. The recent advances in nanoplatforms with different components promoting LN-targeting are also summarized. Furthermore, emerging LNs-targeting nanoplatform-mediated imaging strategies to both improve targeting performance and enhance the quality of LN imaging are discussed. Finally, we summarize the prospects and challenges of nanoplatform-based LN-targeting and /or imaging strategies, which optimize the clinical efficacy of nanovaccines in tumor immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ao He
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, 30 Zhongyang Road, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Xiaoye Li
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, 30 Zhongyang Road, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Zhuo Dai
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, 30 Zhongyang Road, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Qiang Li
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, 30 Zhongyang Road, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, 30 Zhongyang Road, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Meng Ding
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, 30 Zhongyang Road, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Zhi-Fa Wen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Women's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Nanjing, 210004, China.
| | - Yongbin Mou
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, 30 Zhongyang Road, Nanjing, 210008, China.
| | - Heng Dong
- Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, 30 Zhongyang Road, Nanjing, 210008, China.
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5
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Nisnboym M, Vincze SR, Xiong Z, Sneiderman CT, Raphael RA, Li B, Jaswal AP, Sever RE, Day KE, LaToche JD, Foley LM, Karimi H, Hitchens TK, Agnihotri S, Hu B, Rajasundaram D, Anderson CJ, Blumenthal DT, Pearce TM, Uttam S, Nedrow JR, Panigrahy A, Pollack IF, Lieberman FS, Drappatz J, Raphael I, Edwards WB, Kohanbash G. Immuno-PET Imaging of CD69 Visualizes T-Cell Activation and Predicts Survival Following Immunotherapy in Murine Glioblastoma. CANCER RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS 2023; 3:1173-1188. [PMID: 37426447 PMCID: PMC10324623 DOI: 10.1158/2767-9764.crc-22-0434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and malignant primary brain tumor in adults. Immunotherapy may be promising for the treatment of some patients with GBM; however, there is a need for noninvasive neuroimaging techniques to predict immunotherapeutic responses. The effectiveness of most immunotherapeutic strategies requires T-cell activation. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate an early marker of T-cell activation, CD69, for its use as an imaging biomarker of response to immunotherapy for GBM. Herein, we performed CD69 immunostaining on human and mouse T cells following in vitro activation and post immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) in an orthotopic syngeneic mouse glioma model. CD69 expression on tumor-infiltrating leukocytes was assessed using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data from patients with recurrent GBM receiving ICI. Radiolabeled CD69 Ab PET/CT imaging (CD69 immuno-PET) was performed on GBM-bearing mice longitudinally to quantify CD69 and its association with survival following immunotherapy. We show CD69 expression is upregulated upon T-cell activation and on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) in response to immunotherapy. Similarly, scRNA-seq data demonstrated elevated CD69 on TILs from patients with ICI-treated recurrent GBM as compared with TILs from control cohorts. CD69 immuno-PET studies showed a significantly higher tracer uptake in the tumors of ICI-treated mice compared with controls. Importantly, we observed a positive correlation between survival and CD69 immuno-PET signals in immunotherapy-treated animals and established a trajectory of T-cell activation by virtue of CD69-immuno-PET measurements. Our study supports the potential use of CD69 immuno-PET as an immunotherapy response assessment imaging tool for patients with GBM. Significance Immunotherapy may hold promise for the treatment of some patients with GBM. There is a need to assess therapy responsiveness to allow the continuation of effective treatment in responders and to avoid ineffective treatment with potential adverse effects in the nonresponders. We demonstrate that noninvasive PET/CT imaging of CD69 may allow early detection of immunotherapy responsiveness in patients with GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Nisnboym
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Neurology, Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Sarah R. Vincze
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Zujian Xiong
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Chaim T. Sneiderman
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Rebecca A. Raphael
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Cancer Biology Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Bo Li
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Ambika P. Jaswal
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - ReidAnn E. Sever
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Kathryn E. Day
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Joseph D. LaToche
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Lesley M. Foley
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Hanieh Karimi
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - T. Kevin Hitchens
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Sameer Agnihotri
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Baoli Hu
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Dhivyaa Rajasundaram
- Division of Health Informatics, Department of Pediatrics, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Deborah T. Blumenthal
- Neuro-oncology Division, Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Thomas M. Pearce
- Division of Neuropathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Shikhar Uttam
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Cancer Biology Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jessie R. Nedrow
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Ashok Panigrahy
- Department of Radiology, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Ian F. Pollack
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Frank S. Lieberman
- Neuro-oncology Program, Division of Hematology/Oncology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jan Drappatz
- Neuro-oncology Program, Division of Hematology/Oncology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Itay Raphael
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Wilson B. Edwards
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Gary Kohanbash
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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Geissler M, Jia W, Kiraz EN, Kulacz I, Liu X, Rombach A, Prinz V, Jussen D, Kokkaliaris KD, Medyouf H, Sevenich L, Czabanka M, Broggini T. The Brain Pre-Metastatic Niche: Biological and Technical Advancements. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10055. [PMID: 37373202 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Metastasis, particularly brain metastasis, continues to puzzle researchers to this day, and exploring its molecular basis promises to break ground in developing new strategies for combatting this deadly cancer. In recent years, the research focus has shifted toward the earliest steps in the formation of metastasis. In this regard, significant progress has been achieved in understanding how the primary tumor affects distant organ sites before the arrival of tumor cells. The term pre-metastatic niche was introduced for this concept and encompasses all influences on sites of future metastases, ranging from immunological modulation and ECM remodeling to the softening of the blood-brain barrier. The mechanisms governing the spread of metastasis to the brain remain elusive. However, we begin to understand these processes by looking at the earliest steps in the formation of metastasis. This review aims to present recent findings on the brain pre-metastatic niche and to discuss existing and emerging methods to further explore the field. We begin by giving an overview of the pre-metastatic and metastatic niches in general before focusing on their manifestations in the brain. To conclude, we reflect on the methods usually employed in this field of research and discuss novel approaches in imaging and sequencing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Geissler
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Weiyi Jia
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Emine Nisanur Kiraz
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Ida Kulacz
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Xiao Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Adrian Rombach
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Vincent Prinz
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Daniel Jussen
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Konstantinos D Kokkaliaris
- Dr. Senckenberg Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Frankfurt, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI), Goethe University Frankfurt, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Hind Medyouf
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lisa Sevenich
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marcus Czabanka
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI), Goethe University Frankfurt, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Thomas Broggini
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Goethe-University, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI), Goethe University Frankfurt, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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7
