Aflatoxins: A Global Concern for Food Safety, Human Health and Their Management

Portable dual-mode paper chips for highly sensitive and rapid determination of aflatoxin B1 via an aptamer-gated MOFs

Paper chip as a representative microfluidic device has been mushroomed for rapid identification of contaminants in agro-food. However, the sensitivity and accuracy have still been challenged by inevitable background noise or interference in food matrix. Herein, we designed and fabricated a dual-mode paper chip (DPC) by assembling a patterned paper electrode with a platinum nanoparticles-treated colorimetric region through a flow channel. Dual-mode outputs were guided by an aptamer-gated UiO-66-NH2 metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). UiO-66-NH2 loaded with 3, 3', 5, 5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) was controlled by a switch comprised of CdS quantum dots-aptamer. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1, a kind of carcinogenic mycotoxin) target came and induced TMB release, triggering colorimetric and ECL signals on DPC, ultra-high sensitivity with a detection limit of 7.8 fg/mL was realized. The practicability of the DPC was also confirmed by spiking AFB1 in real corn samples. This portable paper-based device provides an ideal rapid detection platform tailored for diverse food contaminants analysis.

Machine learning-based non-destructive terahertz detection of seed quality in peanut

Rapid identification of peanut seed quality is crucial for public health. In this study, we present a terahertz wave imaging system using a convolutional neural network (CNN) machine learning approach. Terahertz waves are capable of penetrating the seed shell to identify the quality of peanuts without causing any damage to the seeds. The specificity of seed quality on terahertz wave images is investigated, and the image characteristics of five different qualities are summarized. Terahertz wave images are digitized and used for training and testing of convolutional neural networks, resulting in a high model accuracy of 98.7% in quality identification. The trained THz-CNNs system can accurately identify standard, mildewed, defective, dried and germinated seeds, with an average detection time of 2.2 s. This process does not require any sample preparation steps such as concentration or culture. Our method swiftly and accurately assesses shelled seed quality non-destructively.

Aflatoxin removal and biotransformation aptitude of food grade bacteria from milk and milk products- at a glance

Microorganisms are the only entities in the biosphere with an incomparable ability to employ diverse organic and inorganic compounds for growth and convert it to simple form that is no longer harmful to human health and environment. Food grade microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria, bifidobacteria, propionibacteria as well as several yeast species are associated with food fermentation processes as well as have gained probiotic status owing to their noteworthy offerings in health stimulation as a natural gut microbiota in animals and humans. However, as biological agents little is known about their application for bioremediation and biotransformation aptitude. In context to this, aflatoxin M1 is a class of mycotoxins often associated with milk through consumption of fungus contaminated feed & fodders by cattle and well documented for their adverse health effects. Therefore, current review summarizes significance of aflatoxins present in milk and dairy products in human life, their source, types & health implications; food grade bacteria including probiotic strains and their mechanism of action involved in the removal of aflatoxin; and last section discusses the outcome of major studies showing aflatoxin reduction potential of food grade bacteria in milk and milk based products.

Pathogen producing aflatoxin in contaminated sandwich: Identification and preservation

The toxicity of the contaminated powder contributed to toxic aflatoxins has been well-known in the literature. However, before this study, the specific fungal strain behind aflatoxin production remained unidentified. Our research aimed to isolate and identify fungi from the tainted sandwiches while also assessing the preservation of sandwiches in ambient conditions. The study pinpointed Aspergillus flavus as the fungus responsible for aflatoxin production. Analysis revealed that the sandwich samples contaminated with pure A. flavus exhibited a significant Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) concentration of 55.2 ± 0.21 ng/g, accompanied by a spore count of 2 × 106 Colony-Forming Unit (CFU)/g after ten days. In contrast, sandwich samples contaminated with the unspecified fungi displayed a lower AFB1 content of 16.21 ± 0.42 ng/g, with a spore count of 2.2 × 102 CFU/g after the same duration. In the prevention study, the efficacy of the ethanol spray method for inhibiting aflatoxin from A. flavus was investigated. Results demonstrated that a 70 % ethanol concentration at a ratio of 2.0 % total weight of the sandwich proved highly effective, significantly impeding fungal growth. This method extended the preservation time by sevenfold compared to the control. Importantly, tests at 2.0 % ethanol of the sandwich weight did not detect aflatoxin presence.

A biosensor integrating the electrochemical and fluorescence strategies for detection of aflatoxin B1 based on a dual-functionalized platform

BACKGROUND

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), is a potent hepatic carcinogen which causes cancer by inducing DNA changes in the liver cells. Variety of methods have been developed for detection of AFB1 which are based on single mode detection strategy. Fabrication of novel platform which are compatible for multimodal detection of AFB1 provide robust performance for reliable detection of AFB1. In this study, we aimed to develop a robust biosensing platform that combines electrochemical and fluorescence techniques for the sensitive and specific detection of Aflatoxin B1.

RESULTS

The sensing platform includes the magnetic core-shell Fe3O4@AuNPs and zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8). In electrochemical mode, the applied voltametric approach was used through functionalization of glassy carbon electrode and exhibited a linear range between 0.5 and 10000 pg mL-1 with LOD of 0.32 pg mL-1. Fluorescence analysis was based on the FRET on/off status of FAM-functionalized aptamer deposited on the same platform. The FAM emission recovered by the addition of AFB1 concentration in the range of 6-60 fg mL-1 with the LOD of 0.20 fg mL-1. The real sample analysis demonstrated satisfactory relative recoveries in the range of 92.81-105.32 % and 91.66-106.66 % using the electrochemical and fluorescence methods, respectively, and its reliability was confirmed by the HPLC technique.

SIGNIFICANCE

The experimental results affirm that the proposed aptasensor serves as a sensitive, efficient, and precise platform for monitoring AFB1 in both electrochemical and fluorescence detection approaches. Proposed strategy showed efficient selectivity among different analytes and was reproducible. Furthermore, the applicability of biosensor was confirmed in food and biological samples.

Rapid LA-REIMS-based metabolic fingerprinting of serum discriminates aflatoxin-exposed from non-exposed pregnant women: a prospective cohort from the Butajira Nutrition, Mental Health, and Pregnancy (BUNMAP) Study in rural Ethiopia

To date, the changes in maternal metabolic response associated with prenatal aflatoxin exposure remain largely unknown. This study investigated the effects of prenatal aflatoxin exposure on the maternal serum metabolome in rural Ethiopia. A total of 309 pregnant women were enrolled prospectively, and their serum aflatoxin concentrations were measured using targeted liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Serum metabolic fingerprints were obtained using laser-assisted rapid evaporative ionization mass spectrometry (LA-REIMS), followed by combination of univariate and multivariate statistical modelling to evaluate changes in circulating metabolic features between aflatoxin-exposed and unexposed mothers and to select discriminatory metabolic features. The analysis revealed that 81.8% of women were exposed to aflatoxins, with a median concentration of 12.9 pg/mg albumin. The orthogonal partial least square discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) regression model demonstrated significant disparities in the serum metabolome when comparing Ethiopian pregnant women with low vs high aflatoxin exposure. Thirty-two differentially expressed metabolic features were identified, affecting aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis pathway. Several discriminatory metabolites have been identified, including glutamine, tryptophan, tyrosine, carnosine, and 1-methylnicotinamide. In conclusion, our findings indicate that aflatoxin exposure during pregnancy have shown disparities in the maternal serum metabolome, primarily affecting protein synthesis. Further research is needed to identify specific metabolite biomarkers and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

Aflatoxins in maize and groundnuts on markets in Accra and consumers risk

This study presents the results of aflatoxin contamination of maize and groundnuts in major markets in Accra and assesses the population's exposure to aflatoxins. Raw maize and groundnuts from 6 major markets in Accra were sampled and analysed for their aflatoxin content. A total of 92 samples comprising 48 maize and 44 groundnuts were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography, after extraction with methanol/water and cleanup on an immunoaffinity column. Total aflatoxins were quantified in 98% of the maize samples and 70% of the groundnut samples, with concentrations ranging from 0.60 to 1065 µg/kg and 0.20 to 627 µg/kg, respectively. Exposure assessment showed an estimated daily intake of 0.436 μg/kg bw/day and 0.0632 μg/kg bw/day for maize and groundnut consumption, respectively, suggesting significant health risks for consumers. The high prevalence and concentrations of aflatoxins call for an urgent need for measures to control exposure of the Ghanaian population.

