Extracellular Matrix in the Tumor Microenvironment and Its Impact on Cancer Therapy

Decoding the complex web: cellular and molecular interactions in the lung tumour microenvironment

The lung tumour microenvironment (TME) or stroma is a dynamic space of numerous cells and their released molecules. This complicated web regulates tumour progression and resistance to different modalities. Lung cancer cells in conjunction with their stroma liberate a wide range of factors that dampen antitumor attacks by innate immunity cells like natural killer (NK) cells and also adaptive responses by effector T cells. These factors include numerous growth factors, exosomes and epigenetic regulators, and also anti-inflammatory cytokines. Understanding the intricate interactions between tumour cells and various elements within the lung TME, such as immune and stromal cells can help provide novel strategies for better management and treatment of lung malignancies. The current article discusses the complex network of cells and signalling molecules, which mediate communications in lung TME. By elucidating these multifaceted interactions, we aim to provide insights into potential therapeutic targets and strategies for lung cancer treatment.

Deciphering a crosstalk between biological cues and multifunctional nanocarriers in lung cancer therapy

In recent years, the utilization of nanocarriers has significantly broadened across a diverse spectrum of biomedical applications. However, the clinical translation of these tiny carriers is limited and encounters hurdles, particularly in the intricate landscape of the tumor microenvironment. Lung cancer poses unique hurdles for nanocarrier design. Multiple physiological barriers hinder the efficient drug delivery to the lungs, such as the complex anatomy of the lung, the presence of mucus, immune responses, and rapid clearance mechanisms. Overcoming these obstacles necessitates a targeted approach that minimizes off-target effects while effectively penetrating nanoparticles/cargo into specific lung tissues or cells. Furthermore, understanding the cellular uptake mechanisms of these nano carriers is also essential. This knowledge aids in developing nanocarriers that efficiently enter cells and transfer their payload for the most effective therapeutic outcome. Hence, a thorough understanding of biological cues becomes crucial in designing multifunctional nanocarriers tailored for treating lung cancer. This review explores the essential biological cues critical for developing a flexible nanocarrier specifically intended to treat lung cancer. Additionally, it discusses advancements in nanotheranostics in lung cancer.

Matrix Metalloproteinases in Glioma: Drivers of Invasion and Therapeutic Targets

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc-dependent proteolytic enzymes that are crucial for the remodeling of the extracellular matrix, a process that is often co-opted by cancers, including brain tumors, to facilitate growth, invasion, and metastasis. In gliomas, MMPs contribute to a complex interplay involving tumor proliferation, angiogenesis, and immune modulation, thereby influencing tumor progression and patient prognosis. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the roles of various MMPs in different types of gliomas, from highly malignant gliomas to metastatic lesions. Emphasis is placed on how the dysregulation of MMPs impacts tumor behavior, the association between specific MMPs and the tumor grade, and their potential as biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis. Additionally, the current therapeutic approaches targeting MMP activity are discussed, exploring both their challenges and future potential. By synthesizing recent findings, this paper aims to clarify the broad significance of MMPs in gliomas and propose avenues for translational research that could enhance treatment strategies and clinical outcomes.

Engineered NK Exosomes Captured Antigens In Situ for Enhanced Tumor Immunotherapy

Natural killer (NK) cells are widely involved in the field of tumor immunotherapy due to their unique killing ability. However, the durability and efficacy of NK-cell monotherapy are facing great challenges owing to the limitation of immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). NK cell-derived exosomes (Neo) not only play an innate immunomodulatory role similar to NK cells but also emerge as promising antitumor nanocarriers. In this study, an engineered Neo (R@Neo-MN) was designed that encapsulates the multifunctional antitumor drug (Raddeanin a, RA) and modified with maleimide (Mal, M) and mannose (Man, N). The obtained R@Neo-MN could not only exert NK cell-like antitumor function but also induce the immunogenic cell death of tumors to release tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). Furthermore, R@Neo-MN activated the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase/interferon gene stimulator (cGAS/STING) to release type I interferons (IFN). Then, R@Neo-MN could capture TAAs through Mal and specifically target dendritic cells (DCs) through Man, thereby promoting the maturation of DCs and enhancing tumor-specific cytotoxic T-cell (CTL)-mediated adaptive immunity. The released IFN further promoted the infiltration and activition of NK cells and CTLs at the tumor site. Our study suggested a novel strategy that harnesses both innate and adaptive immunity for enhanced tumor immunotherapy.