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de Korne CM, van Lieshout L, van Leeuwen FWB, Roestenberg M. Imaging as a (pre)clinical tool in parasitology. Trends Parasitol 2023; 39:212-226. [PMID: 36641293 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2022.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Imaging of parasites is central to diagnosis of many parasitic diseases and has thus far played an important role in the development of antiparasitic strategies. The development of novel imaging technologies has revolutionized medicine in fields other than parasitology and has also opened up new avenues for the visualization of parasites. Here we review the role imaging technology has played so far in parasitology and how it may spur further advancement. We point out possibilities to improve current microscopy-based diagnostic methods and how to extend them with radiological imaging modalities. We also highlight in vivo tracking of parasites as a readout for efficacy of new antiparasitic strategies and as a source of fundamental insights for rational design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarize Maria de Korne
- Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Centre, Albinusdreef 2, 2333, ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands; Interventional Molecular Imaging laboratory, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333, ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lisette van Lieshout
- Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Centre, Albinusdreef 2, 2333, ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Fijs Willem Bernhard van Leeuwen
- Interventional Molecular Imaging laboratory, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333, ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Meta Roestenberg
- Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Centre, Albinusdreef 2, 2333, ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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8
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Cheng Z, Thompson EJ, Mendive‐Tapia L, Scott JI, Benson S, Kitamura T, Senan‐Salinas A, Samarakoon Y, Roberts EW, Arias MA, Pardo J, Galvez EM, Vendrell M. Fluorogenic Granzyme A Substrates Enable Real-Time Imaging of Adaptive Immune Cell Activity. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202216142. [PMID: 36562327 PMCID: PMC10108010 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202216142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic immune cells, including T lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer (NK) cells, are essential components of the host response against tumors. CTLs and NK cells secrete granzyme A (GzmA) upon recognition of cancer cells; however, there are very few tools that can detect physiological levels of active GzmA with high spatiotemporal resolution. Herein, we report the rational design of the near-infrared fluorogenic substrates for human GzmA and mouse GzmA. These activity-based probes display very high catalytic efficiency and selectivity over other granzymes, as shown in tissue lysates from wild-type and GzmA knock-out mice. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the probes can image how adaptive immune cells respond to antigen-driven recognition of cancer cells in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiming Cheng
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Emily J Thompson
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | | | - Jamie I Scott
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Sam Benson
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Takanori Kitamura
- MRC Centre for Reproductive HealthThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | | | | | | | - Maykel A Arias
- CIBERINFECInstituto de Salud Carlos IIIZaragozaSpain
- Aragón Health Research InstituteBiomedical Research Centre of Aragón and Dpt of MicrobiologyPreventive Medicine and Public HealthZaragozaSpain
| | - Julian Pardo
- CIBERINFECInstituto de Salud Carlos IIIZaragozaSpain
- Aragón Health Research InstituteBiomedical Research Centre of Aragón and Dpt of MicrobiologyPreventive Medicine and Public HealthZaragozaSpain
| | - Eva M Galvez
- Instituto de CarboquimicaCSICZaragozaSpain
- CIBERINFECInstituto de Salud Carlos IIIZaragozaSpain
| | - Marc Vendrell
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
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9
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Cheng Z, Thompson EJ, Mendive‐Tapia L, Scott JI, Benson S, Kitamura T, Senan‐Salinas A, Samarakoon Y, Roberts EW, Arias MA, Pardo J, Galvez EM, Vendrell M. Fluorogenic Granzyme A Substrates Enable Real-Time Imaging of Adaptive Immune Cell Activity. ANGEWANDTE CHEMIE (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 135:e202216142. [PMID: 38515764 PMCID: PMC10953043 DOI: 10.1002/ange.202216142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic immune cells, including T lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer (NK) cells, are essential components of the host response against tumors. CTLs and NK cells secrete granzyme A (GzmA) upon recognition of cancer cells; however, there are very few tools that can detect physiological levels of active GzmA with high spatiotemporal resolution. Herein, we report the rational design of the near-infrared fluorogenic substrates for human GzmA and mouse GzmA. These activity-based probes display very high catalytic efficiency and selectivity over other granzymes, as shown in tissue lysates from wild-type and GzmA knock-out mice. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the probes can image how adaptive immune cells respond to antigen-driven recognition of cancer cells in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiming Cheng
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Emily J Thompson
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | | | - Jamie I Scott
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Sam Benson
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Takanori Kitamura
- MRC Centre for Reproductive HealthThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | | | | | | | - Maykel A Arias
- CIBERINFECInstituto de Salud Carlos IIIZaragozaSpain
- Aragón Health Research InstituteBiomedical Research Centre of Aragón and Dpt of MicrobiologyPreventive Medicine and Public HealthZaragozaSpain
| | - Julian Pardo
- CIBERINFECInstituto de Salud Carlos IIIZaragozaSpain
- Aragón Health Research InstituteBiomedical Research Centre of Aragón and Dpt of MicrobiologyPreventive Medicine and Public HealthZaragozaSpain
| | - Eva M Galvez
- Instituto de CarboquimicaCSICZaragozaSpain
- CIBERINFECInstituto de Salud Carlos IIIZaragozaSpain
| | - Marc Vendrell
- Centre for Inflammation ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
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10
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Rhee JY, Ghannam JY, Choi BD, Gerstner ER. Labeling T Cells to Track Immune Response to Immunotherapy in Glioblastoma. Tomography 2023; 9:274-284. [PMID: 36828374 PMCID: PMC9959194 DOI: 10.3390/tomography9010022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
While the advent of immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment, its use in the treatment of glioblastoma (GBM) has been less successful. Most studies using immunotherapy in GBM have been negative and the reasons for this are still being studied. In clinical practice, interpreting response to immunotherapy has been challenging, particularly when trying to differentiate between treatment-related changes (i.e., pseudoprogression) or true tumor progression. T cell tagging is one promising technique to noninvasively monitor treatment efficacy by assessing the migration, expansion, and engagement of T cells and their ability to target tumor cells at the tumor site.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Y. Rhee
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Brigham and Women’s Cancer Center, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Jack Y. Ghannam
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Bryan D. Choi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Elizabeth R. Gerstner
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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11
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Buttigieg E, Scheller A, El Waly B, Kirchhoff F, Debarbieux F. Contribution of Intravital Neuroimaging to Study Animal Models of Multiple Sclerosis. Neurotherapeutics 2023; 20:22-38. [PMID: 36653665 PMCID: PMC10119369 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-022-01324-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex and long-lasting neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by the loss of myelin within the white matter and cortical fibers, axonopathy, and inflammatory responses leading to consequent sensory-motor and cognitive deficits of patients. While complete resolution of the disease is not yet a reality, partial tissue repair has been observed in patients which offers hope for therapeutic strategies. To address the molecular and cellular events of the pathomechanisms, a variety of animal models have been developed to investigate distinct aspects of MS disease. Recent advances of multiscale intravital imaging facilitated the direct in vivo analysis of MS in the animal models with perspective of clinical transfer to patients. This review gives an overview of MS animal models, focusing on the current imaging modalities at the microscopic and macroscopic levels and emphasizing the importance of multimodal approaches to improve our understanding of the disease and minimize the use of animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emeline Buttigieg
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421, Homburg, Germany
- Institut des Neurosciences de la Timone (INT), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS UMR7289, 13005, Marseille, France
- Centre Européen de Recherche en Imagerie Médicale (CERIMED), Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Anja Scheller
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Bilal El Waly
- Institut des Neurosciences de la Timone (INT), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS UMR7289, 13005, Marseille, France
- Centre Européen de Recherche en Imagerie Médicale (CERIMED), Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Frank Kirchhoff
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Franck Debarbieux
- Institut des Neurosciences de la Timone (INT), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS UMR7289, 13005, Marseille, France.
- Centre Européen de Recherche en Imagerie Médicale (CERIMED), Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France.
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France.