CarD-T: Interpreting Carcinomic Lexicon via Transformers

The identification and classification of carcinogens is critical in cancer epidemiology, necessitating updated methodologies to manage the burgeoning biomedical literature. Current systems, like those run by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the National Toxicology Program (NTP), face challenges due to manual vetting and disparities in carcinogen classification spurred by the volume of emerging data. To address these issues, we introduced the Carcinogen Detection via Transformers (CarD-T) framework, a text analytics approach that combines transformer-based machine learning with probabilistic statistical analysis to efficiently nominate carcinogens from scientific texts. CarD-T uses Named Entity Recognition (NER) trained on PubMed abstracts featuring known carcinogens from IARC groups and includes a context classifier to enhance accuracy and manage computational demands. Using this method, journal publication data indexed with carcinogenicity & carcinogenesis Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms from the last 25 years was analyzed, identifying potential carcinogens. Training CarD-T on 60% of established carcinogens (Group 1 and 2A carcinogens, IARC designation), CarD-T correctly to identifies all of the remaining Group 1 and 2A designated carcinogens from the analyzed text. In addition, CarD-T nominates roughly 1500 more entities as potential carcinogens that have at least two publications citing evidence of carcinogenicity. Comparative assessment of CarD-T against GPT-4 model reveals a high recall (0.857 vs 0.705) and F1 score (0.875 vs 0.792), and comparable precision (0.894 vs 0.903). Additionally, CarD-T highlights 554 entities that show disputing evidence for carcinogenicity. These are further analyzed using Bayesian temporal Probabilistic Carcinogenic Denomination (PCarD) to provide probabilistic evaluations of their carcinogenic status based on evolving evidence. Our findings underscore that the CarD-T framework is not only robust and effective in identifying and nominating potential carcinogens within vast biomedical literature but also efficient on consumer GPUs. This integration of advanced NLP capabilities with vital epidemiological analysis significantly enhances the agility of public health responses to carcinogen identification, thereby setting a new benchmark for automated, scalable toxicological investigations.

Novel Sensor Approaches of Aflatoxins Determination in Food and Beverage Samples

The rapid quantification of toxins in food and beverage products has become a significant issue in overcoming and preventing many life-threatening diseases. Aflatoxin-contaminated food is one of the reasons for primary liver cancer and induces some tumors and cancer types. Advancements in biosensors technology have brought out different analysis methods. Therefore, the sensing performance has been improved for agricultural and beverage industries or food control processes. Nanomaterials are widely used for the enhancement of sensing performance. The enzymes, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP), antibodies, and aptamers can be used as biorecognition elements. The transducer part of the biosensor can be selected, such as optical, electrochemical, and mass-based. This review explains the classification of major types of aflatoxins, the importance of nanomaterials, electrochemical, optical biosensors, and QCM and their applications for the determination of aflatoxins.

The occurrence and human health risk assessment of total and aflatoxin B1 in selected food commodities in Bhutan

Aflatoxins are mycotoxins that contaminate staple foods globally and pose a significant health risk. To the best of our knowledge, information on the occurrence of aflatoxins in Bhutanese diets is scarce. This study aimed to estimate the aflatoxin levels in selected foodstuffs in Bhutan and determine the health risk associated with aflatoxin exposure. Ten different types of food commodities were randomly collected from farmers' markets, shelves of supermarkets, and wholesale and retail shops from 20 districts of the country. The samples were subjected to analysis by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for both total aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2) and aflatoxin B1. Among the 315 samples included, 48.81% and 79.35% were positive for total aflatoxins and aflatoxin B1, respectively. The overall mean total aflatoxin concentration was 11.49 ± 12.83 µg/kg, and that for B1 was 17.62 ± 23.99 µg/kg. The most prevalent food commodity with the highest aflatoxin contamination was chili products. In addition, the estimated daily intake and margin of exposure to aflatoxin B1 via the consumption of chili products ranged from 0.98 to 5.34 ng kg-1 bw day-1 and from 74.90 to 408.10, indicating a risk for public health. The liver cancer risk was estimated to be 0.01 and 0.007 cancers per year per 100,000 population resulting from the consumption of chili products. The present findings revealed the presence of total aflatoxins and aflatoxin B1 in the selected samples. The margin of exposure values was exorbitant, demanding a stringent public health measure. Notably, these results suggest the need for routine monitoring of aflatoxin contamination in the region and stress rigorous safety management strategies to reduce exposure.

Three Ecological Models to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Trichoderma spp. for Suppressing Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus

Chemical pesticides help reduce crop loss during production and storage. However, the carbon footprints and ecological costs associated with this strategy are unsustainable. Here, we used three in vitro models to characterize how different Trichoderma species interact with two aflatoxin producers, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, to help develop a climate-resilient biological control strategy against aflatoxigenic Aspergillus species. The growth rate of Trichoderma species is a critical factor in suppressing aflatoxigenic strains via physical interactions. The dual plate assay suggests that Trichoderma mainly suppresses A. flavus via antibiosis, whereas the suppression of A. parasiticus occurs through mycoparasitism. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by Trichoderma inhibited the growth of A. parasiticus (34.6 ± 3.3%) and A. flavus (20.9 ± 1.6%). The VOCs released by T. asperellum BTU and T. harzianum OSK-34 were most effective in suppressing A. flavus growth. Metabolites secreted by T. asperellum OSK-38, T. asperellum BTU, T. virens OSK-13, and T. virens OSK-36 reduced the growth of both aflatoxigenic species. Overall, T. asperellum BTU was the most effective at suppressing the growth and aflatoxin B1 production of both species across all models. This work will guide efforts to screen for effective biological control agents to mitigate aflatoxin accumulation.

Detoxification of Aflatoxin B1 by Phytochemicals in Agriculture and Food Science

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), the most toxic and harmful mycotoxin, has a high likelihood of occurring in animal feed and human food, which seriously affects agriculture and food safety and endangers animal and human health. Recently, natural plant products have attracted widespread attention due to their low toxicity, high biocompatibility, and simple composition, indicating significant potential for resisting AFB1. The mechanisms by which these phytochemicals resist toxins mainly involve antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic pathways. Moreover, these substances also inhibit the genotoxicity of AFB1 by directly influencing its metabolism in vivo, which contributes to its elimination. Here, we review various phytochemicals that resist AFB1 and their anti-AFB1 mechanisms in different animals, as well as the common characteristics of phytochemicals with anti-AFB1 function. Additionally, the shortcomings of current research and future research directions will be discussed. Overall, this comprehensive summary contributes to the better application of phytochemicals in agriculture and food safety.

Role of Flavohemoglobins in the Development and Aflatoxin Biosynthesis of Aspergillus flavus

Aspergillus flavus is notorious for contaminating food with its secondary metabolite-highly carcinogenic aflatoxins. In this study, we found that exogenous nitric oxide (NO) donor could influence aflatoxin production in A. flavus. Flavohemoglobins (FHbs) are vital functional units in maintaining nitric oxide (NO) homeostasis and are crucial for normal cell function. To investigate whether endogenous NO changes affect aflatoxin biosynthesis, two FHbs, FHbA and FHbB, were identified in this study. FHbA was confirmed as the main protein to maintain NO homeostasis, as its absence led to a significant increase in intracellular NO levels and heightened sensitivity to SNP stress. Dramatically, FHbA deletion retarded aflatoxin production. In addition, FHbA played important roles in mycelial growth, conidial germination, and sclerotial development, and response to oxidative stress and high-temperature stress. Although FHbB did not significantly impact the cellular NO level, it was also involved in sclerotial development, aflatoxin synthesis, and stress response. Our findings provide a new perspective for studying the regulatory mechanism of the development and secondary mechanism in A. flavus.