Discovering biomarkers associated with infiltration of CD8+ T cells and tumor-associated fibrosis in colon adenocarcinoma using single-cell RNA sequencing and gene co-expression network

Background

Colorectal adenocarcinoma (COAD) is a prevalent malignant tumor associated with a high mortality rate. Within the tumor microenvironment, CD8+ T cells play a pivotal role in the anti-tumor immune response within the human body. Fibrosis directly and indirectly affects the therapeutic response of tumor immunotherapy. However, the significance of regulatory genes associated with tumor-associated fibrosis and CD8+ T cell infiltration remains uncertain. Therefore, it is imperative to identify biomarkers with prognostic value and elucidate the precise role of CD8+ T cells and tumor-associated fibrosis.

Methods

We performed a single-cell transcriptome analysis of COAD samples from the GEO database. To evaluate immune infiltration in COAD samples, we utilized CIBERSORT and ESTIMATE. Furthermore, we analyzed the correlation between CD8+ T cells and immune infiltration. To analyze COAD expression's quantitative immune cell composition data, we conducted a Weighted Gene Correlation Network Analysis and utilized a deconvolution algorithm. The data for these analyses were obtained from the GEO database. We utilized univariate Cox regression and LASSO analysis to create a prognostic model. The predictive model was assessed through Kaplan-Meier analysis, and a survival prediction nomogram was created. Additionally, we analyzed the correlation between the prognostic model and chemotherapy drug sensitivity. To estimate the expression of hub genes, we employed immunohistochemistry, real-time PCR, and western blot techniques.

Results

Single-cell transcriptome analysis has indicated a higher prevalence of CD8+ T cells in COAD tumor samples. The connection between COAD and CD8+ T cells was further confirmed by WGCNA and deconvolution analysis using the GEO database. The Protein-Protein Interaction network analysis revealed three hub genes: LARS2, SEZ6L2, and SOX7. A predictive model was subsequently created using LASSO and univariate COX regression, which included these three genes. Two of these hub genes (LARS2 and SEZ6L2) were found to be upregulated in COAD cell lines and tissues, while SOX7 was observed to be downregulated. The prognostic model demonstrated a significant association with CD8+ T cells, suggesting that these genes could serve as potential biomarkers and targets for gene therapy in treating COAD.

Conclusion

This study has identified three key genes associated with CD8+ T cells and the prognosis of COAD, providing new prognostic biomarkers for diagnosing and treating COAD.

Emerging strategies and translational advancements of DDR1 in oncology

Discoidin domain receptor 1 (DDR1) has emerged as a promising therapeutic target in oncology due to its unique role in tumor-stroma interactions and its involvement in key signaling pathways that drive cancer progression. DDR1 is homologous to the transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) family and uniquely requires binding to collagen for its activation. It regulates several cellular processes related to tumor cell proliferation, metabolism, migration, stromal remodeling, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), ultimately influencing patient survival. Dysregulation of DDR1 may contribute to cancer progression, neurodegenerative diseases, fibrotic conditions, and atherosclerosis. Moreover, DDR1 has been shown to affect a wide variety of cancers, including lung, breast, stomach, colon, ovarian, and pancreatic cancers, underscoring its potential as a therapeutic target. Various small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors aimed at DDR1 have been developed and have demonstrated significant effectiveness in reducing tumor growth. This review focuses on the structure, function, and mechanism of DDR1, as well as its involvement in cancer progression. Additionally, it examines the development and therapeutic potential of DDR1 inhibitors, offering a comprehensive overview of their application in cancer treatment. By synthesizing current knowledge, this article provides valuable insights to guide future research and innovation in targeting DDR1 for clinical therapeutic advancement.