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12
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Furukawa N, Stearns V, Santa-Maria CA, Popel AS. The tumor microenvironment and triple-negative breast cancer aggressiveness: shedding light on mechanisms and targeting. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2022; 26:1041-1056. [PMID: 36657483 PMCID: PMC10189896 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2022.2170779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In contrast to other breast cancer subtypes, there are currently limited options of targeted therapies for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Immense research has demonstrated that not only cancer cells but also stromal cells and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) play significant roles in the progression of TNBC. It is thus critical to understand the components of the TME of TNBC and the interactions between the various cell populations. AREAS COVERED The components of the TME of TNBC identified by single-cell technologies are reviewed. Furthermore, the molecular interactions between the cells and the potential therapeutic targets contributing to the progression of TNBC are discussed. EXPERT OPINION Single-cell omics studies have contributed to the classification of cells in the TME and the identification of important cell types involved in the progression and the treatment of the tumor. The interactions between cancer cells and stromal cells/immune cells in the TME have led to the discovery of potential therapeutic targets. Experimental data with spatial and temporal resolution will further boost the understanding of the TME of TNBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natsuki Furukawa
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Vered Stearns
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Cesar A. Santa-Maria
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Aleksander S. Popel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
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13
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Yu H, Wu M, Chen S, Song M, Yue Y. Biomimetic nanoparticles for tumor immunotherapy. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:989881. [PMID: 36440446 PMCID: PMC9682960 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.989881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, tumor treatment research still focuses on the cancer cells themselves, but the fact that the immune system plays an important role in inhibiting tumor development cannot be ignored. The activation of the immune system depends on the difference between self and non-self. Unfortunately, cancer is characterized by genetic changes in the host cells that lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and evade immune surveillance. Cancer immunotherapy aims to coordinate a patient's immune system to target, fight, and destroy cancer cells without destroying the normal cells. Nevertheless, antitumor immunity driven by the autoimmune system alone may be inadequate for treatment. The development of drug delivery systems (DDS) based on nanoparticles can not only promote immunotherapy but also improve the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITM), which provides promising strategies for cancer treatment. However, conventional nano drug delivery systems (NDDS) are subject to several limitations in clinical transformation, such as immunogenicity and the potential toxicity risks of the carrier materials, premature drug leakage at off-target sites during circulation and drug load content. In order to address these limitations, this paper reviews the trends and progress of biomimetic NDDS and discusses the applications of each biomimetic system in tumor immunotherapy. Furthermore, we review the various combination immunotherapies based on biomimetic NDDS and key considerations for clinical transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanqing Yu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Children’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Meng Wu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Children’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Siyu Chen
- School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mingming Song
- School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yulin Yue
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Children’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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14
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Betzer O, Gao Y, Shamul A, Motiei M, Sadan T, Yehuda R, Atkins A, Cohen CJ, Shen M, Shi X, Popovtzer R. Multifunctional nanoprobe for real-time in vivo monitoring of T cell activation. NANOMEDICINE : NANOTECHNOLOGY, BIOLOGY, AND MEDICINE 2022; 46:102596. [PMID: 36031044 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2022.102596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Genetically engineered T cells are a powerful new modality for cancer immunotherapy. However, their clinical application for solid tumors is challenging, and crucial knowledge on cell functionality in vivo is lacking. Here, we fabricated a nanoprobe composed of dendrimers incorporating a calcium sensor and gold nanoparticles, for dual-modal monitoring of engineered T cells within a solid tumor. T cells engineered to express a melanoma-specific T-cell receptor and loaded with the nanoprobe were longitudinally monitored within melanoma xenografts in mice. Fluorescent imaging of the nanoprobe's calcium sensor revealed increased intra-tumoral activation of the T cells over time, up to 24 h. Computed tomography imaging of the nanoprobe's gold nanoparticles revealed the cells' intra-tumoral distribution pattern. Quantitative analysis revealed the intra-tumoral T cell quantities. Thus, this nanoprobe reveals intra-tumoral persistence, penetration and functional status of genetically engineered T cells, which can advance T cell-based immunotherapy and promote next-generation live cell imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oshra Betzer
- The Alexander Kofkin Faculty of Engineering, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel; Bar-Ilan Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials (BINA), Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Yue Gao
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, International Joint Laboratory for Advanced Fiber and Low-dimension Materials, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, PR China
| | - Astar Shamul
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Menachem Motiei
- The Alexander Kofkin Faculty of Engineering, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel; Bar-Ilan Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials (BINA), Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Tamar Sadan
- The Alexander Kofkin Faculty of Engineering, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Ronen Yehuda
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Ayelet Atkins
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Cyrille J Cohen
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Mingwu Shen
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, International Joint Laboratory for Advanced Fiber and Low-dimension Materials, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, PR China
| | - Xiangyang Shi
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, International Joint Laboratory for Advanced Fiber and Low-dimension Materials, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, PR China.
| | - Rachela Popovtzer
- The Alexander Kofkin Faculty of Engineering, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel; Bar-Ilan Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials (BINA), Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.
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15
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Hormuth DA, Farhat M, Christenson C, Curl B, Chad Quarles C, Chung C, Yankeelov TE. Opportunities for improving brain cancer treatment outcomes through imaging-based mathematical modeling of the delivery of radiotherapy and immunotherapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 187:114367. [PMID: 35654212 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy has become a fourth pillar in the treatment of brain tumors and, when combined with radiation therapy, may improve patient outcomes and reduce the neurotoxicity. As with other combination therapies, the identification of a treatment schedule that maximizes the synergistic effect of radiation- and immune-therapy is a fundamental challenge. Mechanism-based mathematical modeling is one promising approach to systematically investigate therapeutic combinations to maximize positive outcomes within a rigorous framework. However, successful clinical translation of model-generated combinations of treatment requires patient-specific data to allow the models to be meaningfully initialized and parameterized. Quantitative imaging techniques have emerged as a promising source of high quality, spatially and temporally resolved data for the development and validation of mathematical models. In this review, we will present approaches to personalize mechanism-based modeling frameworks with patient data, and then discuss how these techniques could be leveraged to improve brain cancer outcomes through patient-specific modeling and optimization of treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Hormuth
- Oden Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Departments of Livestrong Cancer Institutes, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
| | - Maguy Farhat
- Departments of Radiation Oncology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77230, USA
| | - Chase Christenson
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Brandon Curl
- Departments of Radiation Oncology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77230, USA
| | - C Chad Quarles
- Barrow Neuroimaging Innovation Center, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA
| | - Caroline Chung
- Departments of Radiation Oncology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77230, USA
| | - Thomas E Yankeelov
- Oden Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Departments of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Departments of Diagnostic Medicine, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Departments of Oncology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Departments of Livestrong Cancer Institutes, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Departments of Imaging Physics, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77230, USA
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16
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Kramer CS, Dimitrakopoulou-Strauss A. Immuno-Imaging (PET/SPECT)-Quo Vadis? MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27103354. [PMID: 35630835 PMCID: PMC9147562 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27103354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The use of immunotherapy has revolutionized the treatment regimen of certain cancer types, but response assessment has become a difficult task with conventional methods such as CT/MRT or FDG PET-CT and the classical response criteria such as RECIST or PERCIST which have been developed for chemotherapeutic treatment. Plenty of new tracers have been published to improve the assessment of treatment response and to stratify the patient population. We gathered the information on published tracers (in total, 106 individual SPECT/PET tracers were identified) and performed a descriptor-based analysis; in this way, we classify the tracers with regard to target choice, developability (probability to progress from preclinical stage into the clinic), translatability (probability to be widely applied in the 'real world'), and (assumed) diagnostic quality. In our analysis, we show that most tracers are targeting PD-L1, PD-1, CTLA-4, and CD8 receptors by using antibodies or their fragments. Another finding is that plenty of tracers possess only minor iterations regarding chelators and nuclides instead of approaching the problem in a new innovative way. Based on the data, we suggest an orthogonal approach by targeting intracellular targets with PET-activatable small molecules that are currently underrepresented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten S. Kramer
- Curanosticum Wiesbaden-Frankfurt, Center for Advanced Radiomolecular Precision Oncology, D-65191 Wiesbaden, Germany
- Correspondence:
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17
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Peserico A, Di Berardino C, Russo V, Capacchietti G, Di Giacinto O, Canciello A, Camerano Spelta Rapini C, Barboni B. Nanotechnology-Assisted Cell Tracking. NANOMATERIALS 2022; 12:nano12091414. [PMID: 35564123 PMCID: PMC9103829 DOI: 10.3390/nano12091414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The usefulness of nanoparticles (NPs) in the diagnostic and/or therapeutic sector is derived from their aptitude for navigating intra- and extracellular barriers successfully and to be spatiotemporally targeted. In this context, the optimization of NP delivery platforms is technologically related to the exploitation of the mechanisms involved in the NP–cell interaction. This review provides a detailed overview of the available technologies focusing on cell–NP interaction/detection by describing their applications in the fields of cancer and regenerative medicine. Specifically, a literature survey has been performed to analyze the key nanocarrier-impacting elements, such as NP typology and functionalization, the ability to tune cell interaction mechanisms under in vitro and in vivo conditions by framing, and at the same time, the imaging devices supporting NP delivery assessment, and consideration of their specificity and sensitivity. Although the large amount of literature information on the designs and applications of cell membrane-coated NPs has reached the extent at which it could be considered a mature branch of nanomedicine ready to be translated to the clinic, the technology applied to the biomimetic functionalization strategy of the design of NPs for directing cell labelling and intracellular retention appears less advanced. These approaches, if properly scaled up, will present diverse biomedical applications and make a positive impact on human health.