Mycobiota contaminating some market cake samples with reference to their toxin and enzyme

Fungi can spoil the majority of baked products. Spoilage of cake during storage is commonly associated with fungi. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the quality of different types of cakes sold in the market. The most predominant fungal genera in the tested cake samples (14 samples) were Aspergillus spp., and Penicillium spp. On Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA), the medium fungal total count was 43.3 colonies /g. Aspergillus was the most dominant genus and was isolated from six samples of cake. Aspergillus was represented by 3 species namely, A. flavus, A. niger, and A. nidulans, represented by 13.32, 19.99, and 3.33 colonies /g respectively. On Malt Extract Agar (MEA) Medium, the fungal total count was 123.24 colonies / g. Aspergillus was the most dominant isolated genus from 11 samples of cake and was represented by 5 species, namely, A. flavus, A. niger, A. ochraceous, A. terreus, and A. versicolor (26. 65, 63.29, 3.33, 6.66, and 3.33 colonies / g , respectively). Twenty-four isolates (88.88 %) of the total tested twenty-seven filamentous fungi showed positive results for amylase production. Ten isolates (37.03%) of the total tested filamentous fungi showed positive results for lipase production, and finally eleven isolates (40.74 %) of the total fungal isolates showed positive results for protease production. Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and ochratoxin A were not detected in fourteen collected samples of cake. In this study, clove oil was the best choice overpeppermint oil and olive oil for preventing mold development when natural agents were compared. It might be due to the presence of a varietyof bioactive chemical compounds in clove oil, whose major bioactive component is eugenol, which acts as an antifungal reagent. Therefore, freshly baked cake should be consumed within afew days to avoid individuals experiencing foodborne illnesses.

Exposure And Health Risk Assessment Of Aflatoxins In Hot Red Pepper Marketed In North Shewa Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia

Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites mainly produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus and their contamination of red peppers can cause hepatocellular carcinoma, growth retardation in children, immune suppression, and death. In addition, their presence in the red peppers can affect international trade and cause significant economic burdens. Thus, the objective of this study was to assess the level of AFs contamination in packed powder (from supermarkets) and raw red pepper samples commercially available in the towns of Fiche and Mukaturi. Furthermore, this study aimed to determine the potential health and cancer risks associated with the consumption of red pepper contaminated with AFs. Red pepper samples (raw and packed powder) were collected randomly from the Fiche and Mukaturi open markets. Then AFs in the samples were extracted using methanol: water (80:20, v/v). These extract samples were then cleaned up using an immunoaffinity column (IAC) and determined with a high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). The finding showed that the amount of AFB1, AFB2, and AFG1 in raw red pepper was found to be 3.19 ± 0.01, 0.19 ± 0.001, and 4.07 ± 0.01 μg kg-1, respectively. The raw red pepper samples had a total of 7.66 ± 0.01 μg kg-1 of AFs. On the other hand, the amount of AFB1, AFB2, and AFG1 in Afiya-packed red pepper was found to be 7.04 ± 0.03, 2.15 ± 0.06, and 0.50 ± 0.01 μg kg-1, while Mudayi packed red pepper contained 31.60 ± 0.22, 24.40 ± 0.17, 3.37 ± 0.02 and 2.48 ± 0.004 μg kg-1 of aflatoxins, respectively. Afiya and Mudayi packed powder peppers had a total AFs content of 10.4 ± 0.07 and 61.90 ± 0.28 μg kg-1, respectively. The total AFs concentrations in packed pepper powder samples were higher than maximum toleratable limits (MTLs) set by the European Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 (5.00 μg kg-1 for AFB1 and 10 μg kg-1 for total AFs). AFB1 (31.60 ± 0.22 μg kg-1) had the highest level of contamination, followed by AFB2 (24.40 ± 0.17 μg kg-1) in packed pepper powder. In the adult population, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 ranged from 0.80 to 7.90, 0.04 to 6.10, 0.02 to 1.02, and 0.05 to 0.62  μ g kg-1 body weight (bw) per day, respectively. However, the Margins of Exposure (MOE) values and combined Margin of Exposure (MoET) for these chemicals were significantly lower than the safe margin (<10 000). Therefore, this study highlights the potential health risks associated with consuming AFs-contaminated red peppers and the need for stricter regulations and monitoring to ensure food safety.

Recent advances in nanomaterial-based optical biosensors for food safety applications: Ochratoxin-A detection, as case study

Global population growth tremendously impacts the global food industry, endangering food safety and quality. Mycotoxins, particularly Ochratoxin-A (OTA), emerge as a food chain production threat, since it is produced by fungus that contaminates different food species and products. Beyond this, OTA exhibits a possible human toxicological risk that can lead to carcinogenic and neurological diseases. A selective, sensitive, and reliable OTA biodetection approach is essential to ensure food safety. Current detection approaches rely on accurate and time-consuming laboratory techniques performed at the end of the food production process, or lateral-flow technologies that are rapid and on-site, but do not provide quantitative and precise OTA concentration measurements. Nanoengineered optical biosensors arise as an avant-garde solution, providing high sensing performance, and a fast and accurate OTA biodetection screening, which is attractive for the industrial market. This review core presents and discusses the recent advancements in optical OTA biosensing, considering engineered nanomaterials, optical transduction principle and biorecognition methodologies. Finally, the major challenges and future trends are discussed, and current patented OTA optical biosensors are emphasized for a particular promising detection method.

Recent Advances of Food Hazard Detection Based on Artificial Nanochannel Sensors

Food quality and safety are related to the health and safety of people, and food hazards are important influencing factors affecting food safety. It is strongly necessary to develop food safety rapid detection technology to ensure food safety. As a new detection technology, artificial nanochannel-based electrochemical and other methods have the advantages of being real-time, simple, and sensitive and are widely used in the detection of food hazards. In this paper, we review artificial nanochannel sensors as a new detection technology in food safety for different types of food hazards: biological hazards (bacteria, toxins, viruses) and chemical hazards (heavy metals, organic pollutants, food additives). At the same time, we critically discuss the advantages and disadvantages of artificial nanochannel sensor detection, as well as the restrictions and solutions of detection, and finally look forward to the challenges and development prospects of food safety detection technology based on the limitations of artificial nanochannel detection. We expect to provide a theoretical basis and inspiration for the development of rapid real-time detection technology for food hazards and the production of portable detection equipment in the future.

An overview of mycotoxicoses in rabbits

Mycotoxicoses are usually a consideration in large animal species but can affect companion animals as well. Due to increasing interest and the ease of using rabbits as laboratory models, a growing number of published experimental studies discuss the effects of various mycotoxins on this species. However, the available evidence is fragmented and heterogeneous, and has not recently been collated in a review, to my knowledge. Although mycotoxicoses in rabbits are typically subclinical, clinical signs can include weight loss, anorexia, gastrointestinal disorders, stunted growth, reproductive abnormalities, and susceptibility to infections. An antemortem diagnosis typically relies on a comprehensive clinical history, and assessment of clinical signs and relevant laboratory findings, with confirmation of exposure achieved through the measurement of mycotoxin concentrations in feed or target organs. My review focuses on the clinicopathologic and histopathologic effects of the mycotoxins most important in rabbits, including fumonisins, ochratoxins, aflatoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. This review offers a thorough overview of the effects of mycotoxins in rabbits, serving as a one-stop resource for veterinary practitioners, diagnosticians, and researchers.

Tropical peanut maturation scale for harvesting seeds with superior quality

Determining the moment for harvesting the tropical peanut with a focus on superior seed quality is not an easy task. Particularities such as indeterminate flowering, underground fruiting and uneven maturation further increase this technical challenge. It is in this context that we aim to investigate harvest indicators based on the maturation and late maturation phases of tropical peanuts to obtain seeds with superior physiological and health quality. The plants were grown in field conditions and their development stages were carefully monitored until seed production. The water content, dry weight, germination capacity, desiccation tolerance, vigor, longevity, and seed pathogens were evaluated throughout these stages. We showed that seeds from early stages (R5 and R6) did not fully tolerate desiccation and were highly sensitive to pathogen contamination after storage (Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Bacteria). At late stages (R7, R8, and R9), the seeds had optimized vigor, longevity and bioprotection against fungi and thermal stress. The peanut maturation scale for tropical agriculture provides unique harvesting guidelines that make it possible to monitor the plants' development stages with a focus on producing superior quality seeds.