Mimicking the Complexity of Solid Tumors: How Spheroids Could Advance Cancer Preclinical Transformative Approaches

Traditional 2D cell culture models present significant limitations in replicating the intricate architecture and microenvironment of in vivo solid tumors, which are essential for accurately studying cancer initiation, growth, progression, and metastasis. This underscores the need for the development of advanced preclinical models to accelerate research outcomes. Emerging 3D cell culture systems, particularly spheroid models, provide a more realistic representation of solid tumor properties by capturing the complex interactions occurring within the tumor microenvironment, including the extracellular matrix dynamics that influence cancer progression. Among solid tumors, breast cancer remains the most frequently diagnosed cancer among women globally and a leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Here we emphasize the value of breast cancer cell-derived spheroids in revealing differential molecular characteristics and understanding cancer cell properties during the early stages of invasion into adjacent tissues. Conclusively, this study underscores the urgent need to adopt 3D cell culture platforms, given their significant contributions to advanced cancer research and pharmaceutical targeting. This may well offer a transformative approach for preclinical studies and enhance our ability to test therapeutic efficiency in conditions that closely mimic the growth and progression of in vivo solid tumors.

Microenvironment-based immunotherapy in oral cancer: a comprehensive review

Oral cancer, a prevalent form of head and neck malignancy, accounts for 4% of global cancer cases. The most common type, oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), has a survival rate of about 50%. Even though emerging molecular therapies show promise for managing oral cancer, current treatments like surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy have significant side effects. In addition, the complex tumor microenvironment (TME), involving the extracellular matrix (ECM) and cells like fibroblasts and stromal cells like immune cells, promotes tumor growth and inhibits immune responses, complicating treatment. Nonetheless, immunotherapy is crucial in cancer treatment, especially in oral cancers. Indeed, its effectiveness lies in targeting immune checkpoints such as PD-1 and CTLA-4 inhibitors, as well as monoclonal antibodies like pembrolizumab and cetuximab, adoptive cell transfer methods (including CAR-T cell therapy), cytokine therapy such as IL-2, and tumor vaccines. Thus, these interventions collectively regulate tumor proliferation and metastasis by targeting the TME through autocrine-paracrine signaling pathways. Immunotherapy indeed aims to stimulate the immune system, leveraging both innate and adaptive immunity to counteract cancer cell signals and promote tumor destruction. This review will explore how the TME controls tumor proliferation and metastasis via autocrine-paracrine signaling pathways. It will then detail the effectiveness of immunotherapy in oral cancers, focusing on immune checkpoints, targeted monoclonal antibodies, adoptive cell transfer, cytokine therapy, and tumor vaccines.

Integrins in Cancer Drug Resistance: Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Implications

It is estimated that between 80 and 90% of mortality in cancer patients is directly or indirectly related to drug resistance. Consequently, overcoming drug resistance represents a significant challenge in the treatment of cancer. Integrins are transmembrane adhesion molecules that facilitate the linkage between the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the cytoskeleton, thereby enabling the activation of various cellular signaling pathways. Integrins are highly expressed in various cancers and contribute to cancer progression through invasion and metastasis. In addition, recent studies have revealed that integrins play a pivotal role in the development of drug resistance in cancer. This review will first provide an overview of integrin function and classification. It then discusses recent advances in understanding how integrins contribute to drug resistance in cancer, with a focus on ECM, drug transporters, the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), cancer stemness, PD-L1, and glycosylation. Finally, the potential applications of integrins as targets for therapeutic agents against drug-resistant cancers are also summarized.

Breast cancer extracellular matrix invasion depends on local mechanical loading of the collagen network

Active mechanical stresses in and around tumors affect cancer cell behavior and independently regulate cancer progression. To investigate the role of mechanical stress in breast cancer cell invasion, magnetic alginate beads loaded with iron oxide nanoparticles were coated with MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells and embedded in a three-dimensional extracellular matrix (ECM) model subjected to an external magnetic field during culture. Bead displacement, cell shape and patterns of invasion of the collagen gel, and cell proliferation were assessed over 7 days of culture. The alginate beads swelled over the first 24 h in culture, creating circumferential stress akin to that created by tumor growth, while bead magnetic properties enabled local mechanical loading (compression, tension, and relaxation) and motion within the in vitro tissue constructs upon exposure to an external magnetic field. Beads displaced 0.2-1.6 mm through the collagen gels, depending on magnet size and distance, compressing the collagen network microstructure without gel mechanical failure. Invading cells formed a spatulate pattern as they moved into the compressed ECM region, with individual cells aligned parallel to the bead surface. During the first 24 hours of compressive magnetic force loading, invading cancer cells became round, losing elongation and ability to invade out from the bead surface, while still actively dividing. In contrast, cell invasion in unloaded constructs and in loaded constructs away from the compression region invaded as single cells, transversely outward from the bead surface. Finally, cell proliferation was 1.3× higher only after external magnet removal, which caused relaxation of mechanical stress in the collagen network. These findings indicate effects on breast cancer invasion of mechanical loading of ECM, both from compressive loading and from load relaxation. Findings point to the influence of mechanical stress on cancer cell behavior and suggest that relaxing mechanical stress in and around a tumor may promote cancer progression through higher proliferation and invasion.