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18
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Van Hoeck J, Braeckmans K, De Smedt SC, Raemdonck K. Non-viral siRNA delivery to T cells: Challenges and opportunities in cancer immunotherapy. Biomaterials 2022; 286:121510. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2022.121510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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19
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Li X, Yang X, Li Z, Zheng X, Peng YJ, Lin W, Zhou L, Cao D, Situ M, Tu Q, Huang H, Fan W, Feng G, Zhang X. Development of a Radiotracer for PET Imaging of the SNAP Tag. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:7550-7555. [PMID: 35284707 PMCID: PMC8908366 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c05856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cell therapies have progressed to cures for hematopoietic disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. However, only some patients can benefit from cell therapies even with prior screening. Due to the limited clinical methods to monitor the in vivo therapeutic functions of these transferred cells over time, the uncertain prognosis is hard to attenuate. Positron emission tomography (PET) cell tracking can provide comprehensive dynamic and spatial information on the proliferation status and whole-body distribution of the therapeutic cell. In this work, we designed and synthesized the first SNAP-tagged PET radiotracer. SNAP tag is an O 6-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase that can form an irreversible bond with 18F-BG-surface for in vivo cell tracking based on a reporter gene system. 18F-BG-surface was obtained by the F-Al radiolabeling method in 32 ± 7% radiochemical yield and showed a high in vitro stability in mouse serum. SNAP-tagged cells could be selectively targeted by 18F-BG-surface both in vitro (4.81 ± 0.08%AD/106 cell vs 2.26 ± 0.10%AD/106 cell) and in vivo (1.90 ± 0.05 vs 0.55 ± 0.02% ID/g, p < 0.01).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinling Li
- Department
of Nuclear Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University State Key Laboratory of
Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer
Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer
Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Xiaochun Yang
- Department
of Nuclear Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University State Key Laboratory of
Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer
Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer
Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Zhijian Li
- Department
of Nuclear Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University State Key Laboratory of
Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer
Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer
Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Xiaobin Zheng
- Department
of Nuclear Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University State Key Laboratory of
Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer
Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer
Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Yong-jian Peng
- State
Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation
Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen
University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Wenjie Lin
- State
Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation
Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen
University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Ling Zhou
- Sun
Yat-sen University State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China;
Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Dehai Cao
- State
Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation
Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen
University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Minyi Situ
- State
Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation
Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen
University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Qingqiang Tu
- Laboratory
Animal Center, Sun Yat-sen University Zhongshan
School of Medicine, 74 Zhongshan 2th Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510085, China
| | - Huiqiang Huang
- State
Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation
Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen
University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Wei Fan
- Department
of Nuclear Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University State Key Laboratory of
Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer
Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer
Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Guokai Feng
- State
Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation
Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen
University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
| | - Xiaofei Zhang
- Department
of Nuclear Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University State Key Laboratory of
Oncology in South China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer
Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer
Center, 651 Dongfengdong Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510060, China
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20
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Shalaby N, Kelly J, Martinez F, Fox M, Qi Q, Thiessen J, Hicks J, Scholl TJ, Ronald JA. A Human-derived Dual MRI/PET Reporter Gene System with High Translational Potential for Cell Tracking. Mol Imaging Biol 2022; 24:341-351. [PMID: 35146614 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-021-01697-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Reporter gene imaging has been extensively used to longitudinally report on whole-body distribution and viability of transplanted engineered cells. Multi-modal cell tracking can provide complementary information on cell fate. Typical multi-modal reporter gene systems often combine clinical and preclinical modalities. A multi-modal reporter gene system for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), two clinical modalities, would be advantageous by combining the sensitivity of PET with the high-resolution morphology and non-ionizing nature of MRI. PROCEDURES We developed and evaluated a dual MRI/PET reporter gene system composed of two human-derived reporter genes that utilize clinical reporter probes for engineered cell detection. As a proof-of-concept, breast cancer cells were engineered to co-express the human organic anion transporter polypeptide 1B3 (OATP1B3) that uptakes the clinical MRI contrast agent gadolinium ethoxybenzyl-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (Gd-EOB-DTPA), and the human sodium iodide symporter (NIS) which uptakes the PET tracer, [18F] tetrafluoroborate ([18F] TFB). RESULTS T1-weighted MRI results in mice exhibited significantly higher MRI signals in reporter-gene-engineered mammary fat pad tumors versus contralateral naïve tumors (p < 0.05). No differences in contrast enhancement were observed at 5 h after Gd-EOB-DTPA administration using either intravenous or intraperitoneal injection. We also found significantly higher standard uptake values (SUV) in engineered tumors in comparison to the naïve tumors in [18F]TFB PET images (p < 0.001). Intratumoral heterogeneity in signal enhancement was more conspicuous in relatively higher resolution MR images compared to PET images. CONCLUSIONS Our study demonstrates the ability to noninvasively track cells engineered with our human-derived dual MRI/PET reporter system, enabling a more comprehensive evaluation of transplanted cells. Future work is focused on applying this tool to track therapeutic cells, which may one day enable the broader application of cell tracking within the healthcare system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nourhan Shalaby
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.
| | - John Kelly
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
| | - Francisco Martinez
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
| | - Mathew Fox
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Canada.,Saint Joseph's Health Care, Toronto, Canada
| | - Qi Qi
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
| | - Jonathan Thiessen
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Saint Joseph's Health Care, Toronto, Canada.,Lawson Cyclotron and Radiochemistry Facility, London, Canada
| | - Justin Hicks
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Canada.,Lawson Cyclotron and Radiochemistry Facility, London, Canada
| | - Timothy J Scholl
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Canada
| | - John A Ronald
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Canada
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21
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Fluorine MR Imaging Probes Dynamic Migratory Profiles of Perfluorocarbon-Loaded Dendritic Cells After Streptozotocin-Induced Inflammation. Mol Imaging Biol 2022; 24:321-332. [PMID: 35060024 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-021-01701-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes (T1D) involves presentation of islet-specific self-antigens by dendritic cells (DCs) to autoreactive T cells, resulting in the destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells. We aimed to study the dynamic homing of diabetes-prone DCs to the pancreas and nearby organs with and without induction of pancreatic stress in a T1D susceptible model of repeated streptozotocin (STZ) injection. PROCEDURES In vitro labeling of activated bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs) from NOD (Nonobese diabetes) mice was performed using zonyl perfluoro-15-crown-5-ether nanoparticles (ZPFCE-NPs). Internalization of particles was confirmed by confocal microscopy. Two groups of NOD.SCID (nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency) mice with (induced by low dose STZ administration) or without pancreatic stress were compared. Diabetogenic BMDCs loaded with BDC2.5 mimotope were pre-labeled with ZPFCE-NPs and adoptively transferred into mice. Longitudinal in vivo fluorine MRI (19F MRI) was performed 24 h, 36 h and 48 h after transfer of BMDCs. For ex vivo quantification of labeled cells, 19F NMR and flow cytometry were performed on dissected tissues to validate in vivo 19F MRI data. RESULTS In vitro flow cytometry and confocal microscopy confirmed high uptake of nanoparticles in BMDCs during the process of maturation. Migration/homing of activated and ZPFCE-NP- labeled BMDCs to different organs was monitored and quantified longitudinally, showing highest cell density in pancreas at 48-h time-point. Based on 19F MRI, STZ induced mild inflammation in the pancreatic region, as indicated by high accumulation of ZPFCE-NP-labeled BMDCs in the pancreas when compared to the vehicle group. Pancreatic draining lymph nodes showed elevated homing of labeled BMDCs in the vehicle groups in contrast to the STZ group after 72 h. The effect of STZ was confirmed by increased blood glucose levels. CONCLUSION We showed the potential of 19F MRI for the non-invasive visualization and quantification of migrating immune cells in models for pancreatic inflammation after STZ administration. Without any intrinsic background signal, 19F MRI serves as a highly specific imaging tool to study the migration of diabetic-prone BMDCs in T1D models in vivo. This approach could particularly be of interest for the longitudinal assessment of established or novel anti-inflammatory therapeutic approaches in preclinical models.