Determination and analysis of patulin in apples, hawthorns, and their products by high-performance liquid chromatography

This study aimed to establish a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method to investigate the residues of patulin in apples, hawthorns, and their products. A total of 400 samples were collected from online shopping plats and supermarkets in China, including apples (n = 50), hawthorns (n = 50), and their products (apple juice, apple puree, apple jam, hawthorn juice, hawthorn chips, and hawthorn rolls, n = 300). In this experiment, this method had good linearity and a recovery of 82.3-94.4% for patulin. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.2 µg/kg for liquid samples, while it was 0.3 µg/kg for solid and semi-fluid samples. The frequencies of patulin were 79.8% in 400 samples, and the patulin concentration is from 0.6 to 126.0 µg/kg. Two samples (0.5%) for patulin exceeded the regulatory limit (50 µg/kg) in 400 samples. The frequencies of patulin in kinds of samples were 32.0-98.0% (p < 0.05), and the percentage of samples exceeding the limit was not more than 2.0%. The frequencies of patulin in domestic samples were 83.0%, while they were 57.7% in imported samples. Two domestic samples (0.6%) contained patulin above the regulatory limit, while none of the imported samples exceeded the limit. Among the online and offline samples, the frequencies of patulin were 76.4 and 82.1%. Two online samples (1.0%) for patulin exceeded the regulatory limit, whereas none of the offline samples exceeded the limit. These results showed it is important to monitor regularly the content of patulin in apples, hawthorns, and their products to ensure consumer food safety.

Aflatoxins and fumonisins in conventional and organic corn: a comprehensive review

This review analyzes the occurrence and co-exposure of aflatoxins and fumonisins in conventional and organic corn, and compares the vulnerability to contamination of both. The risks of fungal contamination in corn are real, mainly by the genera Aspergillus and Fusarium, producers of aflatoxins and fumonisins, respectively. Aflatoxins, especially AFB1, are related to a high incidence of liver cancer, and the International Agency Research of Cancer (IARC) classified them in group 1A 'carcinogenic to humans'. The occurrence in conventional corn is reported in many countries, including at higher levels than those established by legislation. IARC classified fumonisins in group 2B 'possibly carcinogenic to humans' due to their link with incidence of esophageal cancer. However, comparing corn and organic and conventional by-products from different regions, different results are observed. The co-occurrence of both mycotoxins is a worldwide problem; nevertheless, there is little data on the comparison of the co-exposure of these mycotoxins in corn and derivatives between both systems. It was found that the agricultural system is not a decisive factor in the final contamination, indicating the necessity of effective strategies to reduce contamination and co-exposure at levels that do not pose health risks.

Upconversion nanoparticles-modified aptasensors for highly sensitive mycotoxin detection for food quality and safety

Mycotoxins, highly toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi, pose significant health risks as they contaminate food and feed products globally. Current mycotoxin detection methods have limitations in real-time detection capabilities. Aptasensors, incorporating aptamers as specific recognition elements, are crucial for mycotoxin detection due to their remarkable sensitivity and selectivity in identifying target mycotoxins. The sensitivity of aptasensors can be improved by using upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs). UCNPs consist of lanthanide ions in ceramic host, and their ladder-like energy levels at f-orbitals have unique photophysical properties, including converting low-energy photons to high-energy emissions by a series of complex processes and offering sharp, low-noise, and sensitive near-infrared to visible detection strategy to enhance the efficacy of aptasensors for novel mycotoxin detection. This article aims to review recent reports on the scope of the potential of UCNPs in mycotoxin detection, focusing on their integration with aptasensors to give readers clear insight. We briefly describe the upconversion photoluminescence (UCPL) mechanism and relevant energy transfer processes influencing UCNP design and optimization. Furthermore, recent studies and advancements in UCNP-based aptasensors will be reviewed. We then discuss the potential impact of UCNP-modified aptasensors on food safety and present an outlook on future directions and challenges in this field. This review article comprehensively explains the current state-of-the-art UCNP-based aptasensors for mycotoxin detection. It provides insights into potential applications by addressing technical and practical challenges for practical implementation.

A comprehensive review of mycotoxins: Toxicology, detection, and effective mitigation approaches

Mycotoxins, harmful compounds produced by fungal pathogens, pose a severe threat to food safety and consumer health. Some commonly produced mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and patulin have serious health implications in humans and animals. Mycotoxin contamination is particularly concerning in regions heavily reliant on staple foods like grains, cereals, and nuts. Preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for a sustainable food supply. Chromatographic methods like thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (LC/MS), are commonly used to detect mycotoxins; however, there is a need for on-site, rapid, and cost-effective detection methods. Currently, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), lateral flow assays (LFAs), and biosensors are becoming popular analytical tools for rapid detection. Meanwhile, preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for food safety and a sustainable food supply. Physical, chemical, and biological approaches have been used to inhibit fungal growth and mycotoxin production. However, new strains resistant to conventional methods have led to the exploration of novel strategies like cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) technology, polyphenols and flavonoids, magnetic materials and nanoparticles, and natural essential oils (NEOs). This paper reviews recent scientific research on mycotoxin toxicity, explores advancements in detecting mycotoxins in various foods, and evaluates the effectiveness of innovative mitigation strategies for controlling and detoxifying mycotoxins.

Dietary chamomile flowers extract improved performance and mitigated aflatoxin B1 toxicity in rabbits

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is among the poisonous mycotoxins that contaminate food and feed. Limited studies are available on the efficacy of chamomile (Cha) against oxidative stress, liver damage and pro-inflammatory response induced by AFB1. The present study aims to evaluate the effects of Cha on the performance and protective effects against AFB1 in growing rabbits. The experimental rabbits were divided into four different groups, including Cha (70 mg kg day-1), AFB1 (AF; 30 μg kg day-1), AFB1+Cha (AFLCha) and control (CON). The results indicated that the AFB1 treatment had lower values of performance, and carcass parameters compared to the Cha and AFLCha treatments. Furthermore, the Cha and AFLCha groups had lower values of liver and kidney function activities compared to the AFB1 treatment. The higher values of antioxidant enzymes were observed in Cha and AFLCha treatments than in the AFB1 treatment. AFB1 treatments had higher levels of malondialdehyde and liver functions with lower levels of antioxidant enzymes (glutathione and superoxide dismutase) compared to Cha and CON groups. In conclusion, dietary Cha could mitigate the oxidative stress of AFB1-induced liver deterioration.

Development of a label-free, sensitive gold nanoparticles-poly(adenine) aptasensing platform for colorimetric determination of aflatoxin B1 in corn

In this work, a sensitive colorimetric bioassay method based on a poly(adenine) aptamer (polyA apt) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) was developed for the determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The polyA apt, adsorbed on the AuNPs, especially can bind to the analyte while deterring non-specific interactions. This nano aptasensor uses cationic polymer poly(diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride) (PDDA), as an aggregating agent, to aggregate gold nanoparticles. PolyA apt-decorated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs/polyA apt) show resistance to PDDA-induced aggregation and maintains their dispersed state (red color) with the optical absorbance signal at λ = 520 nm. However, in the presence of AFB1 in the assay solution, the specific aptamer reacts with high affinity and folds into its three-dimensional form. Aggregation of AuNPs induced by PDDA caused their optical signal shift to λ = 620 nm (blue color). AFB1 concentration in the bioassay solution determines the amount of optical signal shift. Therefore, optical density ratio in two wavelengths (A620/520) can be used as a sturdy colorimetric signal to detect the concentration of aflatoxin B1. AFB1 was linearly detected between 0.5 and 20 ng mL-1, with a detection limit of 0.09 ng mL-1 (S/N = 3). The fabricated aptasensor was applied to the detection of AFB1 in real corn samples.