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22
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Zhang W, Gaikwad H, Groman EV, Purev E, Simberg D, Wang G. Highly aminated iron oxide nanoworms for simultaneous manufacturing and labeling of chimeric antigen receptor T cells. JOURNAL OF MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2022; 541:168480. [PMID: 34720339 PMCID: PMC8553019 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmmm.2021.168480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Cell based therapies including chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are promising for treating leukemias and solid cancers. At the same time, there is interest in enhancing the functionality of these cells via surface decoration with nanoparticles (backpacking). Magnetic nanoparticle cell labeling is of particular interest due to opportunities for magnetic separation, in vivo manipulation, drug delivery and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). While modification of T cells with magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) was explored before, we questioned whether MNPs are compatible with CAR-T cells when introduced during the manufacturing process. We chose highly aminated 120 nm crosslinked iron oxide nanoworms (CLIO NWs, ~36,000 amines per NW) that could efficiently label different adherent cell lines and we used CD123 CAR-T cells as the labeling model. The CD123 CAR-T cells were produced in the presence of CLIO NWs, CLIO NWs plus protamine sulfate (PS), or PS only. The transduction efficiency of lentiviral CD123 CAR with only NWs was ~23% lower than NW+PS and PS groups (~33% and 35%, respectively). The cell viability from these three transduction conditions was not reduced within CAR-T cell groups, though lower compared to non-transduced T cells (mock T). Use of CLIO NWs instead of, or together with cationic protamine sulfate for enhancement of lentiviral transduction resulted in comparable levels of CAR expression and viability but decreased the proportion of CD8+ cells and increased the proportion of CD4+ cells. CD123 CAR-T transduced in the presence of CLIO NWs, CLIO NWs plus PS, or PS only, showed similar level of cytotoxicity against leukemic cell lines. Furthermore, fluorescence microscopy imaging demonstrated that CD123 CAR-T cells labeled with CLIO NW formed rosettes with CD123+ leukemic cells as the non-labeled CAR-T cells, indicating that the CAR-T targeting to tumor cells has maintained after CLIO NW labeling. The in vivo trafficking of the NW labeled CAR-T cells showed the accumulation of CAR-T labeled with NWs primarily in the bone marrow and spleen. CAR-T cells can be magnetically labeled during their production while maintaining functionality using the positively charged iron oxide NWs, which enable the in vivo biodistribution and tracking of CAR-T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Hanmant Gaikwad
- Translational Bio-Nanosciences Laboratory, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Colorado Center for Nanomedicine and Nanosafety, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Ernest V. Groman
- Translational Bio-Nanosciences Laboratory, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Colorado Center for Nanomedicine and Nanosafety, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Enkhtsetseg Purev
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Dmitri Simberg
- Translational Bio-Nanosciences Laboratory, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Colorado Center for Nanomedicine and Nanosafety, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Corresponding Authors: (Dmitri Simberg), (Guankui Wang)
| | - Guankui Wang
- Translational Bio-Nanosciences Laboratory, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Colorado Center for Nanomedicine and Nanosafety, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Corresponding Authors: (Dmitri Simberg), (Guankui Wang)
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23
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Conejos-Sánchez I, Đorđević S, Medel M, Vicent MJ. Polypeptides as building blocks for image-guided nanotherapies. CURRENT OPINION IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobme.2021.100323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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24
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Van Hoeck J, Vanhove C, De Smedt SC, Raemdonck K. Non-invasive cell-tracking methods for adoptive T cell therapies. Drug Discov Today 2021; 27:793-807. [PMID: 34718210 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2021.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive T cell therapies (ACT) have demonstrated groundbreaking results in blood cancers and melanoma. Nevertheless, their significant cost, the occurrence of severe adverse events, and their poor performance in solid tumors are important hurdles hampering more widespread applicability. In vivo cell tracking allows instantaneous and non-invasive monitoring of the distribution, tumor homing, persistence, and redistribution to other organs of infused T cells in patients. Furthermore, cell tracking could aid in the clinical management of patients, allowing the detection of non-responders or severe adverse events at an early stage. This review provides a concise overview of the main principles and potential of cell tracking, followed by a discussion of the clinically relevant labeling strategies and their application in ACT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelter Van Hoeck
- Ghent Research Group on Nanomedicines, Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christian Vanhove
- Infinity Lab, Medical Imaging and Signal Processing Group-IBiTech, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Corneel Heymanslaan 10, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stefaan C De Smedt
- Ghent Research Group on Nanomedicines, Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Koen Raemdonck
- Ghent Research Group on Nanomedicines, Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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25
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Shalaby N, Dubois VP, Ronald J. Molecular imaging of cellular immunotherapies in experimental and therapeutic settings. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2021; 71:1281-1294. [PMID: 34657195 PMCID: PMC9122865 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-021-03073-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cell-based cancer immunotherapies are becoming a routine part of the armamentarium against cancer. While remarkable successes have been seen, including durable remissions, not all patients will benefit from these therapies and many can suffer from life-threatening side effects. These differences in efficacy and safety across patients and across tumor types (e.g., blood vs. solid), are thought to be due to differences in how well the immune cells traffic to their target tissue (e.g., tumor, lymph nodes, etc.) whilst avoiding non-target tissues. Across patient variability can also stem from whether the cells interact with (i.e., communicate with) their intended target cells (e.g., cancer cells), as well as if they proliferate and survive long enough to yield potent and long-lasting therapeutic effects. However, many cell-based therapies are monitored by relatively simple blood tests that lack any spatial information and do not reflect how many immune cells have ended up at particular tissues. The ex vivo labeling and imaging of infused therapeutic immune cells can provide a more precise and dynamic understanding of whole-body immune cell biodistribution, expansion, viability, and activation status in individual patients. In recent years numerous cellular imaging technologies have been developed that may provide this much-needed information on immune cell fate. For this review, we summarize various ex vivo labeling and imaging approaches that allow for tracking of cellular immunotherapies for cancer. Our focus is on clinical imaging modalities and summarize the progression from experimental to therapeutic settings. The imaging information provided by these technologies can potentially be used for many purposes including improved real-time understanding of therapeutic efficacy and potential side effects in individual patients after cell infusion; the ability to more readily compare new therapeutic cell designs to current designs for various parameters such as improved trafficking to target tissues and avoidance of non-target tissues; and the long-term ability to identify patient populations that are likely to be positive responders and at low-risk of side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nourhan Shalaby
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Veronica Phyllis Dubois
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - John Ronald
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada. .,Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada. .,Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada.
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26
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Mundy DC, Goldberg JL. Nanoparticles as Cell Tracking Agents in Human Ocular Cell Transplantation Therapy. CURRENT OPHTHALMOLOGY REPORTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s40135-021-00275-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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27
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In Vivo PET Imaging of Monocytes Labeled with [ 89Zr]Zr-PLGA-NH 2 Nanoparticles in Tumor and Staphylococcus aureus Infection Models. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13205069. [PMID: 34680219 PMCID: PMC8533969 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13205069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The exponential growth of research on cell-based therapy is in major need of reliable and sensitive tracking of a small number of therapeutic cells to improve our understanding of the in vivo cell-targeting properties. 111In-labeled poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) with a primary amine endcap nanoparticles ([111In]In-PLGA-NH2 NPs) were previously used for cell labeling and in vivo tracking, using SPECT/CT imaging. However, to detect a low number of cells, a higher sensitivity of PET is preferred. Therefore, we developed 89Zr-labeled NPs for ex vivo cell labeling and in vivo cell tracking, using PET/MRI. We intrinsically and efficiently labeled PLGA-NH2 NPs with [89Zr]ZrCl4. In vitro, [89Zr]Zr-PLGA-NH2 NPs retained the radionuclide over a period of 2 weeks in PBS and human serum. THP-1 (human monocyte cell line) cells could be labeled with the NPs and retained the radionuclide over a period of 2 days, with no negative effect on cell viability (specific activity 279 ± 10 kBq/106 cells). PET/MRI imaging could detect low numbers of [89Zr]Zr-THP-1 cells (10,000 and 100,000 cells) injected subcutaneously in Matrigel. Last, in vivo tracking of the [89Zr]Zr-THP-1 cells upon intravenous injection showed specific accumulation in local intramuscular Staphylococcus aureus infection and infiltration into MDA-MB-231 tumors. In conclusion, we showed that [89Zr]Zr-PLGA-NH2 NPs can be used for immune-cell labeling and subsequent in vivo tracking of a small number of cells in different disease models.
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28
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Lilburn DM, Groves AM. The role of PET in imaging of the tumour microenvironment and response to immunotherapy. Clin Radiol 2021; 76:784.e1-784.e15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crad.2021.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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29
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Kiraga Ł, Kucharzewska P, Paisey S, Cheda Ł, Domańska A, Rogulski Z, Rygiel TP, Boffi A, Król M. Nuclear imaging for immune cell tracking in vivo – Comparison of various cell labeling methods and their application. Coord Chem Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2021.214008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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30
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Depke DA, Konken CP, Rösner L, Hermann S, Schäfers M, Rentmeister A. A novel 18F-labeled clickable substrate for targeted imaging of SNAP-tag expressing cells by PET in vivo. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 57:9850-9853. [PMID: 34490435 DOI: 10.1039/d1cc03871k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Bioorthogonal covalent labeling with self-labeling enzymes like SNAP-tag bears a high potential for specific targeting of cells for imaging in vitro and also in vivo. To this end, fluorescent SNAP substrates have been established and used in microscopy and fluorescence imaging while radioactive substrates for the highly sensitive and whole-body positron emission tomography (PET) have been lacking. Here, we show for the first time successful and high-contrast PET imaging of subcutaneous SNAP-tag expressing tumor xenografts by bioorthogonal covalent targeting with a novel 18F-based radioligand in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic Alexej Depke
- European Institute for Molecular Imaging (EIMI), University of Münster, Germany.
| | - Christian Paul Konken
- European Institute for Molecular Imaging (EIMI), University of Münster, Germany. .,Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Münster, Germany
| | - Lukas Rösner
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Münster, Germany.
| | - Sven Hermann
- European Institute for Molecular Imaging (EIMI), University of Münster, Germany.
| | - Michael Schäfers
- European Institute for Molecular Imaging (EIMI), University of Münster, Germany. .,Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Münster, Germany
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31
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Nobashi TW, Mayer AT, Xiao Z, Chan CT, Chaney AM, James ML, Gambhir SS. Whole-body PET Imaging of T-cell Response to Glioblastoma. Clin Cancer Res 2021; 27:6445-6456. [PMID: 34548318 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-21-1412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Immunotherapy is a promising approach for many oncological malignancies, including glioblastoma, however, there are currently no available tools or biomarkers to accurately assess whole-body immune responses in patients with glioblastoma treated with immunotherapy. Here, the utility of OX40, a costimulatory molecule mainly expressed on activated effector T cells known to play an important role in eliminating cancer cells, was evaluated as a PET imaging biomarker to quantify and track response to immunotherapy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN A subcutaneous vaccination approach of CpG oligodeoxynucleotide, OX40 mAb, and tumor lysate at a remote site in a murine orthotopic glioma model was developed to induce activation of T cells distantly while monitoring their distribution in stimulated lymphoid organs with respect to observed therapeutic effects. To detect OX40-positive T cells, we utilized our in-house-developed 89Zr-DFO-OX40 mAb and in vivo PET/CT imaging. RESULTS ImmunoPET with 89Zr-DFO-OX40 mAb revealed strong OX40-positive responses with high specificity, not only in the nearest lymph node from vaccinated area (mean, 20.8%ID/cc) but also in the spleen (16.7%ID/cc) and the tumor draining lymph node (11.4%ID/cc). When the tumor was small (<106 p/sec/cm2/sr in bioluminescence imaging), a high number of responders and percentage shrinkage in tumor signal was indicated after only a single cycle of vaccination. CONCLUSIONS The results highlight the promise of clinically translating cancer vaccination as a potential glioma therapy, as well as the benefits of monitoring efficacy of these treatments using immunoPET imaging of T-cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomomi W Nobashi
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California.
| | - Aaron T Mayer
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California. .,Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Bio-X Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Zunyu Xiao
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Molecular Imaging Research Center of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Carmel T Chan
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Aisling M Chaney
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Michelle L James
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Sanjiv S Gambhir
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Bio-X Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California.,Canary Center at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, California
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32
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Haddad AF, Young JS, Amara D, Berger MS, Raleigh DR, Aghi MK, Butowski NA. Mouse models of glioblastoma for the evaluation of novel therapeutic strategies. Neurooncol Adv 2021; 3:vdab100. [PMID: 34466804 PMCID: PMC8403483 DOI: 10.1093/noajnl/vdab100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is an incurable brain tumor with a median survival of approximately 15 months despite an aggressive standard of care that includes surgery, chemotherapy, and ionizing radiation. Mouse models have advanced our understanding of GBM biology and the development of novel therapeutic strategies for GBM patients. However, model selection is crucial when testing developmental therapeutics, and each mouse model of GBM has unique advantages and disadvantages that can influence the validity and translatability of experimental results. To shed light on this process, we discuss the strengths and limitations of 3 types of mouse GBM models in this review: syngeneic models, genetically engineered mouse models, and xenograft models, including traditional xenograft cell lines and patient-derived xenograft models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander F Haddad
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Jacob S Young
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Dominic Amara
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Mitchel S Berger
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - David R Raleigh
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Manish K Aghi
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Nicholas A Butowski
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
- Corresponding Author: Nicholas A. Butowski, MD, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Ave Eighth Floor, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA ()
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33
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Chung S, Revia RA, Zhang M. Iron oxide nanoparticles for immune cell labeling and cancer immunotherapy. NANOSCALE HORIZONS 2021; 6:696-717. [PMID: 34286791 PMCID: PMC8496976 DOI: 10.1039/d1nh00179e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy is a novel approach to cancer treatment that leverages components of the immune system as opposed to chemotherapeutics or radiation. Cell migration is an integral process in a therapeutic immune response, and the ability to track and image the migration of immune cells in vivo allows for better characterization of the disease and monitoring of the therapeutic outcomes. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are promising candidates for use in immunotherapy as they are biocompatible, have flexible surface chemistry, and display magnetic properties that may be used in contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In this review, advances in application of IONPs in cell tracking and cancer immunotherapy are presented. Following a brief overview of the cancer immunity cycle, developments in labeling and tracking various immune cells using IONPs are highlighted. We also discuss factors that influence the effectiveness of IONPs as MRI contrast agents. Finally, we outline different approaches for cancer immunotherapy and highlight current efforts that utilize IONPs to stimulate immune cells to enhance their activity and response to cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seokhwan Chung
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
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ImmunoPET of CD38 with a radiolabeled nanobody: promising for clinical translation. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2021; 48:2683-2686. [PMID: 33942140 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-021-05329-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Li Z, Li T, Zhang C, Ni JS, Ji Y, Sun A, Peng D, Wu W, Xi L, Li K. A Multispectral Photoacoustic Tracking Strategy for Wide-Field and Real-Time Monitoring of Macrophages in Inflammation. Anal Chem 2021; 93:8467-8475. [PMID: 34109798 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is a common defensive response of the vascular system that involves the activation and mediation of immune cell and stem cell homing. However, it is usually hard to track and analyze the real-time status of these cell types toward the inflammation microenvironment in a large field of view with desired resolution. Here, we designed and synthesized near-infrared absorbing semiconducting polymer nanoparticles, BBT-TQP-NP (BTNPs), as the cell tracker and utilized their photoacoustic activity to unveil the targeting behaviors of macrophages, neutrophils, and mesenchymal stem cells to the inflamed sites in mice. Facilitated by multispectral optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (ORPAM), we can continuously monitor the in vivo photoacoustic signals of the labeled cells with cellular resolution in a wide-field (a circle field-of-view with a diameter of 9 mm). In addition, the highly sensitive observation of vascular microstructures and labeled cells can reveal the time-dependent accumulating behaviors of various cell types toward inflammation sites. As a result, our study offers an effective and promising tracking strategy to analyze the in vivo status and fate of functional cells in targeting the diseased/damaged regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeshun Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Tingting Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Jen-Shyang Ni