How does active yeast supplementation reduce the deleterious effects of aflatoxins in Wistar rats? A radiolabeled assay and histopathological study

The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms by which yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) control the toxic effects of aflatoxins, which are not yet fully understood. Radiolabeled aflatoxin B1 (AFB13H) was administered by gavage to Wistar rats fed with aflatoxin (AflDiet) and aflatoxin supplemented with active dehydrated yeast Y904 (AflDiet + Yeast). The distribution of AFB13H and its metabolites were analyzed at 24, 48 and 72 h by tracking back of the radioactivity. No significant differences were observed between the AflDiet and AflDiet + Yeast groups in terms of the distribution of labeled aflatoxin. At 72 h, for the AflDiet group the radiolabeled aflatoxin was distributed as following: feces (79.5%), carcass (10.5%), urine (1.7%), and intestine (7.4%); in the AflDiet + Yeast the following distribution was observed: feces (76%), carcass (15%), urine (2.9%), and intestine (4.9%). These values were below 1% in other organs. These findings indicate that even after 72 h considerable amounts of aflatoxins remains in the intestines, which may play a significant role in the distribution and metabolism of aflatoxins and its metabolites over time. The presence of yeast may not significantly affect this process. Furthermore, histopathological examination of hepatic tissues showed that the presence of active yeast reduced the severity of liver damage caused by aflatoxins, indicating that yeasts control aflatoxin damage through biochemical mechanisms. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the protective effects of yeasts against aflatoxin toxicity.

Phytochemicals analysis and aflatoxin B1 detoxification potential of leaves extract of Moringa oleifera and Calotropis procera

The present study aimed to identify the presence of certain classes of phytochemicals in the leaf extract of medicinal herbs viz. Moringa oleifera and Calotropis procera, using qualitative detection tests and explored the potential of aqueous and ethanolic extract to inhibit aflatoxin production by thin layer chromatography at 25 °C and pH (7) of different incubation times i.e. 0-, 1-, 3-, 6- and 24-h. Qualitative phytochemical analysis reported that the aqueous leave extracts of M. oleifera and C. procera contained tannins, phlobatannins, quinones, steroids, sugar, betacyanins, fatty acids, phenols, and volatile oils. Aflatoxin analysis reported that the ethanolic extract of M. oleifera was found more effective than detoxifying 100% of AFB1 after 24 h of incubation. In the case of C. procera, the aqueous extract reduced 96.5% of AFB1 and ethanolic extract reduced 96% of AFB1 after 24-h of incubation. The results revealed that natural plant products have a high potential to reduce AFB1 and could contribute to mitigation plans for AFB1. There is a need for further characterisation using techniques such as GC-MS, LC-MS, or NMR which would provide valuable information on the chemical composition of the extracts.

Role of mitochondrial farnesyltransferase gene in the prevention of the food spoilage fungi Aspergillus flavus by the antimicrobial natural preservative perillaldehyde

Aspergillus flavus, one of the most widely distributed and abundant genus of Aspergillus worldwide, poses an evident threat as a source of food contamination in grains and cereals. Perillaldehyde (PAE), a volatile essential oil extracted from the stem and leaves of Perilla frutescens L., exhibits potent antifungal activity. In our study, we investigated the role of Cox10, a key enzyme in the heme A synthesis pathway crucial for maintaining mitochondrial function. We found that cox10 is a sensitive gene of A. flavus in response to PAE by gene expression assay and GFP fluorescent localization tagging, and then we found that the deletion of this gene affects the growth and development of A. flavus, but the drug resistance is elevated. Through transcriptome sequencing and its experimental validation, the molecular mechanisms of stress triggered by the deletion of cox10 were further clarified, such as the decrease in intracellular drug content due to the increase in the expression of drug efflux proteins, and the increase in the thickness of cell wall due to the increase in the content of cell wall chitin. Clearly, cox10 plays a critical role in regulating various cellular processes of A. flavus, including growth, reproduction, development, as well as pathogenicity and drug resistance. These significant findings establish a solid theoretical foundation for the development of environmentally friendly, safe, and effective antifungal agents to combat A. flavus contamination.

Aflatoxin B1-Induced Testosterone Biosynthesis Disorder via the ROS/AMPK Signaling Pathway in Male Mice

The worldwide prevalence of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which contaminates feedstock and food, is on the rise. AFB1 inhibits testosterone (T) biosynthesis, but the mechanism is not yet clear. By establishing in vivo and in vitro models, this study found the number of Leydig cells (LCs), T content, and the expression of T biosynthesis key enzymes were suppressed after AFB1 treatment. AFB1 exposure also increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) and promoted mitochondrial injury and mitochondrial pathway apoptosis. Moreover, the AMPK signaling pathway was activated, and using an AMPK inhibitor relieved apoptosis and the suppressed T biosynthesis key enzymes of LCs caused by AFB1 through regulating downstream p53 and Nur77. Additionally, adding ROS intervention could inhibit AMPK activation and alleviate the decreased T content caused by AFB1. In summary, AFB1 promotes the apoptosis of LCs and inhibits T biosynthesis key enzyme expression via activating the ROS/AMPK signaling pathway, which eventually leads to T synthesis disorder.

A novel sample pretreatment of nanofiber-packed solid-phase extraction of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 in foods and simultaneous determination with HPLC

A novel analytical method based on nanofiber-packed solid-phase extraction (PFSPE) combined with HPLC-FLD has been successfully developed and applied to determine aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2 in foods. In order to effectively adsorb analytes from complex food matrices, four types of nanofibers based on skeleton of polystyrene-polyvinyl pyrrolidone were prepared by electrospinning and applied as adsorbent to home-made solid-phase extraction device. The effects of type of nanofibers, pH of sample, type and concentration of salt ion, type of activation solvent, type and volume of eluent, amount of nanofibers, and extraction time on the adsorption/desorption were investigated and optimized. Under optimal conditions, the method showed satisfactory linear relationship, with limits of detection (LODs) of 0.07-0.17 ng g-1, intra-day and inter-day RSDs for spiked samples of 1.3-8.0 % and 1.9-5.8 %, and absolute recoveries in the range of 60.1-98.4 %. The results presented the great potential to be utilized to determine AFs in foodstuffs.

Immunosuppressive effects of the mycotoxin patulin in macrophages

Patulin (PAT) is a fungi-derived secondary metabolite produced by numerous fungal species, especially within Aspergillus, Byssochlamys, and Penicillium genera, amongst which P. expansum is the foremost producer. Similar to other fungi-derived metabolites, PAT has been shown to have diverse biological features. Initially, PAT was used as an effective antimicrobial agent against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Then, PAT has been shown to possess immunosuppressive properties encompassing humoral and cellular immune response, immune cell function and activation, phagocytosis, nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species production, cytokine release, and nuclear factor-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinases activation. Macrophages are a heterogeneous population of immune cells widely distributed throughout organs and connective tissue. The chief function of macrophages is to engulf and destroy foreign bodies through phagocytosis; this ability was fundamental to his discovery. However, macrophages play other well-established roles in immunity. Thus, considering the central role of macrophages in the immune response, we review the immunosuppressive effects of PAT in macrophages and provide the possible mechanisms of action.

Aflatoxin B1-induced redox imbalance in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex of male Wistar rats is accompanied by altered cholinergic, indoleaminergic, and purinergic pathways: Abatement by dietary rutin

The neurotoxic impact of dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is well documented in experimental studies. Rutin is a phytochemical with prominent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. There is an information gap on the influence of rutin on AFB1-induced neurotoxicity. This study investigated the influence of rutin on neurobehavioral and biochemical abnormalities in male Wistar rats (six weeks old) orally treated with AFB1 (0.75, and 1.5 mg/kg body weight) or co-administered with rutin (50 mg/kg) for 30 uninterrupted days. Results indicate that AFB1-induced depression-like behavior by Tail Suspension Test (TST) and cognitive impairment by Y-maze was abated following rutin co-administration. Abatement of AFB1-induced decreases in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and increased antioxidant status, by rutin was accompanied by a marked reduction in oxidative stress markers and increased hydrolysis of the purinergic molecules in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of rats. Additionally, rutin co-treatment abrogated AFB1-mediated elevation of interleukin-6 (IL-6), nitric oxide (NO) levels, and activity of myeloperoxidase (MPO). Correspondingly, rutin co-treatment lowered the activity and immunocontent of immunosuppressive indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase (IDO). Further, rutin co-treatment prevented histological injuries in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. In conclusion, abatement of AFB1-induced neurobehavioral abnormalities by rutin involves the mechanisms of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and regulation of cholinergic, purinergic, and indoleaminergic pathways in rats.