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Yaoyao Ji
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Aihui Sun
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Dinglu Peng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Weijun Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Lei Xi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Kai Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
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Juengling FD, Maldonado A, Wuest F, Schindler TH. Identify. Quantify. Predict. Why Immunologists Should Widely Use Molecular Imaging for Coronavirus Disease 2019. Front Immunol 2021; 12:568959. [PMID: 34054793 PMCID: PMC8155634 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.568959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular imaging using PET/CT or PET/MRI has evolved from an experimental imaging modality at its inception in 1972 to an integral component of diagnostic procedures in oncology, and, to lesser extent, in cardiology and neurology, by successfully offering in-vivo imaging and quantitation of key pathophysiological targets or molecular signatures, such as glucose metabolism in cancerous disease. Apart from metabolism probes, novel radiolabeled peptide and antibody PET tracers, including radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have entered the clinical arena, providing the in-vivo capability to collect target-specific quantitative in-vivo data on cellular and molecular pathomechanisms on a whole-body scale, and eventually, extract imaging biomarkers possibly serving as prognostic indicators. The success of molecular imaging in mapping disease severity on a whole-body scale, and directing targeted therapies in oncology possibly could translate to the management of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), by identifying, localizing, and quantifying involvement of different immune mediated responses to the infection with SARS-COV2 during the course of acute infection and possible, chronic courses with long-term effects on specific organs. The authors summarize current knowledge for medical imaging in COVID-19 in general with a focus on molecular imaging technology and provide a perspective for immunologists interested in molecular imaging research using validated and immediately available molecular probes, as well as possible future targets, highlighting key targets for tailored treatment approaches as brought up by key opinion leaders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freimut D. Juengling
- Medical Faculty, University Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Antonio Maldonado
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Quironsalud Madrid University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - Frank Wuest
- Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Thomas H. Schindler
- Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
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Sheng J, Shi C, Gu N. Clinical trials of MRI-based immune cell imaging: challenges and perspectives. Sci Bull (Beijing) 2021; 66:303-306. [PMID: 36654405 DOI: 10.1016/j.scib.2020.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Sheng
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biomaterials and Devices, School of Biological Sciences & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Suzhou 215213, China
| | - Chu Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biomaterials and Devices, School of Biological Sciences & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Suzhou 215213, China
| | - Ning Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biomaterials and Devices, School of Biological Sciences & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Suzhou 215213, China.
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Kiraga Ł, Kucharzewska P, Strzemecki D, Rygiel TP, Król M. Non-radioactive imaging strategies for in vivo immune cell tracking. PHYSICAL SCIENCES REVIEWS 2021; 8:385-403. [PMID: 36975764 PMCID: PMC10037928 DOI: 10.1515/psr-2020-0205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In vivo tracking of administered cells chosen for specific disease treatment may be conducted by diagnostic imaging techniques preceded by cell labeling with special contrast agents. The most commonly used agents are those with radioactive properties, however their use in research is often impossible. This review paper focuses on the essential aspect of cell tracking with the exclusion of radioisotope tracers, therefore we compare application of different types of non-radioactive contrast agents (cell tracers), methods of cell labeling and application of various techniques for cell tracking, which are commonly used in preclinical or clinical studies. We discuss diagnostic imaging methods belonging to three groups: (1) Contrast-enhanced X-ray imaging, (2) Magnetic resonance imaging, and (3) Optical imaging. In addition, we present some interesting data from our own research on tracking immune cell with the use of discussed methods. Finally, we introduce an algorithm which may be useful for researchers planning leukocyte targeting studies, which may help to choose the appropriate cell type, contrast agent and diagnostic technique for particular disease study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Kiraga
- Department of Cancer Biology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
- Cellis AG, 80002 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Paulina Kucharzewska
- Department of Cancer Biology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
- Cellis AG, 80002 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Tomasz P. Rygiel
- Cellis AG, 80002 Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Król
- Department of Cancer Biology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
- Cellis AG, 80002 Zurich, Switzerland
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Wang L, Lee DJ, Han H, Zhao L, Tsukamoto H, Kim YI, Musicant AM, Parag-Sharma K, Hu X, Tseng HC, Chi JT, Wang Z, Amelio AL, Ko CC. Application of bioluminescence resonance energy transfer-based cell tracking approach in bone tissue engineering. J Tissue Eng 2021; 12:2041731421995465. [PMID: 33643604 PMCID: PMC7894599 DOI: 10.1177/2041731421995465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Bioluminescent imaging (BLI) has emerged as a popular in vivo tracking modality in bone regeneration studies stemming from its clear advantages: non-invasive, real-time, and inexpensive. We recently adopted bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) principle to improve BLI cell tracking and generated the brightest bioluminescent signal known to date, which thus enables more sensitive real-time cell tracking at deep tissue level. In the present study, we brought BRET-based cell tracking strategy into the field of bone tissue engineering for the first time. We labeled rat mesenchymal stem cells (rMSCs) with our in-house BRET-based GpNLuc reporter and evaluated the cell tracking efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. In scaffold-free spheroid 3D culture system, using BRET-based GpNLuc labeling resulted in significantly better correlation to cell numbers than a fluorescence based approach. In scaffold-based 3D culture system, GpNLuc-rMSCs displayed robust bioluminescence signals with minimal background noise. Furthermore, a tight correlation between BLI signal and cell number highlighted the robust reliability of using BRET-based BLI. In calvarial critical sized defect model, robust signal and the consistency in cell survival evaluation collectively supported BRET-based GpNLuc labeling as a reliable approach for non-invasively tracking MSC. In summary, BRET-based GpNLuc labeling is a robust, reliable, and inexpensive real-time cell tracking method, which offers a promising direction for the technological innovation of BLI and even non-invasive tracking systems, in the field of bone tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lufei Wang
- Division of Oral and Craniofacial Health Sciences, University of North Carolina Adams School of Dentistry, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Dong Joon Lee
- Division of Oral and Craniofacial Health Sciences, University of North Carolina Adams School of Dentistry, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Han Han
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Lixing Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hiroshi Tsukamoto
- Research & Development Center, Nitta Gelatin Inc., Yao-City, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yong-Il Kim
- Department of Orthodontics, School of Dentistry, Pusan National University, Yangsan, South Korea
| | - Adele M Musicant
- Graduate Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Kshitij Parag-Sharma
- Graduate Curriculum in Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Xiangxiang Hu
- Division of Oral and Craniofacial Health Sciences, University of North Carolina Adams School of Dentistry, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Henry C Tseng
- Duke Eye Center and Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Jen-Tsan Chi
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Center for Genomics and Computational Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Zhengyan Wang
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, University of North Carolina Adams School of Dentistry, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Antonio L Amelio
- Division of Oral and Craniofacial Health Sciences, University of North Carolina Adams School of Dentistry, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.,Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Ching-Chang Ko
- Division of Orthodontics, The Ohio State University College of Dentistry, Columbus, OH, USA
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40
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Volpe A, Nagle VL, Lewis JS, Ponomarev V. Predicting CAR-T cell Immunotherapy Success through ImmunoPET. Clin Cancer Res 2021; 27:911-912. [PMID: 33328345 PMCID: PMC7887102 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-20-4297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy has generated unprecedented advances in the treatment of hematologic cancers, but readily translatable imaging approaches to visualize the in vivo dynamics of CAR-T cells are lacking. Noninvasive PET imaging is the ideal tool to monitor CAR-T cells.See related article by Simonetta et al., p. 1058.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Volpe
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | | | - Jason S Lewis
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
- Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
- Molecular Pharmacology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Vladimir Ponomarev
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York.
- Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
- Molecular Pharmacology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
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41
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Pietrobon V, Cesano A, Marincola F, Kather JN. Next Generation Imaging Techniques to Define Immune Topographies in Solid Tumors. Front Immunol 2021; 11:604967. [PMID: 33584676 PMCID: PMC7873485 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.604967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, cancer immunotherapy experienced remarkable developments and it is nowadays considered a promising therapeutic frontier against many types of cancer, especially hematological malignancies. However, in most types of solid tumors, immunotherapy efficacy is modest, partly because of the limited accessibility of lymphocytes to the tumor core. This immune exclusion is mediated by a variety of physical, functional and dynamic barriers, which play a role in shaping the immune infiltrate in the tumor microenvironment. At present there is no unified and integrated understanding about the role played by different postulated models of immune exclusion in human solid tumors. Systematically mapping immune landscapes or "topographies" in cancers of different histology is of pivotal importance to characterize spatial and temporal distribution of lymphocytes in the tumor microenvironment, providing insights into mechanisms of immune exclusion. Spatially mapping immune cells also provides quantitative information, which could be informative in clinical settings, for example for the discovery of new biomarkers that could guide the design of patient-specific immunotherapies. In this review, we aim to summarize current standard and next generation approaches to define Cancer Immune Topographies based on published studies and propose future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jakob Nikolas Kather
- Medical Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
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42
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Abstract
Over the last few years, cancer immunotherapy experienced tremendous developments and it is nowadays considered a promising strategy against many types of cancer. However, the exclusion of lymphocytes from the tumor nest is a common phenomenon that limits the efficiency of immunotherapy in solid tumors. Despite several mechanisms proposed during the years to explain the immune excluded phenotype, at present, there is no integrated understanding about the role played by different models of immune exclusion in human cancers. Hypoxia is a hallmark of most solid tumors and, being a multifaceted and complex condition, shapes in a unique way the tumor microenvironment, affecting gene transcription and chromatin remodeling. In this review, we speculate about an upstream role for hypoxia as a common biological determinant of immune exclusion in solid tumors. We also discuss the current state of ex vivo and in vivo imaging of hypoxic determinants in relation to T cell distribution that could mechanisms of immune exclusion and discover functional-morphological tumor features that could support clinical monitoring.
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43
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Stephen ZR, Zhang M. Recent Progress in the Synergistic Combination of Nanoparticle-Mediated Hyperthermia and Immunotherapy for Treatment of Cancer. Adv Healthc Mater 2021; 10:e2001415. [PMID: 33236511 PMCID: PMC8034553 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202001415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Immunotherapy has demonstrated great clinical success in certain cancers, driven primarily by immune checkpoint blockade and adoptive cell therapies. Immunotherapy can elicit strong, durable responses in some patients, but others do not respond, and to date immunotherapy has demonstrated success in only a limited number of cancers. To address this limitation, combinatorial approaches with chemo- and radiotherapy have been applied in the clinic. Extensive preclinical evidence suggests that hyperthermia therapy (HT) has considerable potential to augment immunotherapy with minimal toxicity. This progress report will provide a brief overview of immunotherapy and HT approaches and highlight recent progress in the application of nanoparticle (NP)-based HT in combination with immunotherapy. NPs allow for tumor-specific targeting of deep tissue tumors while potentially providing more even heating. NP-based HT increases tumor immunogenicity and tumor permeability, which improves immune cell infiltration and creates an environment more responsive to immunotherapy, particularly in solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary R Stephen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Miqin Zhang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
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44
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Tian R, Ke C, Rao L, Lau J, Chen X. Multimodal stratified imaging of nanovaccines in lymph nodes for improving cancer immunotherapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2020; 161-162:145-160. [PMID: 32827558 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2020.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines hold enormous potential in cancer immunotherapy by stimulating the body's immune response; unfortunately, the clinical response rates of cancer vaccines are less than 30%. Nanovaccines show the potential to enhance the treatment efficacy of conventional vaccines due to their unique properties, such as efficient co-delivery of cocktail to the secondary lymphatic system, high tumor accumulation and penetration, and customizable delivery of antigens and adjuvants. Meanwhile, the non-invasive visualization of vaccines after their delivery can yield information about in vivo distribution and performance, and aid in their subsequent optimization and translational studies. In this review, we summarize the strategies for the spatiotemporal visualization of nanovaccines in lymph nodes, including whole-body in vivo imaging, intravital organ/cell imaging, and ex vivo tissue/cell imaging. The application of imaging modalities in nanovaccine development is discussed. Moreover, strategies to achieve different combinations of imaging modalities are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China.
| | - Chaomin Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Lang Rao
- Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine (LOMIN), National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Joseph Lau
- Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine (LOMIN), National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Xiaoyuan Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine (LOMIN), National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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45
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Zormpas-Petridis K, Poon E, Clarke M, Jerome NP, Boult JKR, Blackledge MD, Carceller F, Koers A, Barone G, Pearson ADJ, Moreno L, Anderson J, Sebire N, McHugh K, Koh DM, Chesler L, Yuan Y, Robinson SP, Jamin Y. Noninvasive MRI Native T 1 Mapping Detects Response to MYCN-targeted Therapies in the Th- MYCN Model of Neuroblastoma. Cancer Res 2020; 80:3424-3435. [PMID: 32595135 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-20-0133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Noninvasive early indicators of treatment response are crucial to the successful delivery of precision medicine in children with cancer. Neuroblastoma is a common solid tumor of young children that arises from anomalies in neural crest development. Therapeutic approaches aiming to destabilize MYCN protein, such as small-molecule inhibitors of Aurora A and mTOR, are currently being evaluated in early phase clinical trials in children with high-risk MYCN-driven disease, with limited ability to evaluate conventional pharmacodynamic biomarkers of response. T1 mapping is an MRI scan that measures the proton spin-lattice relaxation time T1. Using a multiparametric MRI-pathologic cross-correlative approach and computational pathology methodologies including a machine learning-based algorithm for the automatic detection and classification of neuroblasts, we show here that T1 mapping is sensitive to the rich histopathologic heterogeneity of neuroblastoma in the Th-MYCN transgenic model. Regions with high native T1 corresponded to regions dense in proliferative undifferentiated neuroblasts, whereas regions characterized by low T1 were rich in apoptotic or differentiating neuroblasts. Reductions in tumor-native T1 represented a sensitive biomarker of response to treatment-induced apoptosis with two MYCN-targeted small-molecule inhibitors, Aurora A kinase inhibitor alisertib (MLN8237) and mTOR inhibitor vistusertib (AZD2014). Overall, we demonstrate the potential of T1 mapping, a scan readily available on most clinical MRI scanners, to assess response to therapy and guide clinical trials for children with neuroblastoma. The study reinforces the potential role of MRI-based functional imaging in delivering precision medicine to children with neuroblastoma. SIGNIFICANCE: This study shows that MRI-based functional imaging can detect apoptotic responses to MYCN-targeted small-molecule inhibitors in a genetically engineered murine model of MYCN-driven neuroblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos Zormpas-Petridis
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Evon Poon
- Division of Clinical Studies, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Clarke
- Division of Molecular Pathology, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Neil P Jerome
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
- Clinic of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jessica K R Boult
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew D Blackledge
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Fernando Carceller
- Division of Clinical Studies, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
- Children & Young People's Unit, The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander Koers
- Division of Clinical Studies, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Giuseppe Barone
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D J Pearson
- Division of Clinical Studies, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Lucas Moreno
- Pediatric Hematology & Oncology, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
| | - John Anderson
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Sebire
- Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Pathology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kieran McHugh
- Department of Radiology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dow-Mu Koh
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Louis Chesler
- Division of Clinical Studies, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Yinyin Yuan
- Division of Molecular Pathology, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Simon P Robinson
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Yann Jamin
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London and The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom.
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