Molecularly imprinted dispersive micro solid-phase extraction coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography for the determination of four aflatoxins in various foods

A new dummy template-based molecularly imprinted dispersive micro solid-phase extraction (MI-d-µSPE) coupled with HPLC-FLD developed for the simultaneous determination of four aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2) in various food matrices. The synthesized MIP was used as a dispersive solid-phase extraction (dSPE) sorbent for aflatoxins extraction. The chemometric approach was used to identify the optimum conditions of dSPE. The results showed the amount of MIP sorbent (55 mg), adsorption time (12.5 min), and %ACN (75%) were significant extraction parameters. The method has a detection limit in the range of 0.059-0.208 µg kg-1 and a quantification limit in the range of 0.197-0.694 µg kg-1 for aflatoxins. The intra- and inter-day precision was less than 5%, and recoveries were 79.1-109.4%. The expanded uncertainty of the developed method was found to be 2.9-22.8%. The new MI-d-µSPE with HPLC-FLD method was applied for 37 food matrices.

Determination of Mycotoxins in Plant-Based Meat Alternatives (PBMAs) and Ingredients after Microwave Cooking

In this study, we investigate the role of microwave cooking in reducing mycotoxin contamination in plant-based food matrices, with a focus on veggie burgers (purchased and home-made) and their ingredients (soybean, potatoes, zucchini, carrots). Two different conditions were studied (Max-Min) that were 800 W for 60 s and 800 W for 90 s, respectively. The degradation patterns of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), fumonisins (FB1, FB2, FB3), trichothecenes (T2, HT2, ZEA), and ochratoxin A (OTA) were studied. The extraction procedures were conducted with the QuEChERS extraction, and the analyses were conducted with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that degradation under microwave cooking varies considerably across different food matrices and cooking conditions. This study provides valuable insights into the degradation of mycotoxins during microwave cooking and underscores the need for more research in this area to ensure food safety.

The Development of Aspergillus flavus and Biosynthesis of Aflatoxin B1 are Regulated by the Golgi-Localized Mn2+ Transporter Pmr1

Microorganisms rely on diverse ion transport and trace elements to sustain growth, development, and secondary metabolism. Manganese (Mn2+) is essential for various biological processes and plays a crucial role in the metabolism of human cells, plants, and yeast. In Aspergillus flavus, we confirmed that Pmr1 localized in cis- and medial-Golgi compartments was critical in facilitating Mn2+ transport, fungal growth, development, secondary metabolism, and glycosylation. In comparison to the wild type, the Δpmr1 mutant displayed heightened sensitivity to environmental stress, accompanied by inhibited synthesis of aflatoxin B1, kojic acid, and a substantial reduction in pathogenicity toward peanuts and maize. Interestingly, the addition of exogenous Mn2+ effectively rectified the developmental and secondary metabolic defects in the Δpmr1 mutant. However, Mn2+ supplement failed to restore the growth and development of the Δpmr1Δgdt1 double mutant, which indicated that the Gdt1 compensated for the functional deficiency of pmr1. In addition, our results showed that pmr1 knockout leads to an upregulation of O-glycosyl-N-acetylglucose (O-GlcNAc) and O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT), while Mn2+ supplementation can restore the glycosylation in A. flavus. Collectively, this study indicates that the pmr1 regulates Mn2+ via Golgi and maintains growth and metabolism functions of A. flavus through regulation of the glycosylation.

Food Safety Aspects of Breeding Maize to Multi-Resistance against the Major (Fusarium graminearum, F. verticillioides, Aspergillus flavus) and Minor Toxigenic Fungi (Fusarium spp.) as Well as to Toxin Accumulation, Trends, and Solutions-A Review

Maize is the crop which is most commonly exposed to toxigenic fungi that produce many toxins that are harmful to humans and animals alike. Preharvest grain yield loss, preharvest toxin contamination (at harvest), and storage loss are estimated to be between 220 and 265 million metric tons. In the past ten years, the preharvest mycotoxin damage was stable or increased mainly in aflatoxin and fumonisins. The presence of multiple toxins is characteristic. The few breeding programs concentrate on one of the three main toxigenic fungi. About 90% of the experiments except AFB1 rarely test toxin contamination. As disease resistance and resistance to toxin contamination often differ in regard to F. graminearum, F. verticillioides, and A. flavus and their toxins, it is not possible to make a food safety evaluation according to symptom severity alone. The inheritance of the resistance is polygenic, often mixed with epistatic and additive effects, but only a minor part of their phenotypic variation can be explained. All tests are made by a single inoculum (pure isolate or mixture). Genotype ranking differs between isolates and according to aggressiveness level; therefore, the reliability of such resistance data is often problematic. Silk channel inoculation often causes lower ear rot severity than we find in kernel resistance tests. These explain the slow progress and raise skepticism towards resistance breeding. On the other hand, during genetic research, several effective putative resistance genes were identified, and some overlapped with known QTLs. QTLs were identified as securing specific or general resistance to different toxicogenic species. Hybrids were identified with good disease and toxin resistance to the three toxigenic species. Resistance and toxin differences were often tenfold or higher, allowing for the introduction of the resistance and resistance to toxin accumulation tests in the variety testing and the evaluation of the food safety risks of the hybrids within 2-3 years. Beyond this, resistance breeding programs and genetic investigations (QTL-analyses, GWAM tests, etc.) can be improved. All other research may use it with success, where artificial inoculation is necessary. The multi-toxin data reveal more toxins than we can treat now. Their control is not solved. As limits for nonregulated toxins can be introduced, or the existing regulations can be made to be stricter, the research should start. We should mention that a higher resistance to F. verticillioides and A. flavus can be very useful to balance the detrimental effect of hotter and dryer seasons on aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination. This is a new aspect to secure food and feed safety under otherwise damaging climatic conditions. The more resistant hybrids are to the three main agents, the more likely we are to reduce the toxin losses mentioned by about 50% or higher.

Total aflatoxin and ochratoxin A levels, dietary exposure and cancer risk assessment in dried fruits in Türkiye

This study aimed to measure total aflatoxin (AF) (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) levels in dried fruit samples and to evaluate the potential dietary exposure and cancer risk to these mycotoxins in Kayseri/Türkiye. Dried fruit samples were collected between April-May 2021. A total of 11 dried grapes and apricot samples, 7 dried fig and plum samples were collected. Total aflatoxins and OTA in dried fruits were determined by ELISA method. Then, the margin of exposure (MOE) and cancer risk were calculated. Total AF was detected in dried fruit samples between 42.86%, and 100%. Between 18.18% and 57.14% of samples exceeded the European Commission (EC) limits for total AF. Moreover, OTA was detected in all samples. Between 71.43% and 100% of samples exceeded the EC limits for OTA. Cancer risk due to OTA exposure was higher than total AF and it was determined that OTA exposure could pose a risk for public health (MOE < 10,000). Although mycotoxin exposure seems to be low due to the low consumption of dried fruit in Türkiye, the risk of exposure and cancer may increase because of complying with the recommendations of the dietary guidelines. The findings provide new insights into exposure to total AF and OTA through the consumption of dried fruit.

The Role of Probiotics in Improving Food Safety: Inactivation of Pathogens and Biological Toxins

Currently, many advances have been made in avoiding food contamination by numerous pathogenic and toxigenic microorganisms. Many studies have shown that different probiotics, in addition to having beneficial effects on the host's health, have a very good ability to eliminate and neutralize pathogens and their toxins in foods which leads to enhanced food safety. The present review purposes to comprehensively discuss the role of probiotics in improving food safety by inactivating pathogens (bacterial, fungal, viral, and parasite agents) and neutralizing their toxins in food products. Some recent examples in terms of the anti-microbial activities of probiotics in the body after consuming contaminated food have also been mentioned. This review shows that different probiotics have the potential to inactivate pathogens and neutralize and detoxify various biological agents in foods, as well as in the host body after consumption.

Artificial neural network-facilitated V2C MNs-based colorimetric/fluorescence dual-channel biosensor for highly sensitive detection of AFB1 in peanut

In this work, V2C Mxene nano-enzyme materials (V2C MNs) with excellent peroxidase-like activity and fluorescence quenching performance were prepared, and it was modified using 6-carboxyfluorescein-labelled aptamers (ssDNA-FAM) to construct a novel dual-mode sensor V2C@ssDNA-FAM, with detection limits of 0.0477 ng mL-1 and 0.2789 ng mL-1 of fluorescence (linear range of 0.1-550 ng mL-1) and colorimetric (linear range of 1-1000 ng mL-1) modes, respectively. Meanwhile, an ANN intelligent detection platform has been constructed, which could automatically track and analyze the fluorescence and colorimetric signal of the detection system through machine learning and immediately obtain the AFB1 concentration, and the detection limits of the fluorescence (linear range of 0.1-500 ng mL-1) and colorimetric (linear range of 1-800 ng mL-1) channels of it were 0.0905 ng mL-1 and 0.6845 ng mL-1, respectively. The recovery rates of fluorescence, colorimetric sensing detection and ANN-assisted fluorescence and colorimetric sensing detection of real samples ranged from 95.40% to 101.76%. The method constructed in this work was superior to most existing literature reports and had great potential for application in the field of food quality testing.

Trends in Aflatoxin M1 Global Research: A Bibliometric Analysis Study

Background

Fungal metabolites known as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) are linked to contaminated milk and milk products. Consuming food contaminated with AFM1 poses major health risks and may even be fatal.

Methods

The retrieved publications were categorized in this bibliometric study using the Web of Science (WoS) database Jan 1, 1970 to Nov 30, 2022 based on a variety of factors, including the time of publication of articles, citation totals, languages, research areas, countries, affiliations, funding agencies, journals, and keywords analysis to identify any hot and developing subjects. Additionally, VOSviewer software version 1.6.18 provided the bibliometric analysis of the global collaboration network and hot research themes.

Results

Overall, 679 published documents were detected. Food Control was the top-line journal in publications on AFM1 research with 540 published articles, while the USA was the best productive country in AFM1 publications as well as the major country with the maximum co-authorship collaboration. This study ensures quantitative and qualitative analyses of the top 25 journals, most cited published articles, most relevant authors and title word occurrences in published documents on AFM1 publications. Over the past two decades, there has been an enormous rise for research conducted on global AFM1.

Conclusion

The assessment of the historical state and development trend in AFM1 scientific research can serve as a roadmap for future research and eventually, serve as a foundation for bettering management practices for territorial decisions, healthcare, and dairy industries.

Recent Advances in the Detection of Food Toxins Using Mass Spectrometry

Edibles are the only source of nutrients and energy for humans. However, ingredients of edibles have undergone many physicochemical changes during preparation and storage. Aging, hydrolysis, oxidation, and rancidity are some of the major changes that not only change the native flavor, texture, and taste of food but also destroy the nutritive value and jeopardize public health. The major reasons for the production of harmful metabolites, chemicals, and toxins are poor processing, inappropriate storage, and microbial spoilage, which are lethal to consumers. In addition, the emergence of new pollutants has intensified the need for advanced and rapid food analysis techniques to detect such toxins. The issue with the detection of toxins in food samples is the nonvolatile nature and absence of detectable chromophores; hence, normal conventional techniques need additional derivatization. Mass spectrometry (MS) offers high sensitivity, selectivity, and capability to handle complex mixtures, making it an ideal analytical technique for the identification and quantification of food toxins. Recent technological advancements, such as high-resolution MS and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), have significantly improved sensitivity, enabling the detection of food toxins at ultralow levels. Moreover, the emergence of ambient ionization techniques has facilitated rapid in situ analysis of samples with lower time and resources. Despite numerous advantages, the widespread adoption of MS in routine food safety monitoring faces certain challenges such as instrument cost, complexity, data analysis, and standardization of methods. Nevertheless, the continuous advancements in MS-technology and its integration with complementary techniques hold promising prospects for revolutionizing food safety monitoring. This review discusses the application of MS in detecting various food toxins including mycotoxins, marine biotoxins, and plant-derived toxins. It also explores the implementation of untargeted approaches, such as metabolomics and proteomics, for the discovery of novel and emerging food toxins, enhancing our understanding of potential hazards in the food supply chain.

Global systematic review and meta-analysis on prevalence and concentration of aflatoxins in peanuts oil and probabilistic risk assessment

Exposure to mycotoxins in food is largely unavoidable, and concerns about their health effects are growing. Consumption of vegetable oils such as peanuts oil has increased, hence several studies have been conducted on concentration of aflatoxins (AFs) in peanuts oil. Search was performed in Scopus and PubMed databases on prevalence and concentration of AFs in peanuts oil from 1 January 2005 to 15 April 29, 2022. Prevalence and concentration of AFs in peanuts oil was meta-analyzed based on country and type of AFs subgroups. In addition, health risk was calculated using monte carlo simulation method. Pooled prevalence of AFB1 in peanuts oil was 47.9%; AFB2, 46.45%; AFG1, 46.92% and AFG2, 54.01%. The Overall prevalence of AFTs was 49.30%, 95%CI (35.80-62.84%). Pooled concentration of AFB1 in peanuts oil was 2.30 μg/kg; AFB2, 0.77 μg/kg; AFG1, 0.07 μg/kg; AFG1, 0.28 μg/kg. The sort of country based on mean of MOEs in the adults consumers was Japan (47,059) > China (17,670) > Ethiopia (7,398) > Sudan (6,974) > USA (1,012) and sort of country based on mean of MOEs in the children was Japan (120,994) > China (46,991) > Ethiopia (19,251) > Sudan (18,200) > USA (2,620). Therefore, adults consumers were in considerable health risk in Ethiopia, Sudan and USA and for children in USA (MOE < 10,000).

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects of genkwanin against aflatoxin B1-induced testicular toxicity

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most hazardous aflatoxin that causes significant damage to the male reproductive system. Genkwanin (GNK) is a bioactive flavonoid that shows antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. Therefore, the current study was planned to evaluate the effects of GNK against AFB1-induced testicular toxicity. Forty-eight male rats were distributed into four groups (n = 12 rats). AFB1 (50 μg/kg) and GNK (20 mg/kg) were administered to the rats for eight weeks. Results of the current study revealed that AFB1 exposure induced adverse effects on the Nrf2/Keap1 pathway and reduced the expressions and activities of antioxidant enzymes. Additionally, it increased the levels of oxidative stress markers. Furthermore, expressions of steroidogenic enzymes were down-regulated by AFB1 intoxication. Besides, AFB1 exposure reduced the levels of gonadotropins and plasma testosterone, which subsequently reduced the epididymal sperm count, motility, and hypo-osmotic swelled (HOS) sperms, while increasing the number of dead sperms and causing morphological anomalies of the head, midpiece, and tail of the sperms. In addition, AFB1 decreased the activities of testicular function marker enzymes and the levels of inflammatory markers. Moreover, it severely affected the apoptotic profile by up-regulating the expressions of Bax and Casp3, while down-regulating the Bcl2 expression. Besides, AFB1 significantly damaged the histoarchitecture of testicular tissues. However, GNK treatment reversed all the AFB1-induced damages in the rats. Taken together, the current study reports the potential use of GNK as a therapeutic agent to prevent AFB1-induced testicular toxicity due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties.

Clover microgreen incorporation in diet-controlled diabetes and counteracted aflatoxicosis of rats

Diabetes mellitus is one of the chronic metabolic diseases whose control remains a challenge. Its increased incidence was mainly attributed to increased environmental contamination. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effect of feeding clover microgreen (CM) on a diabetes model with or without aflatoxin exposure. Rats were distributed into 8 groups. G1 was a control group. G2 was fed CM. G3 was administered aflatoxin orally. G4 was fed clover and administered aflatoxin. G5 was diabetic rats. G6 was diabetic rats fed CM. G7 was diabetic rats administered aflatoxin. G8 was diabetic rats administered aflatoxin and fed CM. Phytochemical analysis of the CM showed that gardenin was the most common compound. The administration of aflatoxin aggravated diabetes. The groups fed CM showed a decreased glucose concentration compared to the unfed groups. Liver and kidney function parameters were improved by CM. The histopathological alteration of the pancreas, liver, and kidneys was relieved in CM-fed groups. The area % of insulin in islets of Langerhans was increased in CM-fed groups. Feeding CM also enhanced the oxidative stress biomarkers. In conclusion, CM improved all evaluated parameters in diabetic rats either exposed to aflatoxin or not compared to the control.

Elucidating the mechanism of action of mycotoxins through machine learning-driven QSAR models: Focus on lipid peroxidation

Understanding the mechanisms of mycotoxin toxicity is crucial for establishing effective guidelines and preventive strategies. In this study, machine learning models based on quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) were employed to predict the lipid peroxidation activity of mycotoxins. Two different algorithms using Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) have been trained using a dataset of 70 mycotoxins. The LDA model had an average correct classification rate of 91%, while the ANN model achieved a perfect 100% classification rate. Following an internal validation process, the models were utilized to predict mycotoxins with known lipid peroxidation activity. The machine learning models achieved an 88% correct classification rate for these mycotoxins. Finally, by utilizing classified algorithms, the study aimed to infer the mechanism of action related to lipid peroxidation for 91 unstudied mycotoxins. These models provide a fast, accurate, and cost-effective means to assess the potential toxicity and mechanism of action of mycotoxins. The findings of this study contribute to a comprehensive understanding of mycotoxin toxicology and assist researchers and toxicologists in evaluating health risks associated with mycotoxin exposure and developing appropriate preventive strategies and potential therapeutic interventions to mitigate the effects of mycotoxins.

Evaluation of gut microbiota composition to screening for potential biomarker in AFB1-exposed sheep

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is an inevitable contaminant in animal feed and agricultural products, which seriously threatens the health of animals. However, there is currently no better diagnostic tool available than depending on clinical symptoms, pathophysiology, biochemical indicators, etc. Here, we profiled the fecal microbiomes of sheep exposed to and not exposed to AFB1 to identify potential non-invasive biomarkers of AFB1 intoxication by 16S rRNA gene sequencing technology, while measuring serum biochemical indexes. The results showed that the sheep exposed to AFB1 had significantly higher levels of the liver function indicators ALT (alanine transaminase) and AST (aspartate aminotransferase), and their microbial profiles were different from those of the CON (Control) group. In detail, the relative abundance of seven phyla and three genera were overrepresented in the AFB1 group from top 10 relative abundance. Importantly, we found that Prevotella and Bifidobacterium were significantly different in the CON and AFB1 groups (p = 0.032 and p = 0.021, respectively) based on linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe) and random forest analysis. Additionally, the area under curve (AUC) of ALT was 1 (95% CI 1.00-1.00; p < 0.001) and that of Bifidobacterium was 0.95 (95% CI 0.81-1.00; p = 0.0275), suggesting that Bifidobacterium correlated with ALT (r = 0.783, p < 0.01) may be a potential biomarker for AFB1 exposure in sheep.

Risk assessment of aflatoxin B1 in herbal medicines and plant food supplements marketed in Malaysia using margin of exposure and RISK21 approaches

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a mycotoxin produced by several species of Aspergillus fungi which can cause liver cancer in animals and humans. This study aims to perform the risk assessment of AFB1 in herbal medicines and plant food supplements (PFS) in Malaysian market. A total of 31 herbal medicines and PFS were purchased through online platforms and over the counter using a targeted sampling strategy. Of 31 samples analysed using the ELISA method, 25 (80.6%) were contaminated with AFB1 at levels ranged from 0.275 to 13.941 μg/kg. The Benchmark Dose Lower Confidence level of 10 (BMDL10) of 63.46 ng/kg bw/day and the estimated dietary intake of the adult population ranged from 0.006 to 10.456 ng/kg bw/day were used to calculate the Margin of Exposure (MOE). The MOEs for 24 (96%) out of the 25 positive samples were lower than 10,000. The RISK21 matrix revealed that AFB1 exposure levels from herbal medicines and PFS differed greatly over the world. The calculated population risk of acquiring liver cancer from AFB1 exposure ranged from 0 to 0.261 cancers/100,000 populations/year and accounted for an estimated percentage of liver cancer incidence ranged from 0.002 to 4.149%. This study revealed a moderate risk of liver cancer attributable to AFB1 from herbal medicine and PFS among Malaysian populations and emphasised an urgency for risk management actions.

Abdallah M, Chen X, Rajkovic A. Current Knowledge of Individual and Combined Toxicities of Aflatoxin B1 and Fumonisin B1 In Vitro

Mycotoxins are considered the most threating natural contaminants in food. Among these mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are the most prominent fungal metabolites that represent high food safety risks, due to their widespread co-occurrence in several food commodities, and their profound toxic effects on humans. Considering the ethical and more humane animal research, the 3Rs (replacement, reduction, and refinement) principle has been promoted in the last few years. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the research studies conducted up to date on the toxicological effects that AFB1 and FB1 can induce on human health, through the examination of a selected number of in vitro studies. Although the impact of both toxins, as well as their combination, were investigated in different cell lines, the majority of the work was carried out in hepatic cell lines, especially HepG2, owing to the contaminants' liver toxicity. In all the reviewed studies, AFB1 and FB1 could invoke, after short-term exposure, cell apoptosis, by inducing several pathways (oxidative stress, the mitochondrial pathway, ER stress, the Fas/FasL signaling pathway, and the TNF-α signal pathway). Among these pathways, mitochondria are the primary target of both toxins. The interaction of AFB1 and FB1, whether additive, synergistic, or antagonistic, depends to great extent on FB1/AFB1 ratio. However, it is generally manifested synergistically, via the induction of oxidative stress and mitochondria dysfunction, through the expression of the Bcl-2 family and p53 proteins. Therefore, AFB1 and FB1 mixture may enhance more in vitro toxic effects, and carry a higher significant risk factor, than the individual presence of each toxin.

Regulation of Fungal Morphogenesis and Pathogenicity of Aspergillus flavus by Hexokinase AfHxk1 through Its Domain Hexokinase_2

As a filamentous pathogenic fungus with high-yield of aflatoxin B1, Aspergillus flavus is commonly found in various agricultural products. It is crucial to develop effective strategies aimed at the prevention of the contamination of A. flavus and aflatoxin. Hexokinase AfHxk1 is a critical enzyme in fungal glucose metabolism. However, the role of AfHxk1 in A. flavus development, aflatoxin biosynthesis, and virulence has not yet been explored. In this study, afHxk1 gene deletion mutant (ΔafHxk1), complementary strain (Com-afHxk1), and the domain deletion strains (afHxk1ΔD1 and afHxk1ΔD2) were constructed by homologous recombination. Phenotype study and RT-qPCR revealed that AfHxk1 upregulates mycelium growth and spore and sclerotia formation, but downregulates AFB1 biosynthesis through related classical signaling pathways. Invading models and environmental stress analysis revealed that through involvement in carbon source utilization, conidia germination, and the sensitivity response of A. flavus to a series of environmental stresses, AfHxk1 deeply participates in the regulation of pathogenicity of A. flavus to crop kernels and Galleria mellonella larvae. The construction of domain deletion strains, afHxk1ΔD1 and afHxk1ΔD2, further revealed that AfHxk1 regulates the morphogenesis, mycotoxin biosynthesis, and the fungal pathogenicity mainly through its domain, Hexokinase_2. The results of this study revealed the biological role of AfHxk1 in Aspergillus spp., and might provide a novel potential target for the early control of the contamination of A. flavus.

Antifungal and elicitor activities of p-hydroxybenzoic acid for the control of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus in kiwifruit

Aspergillus flavus not only reduces kiwifruit production but also synthesizes carcinogenic aflatoxins, resulting in a relevant threat to human health. p-Hydroxybenzoic acid (pHBA) is one of the most abundant phenolics in kiwifruit. In this study, pHBA was found to reduce A. flavus mycelial growth by blocking the fungal mitotic exit network (MEN) and cytokinesis and to inhibit the biosynthesis of aflatoxins B1 and B2. The application of pHBA promoted the accumulation of endogenous pHBA and induced oxidative stress in A. flavus-infected kiwifruit, resulting in an increase in H2O2 content and catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. Preventive and curative treatments with 5 mM pHBA reduced A. flavus advancement by 46.1% and 68.0%, respectively. Collectively, the antifungal and elicitor properties of pHBA were examined for the first time, revealing new insights into the role of pHBA in the defense response of kiwifruit against A. flavus infection.