Battlegrounds of treatment resistance: decoding the tumor microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) emerges as a formidable actor in the cancer treatment landscape, wielding the power to thwart therapeutic efficacy across various modalities, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and hormonal therapy. This intricate ecosystem comprising diverse cellular constituents, signaling molecules, and the extracellular matrix fosters a dynamic interplay that profoundly influences tumor behavior and treatment outcomes. This review explores the mechanisms through which the TME drives resistance to standard therapies, emphasizing key factors such as hypoxia, immune evasion, and metabolic reprogramming. Furthermore, we illuminate innovative strategies aimed at reprogramming this hostile environment, including the application of therapeutic vaccines, CAR T cell therapy, and combination immunotherapies designed to enhance anti-tumor responses. By advocating for multidimensional approaches that dismantle the TME's barriers to effective treatment, this review calls for a transformative shift in cancer treatment paradigms. By bridging the gap between the TME's complexities and targeted therapeutic strategies, we pave the way for targeted interventions that promise to enhance clinical outcomes and improve patient prognosis in the relentless battle against cancer.

Enhancing therapeutic efficacy through degradation of endogenous extracellular matrix in primary breast tumor spheroids

Solid tumors have a complex extracellular matrix (ECM) that significantly affects tumor behavior and response to therapy. Understanding the ECM's role is crucial for advancing cancer research and treatment. This study established an in vitro model using primary cells isolated from a rat breast tumor to generate three-dimensional spheroids. Monolayer cells and spheroid cultures exhibited different protein expression patterns, with primary tumor spheroids presenting an increased level of ECM-related proteins and a more complex extracellular environment. Furthermore, spheroids produce endogenous collagen type I matrix, which is the main component of the tumoral ECM. This matrix is arranged predominantly around the 3D structure, mimicking the conditions of solid tumors. Treatments with recombinant collagenases class II (acting on the linear collagen region) and class I (acting on the 3D-helix region) completely degrade collagen within the spheroid structure. Collagenase pretreatment enhances the accessibility of the anticancer drug doxorubicin to penetrate the core of spheroids and sensitize them to doxorubicin-induced cytotoxicity. Our findings highlight the importance of overcoming drug resistance in breast cancer by targeting the ECM and proposing a novel strategy for improving therapeutic outcomes in solid tumors. By employing a three-dimensional spheroid model, with an endogenous ECM, we can offer more relevant insights into tumor biology and treatment responses.

Effect of binary mechanical environment on T cell function

T cells, key players in the immune system, recognize antigens via T-cell receptors (TCRs) and require additional costimulatory and cytokine signals for full activation. Beyond biochemical signals, T cells also respond to mechanical cues such as tissue stiffness. Traditional ex-vivo mechanostimulating platforms, however, present a uniform mechanical environment, unlike the heterogeneous conditions T cells encounter in-vivo. This work introduces a mechanically-biphasic T-cell stimulating surface, with alternating soft and stiff microdomains, to mimic the complex mechanical signals T cells face. Results show that T cells exposed to this biphasic environment do not average the mechanical signals but instead respond similarly to those on a homogeneously soft surface, leading to lower activation compared to those on a stiff surface. Interestingly, long-term exposure to these patterns enhances the proliferation of central memory and effector T cell phenotypes, similar to stiff environments. These findings reveal the non-linear nature of T cell mechanosensing and suggest that mechanical heterogeneity plays a critical role in modulating T cell responses, providing new insights into T cell activation and potential implications for immunotherapies. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This research offers a fresh perspective in T cell mehanosensing, an important yet underexplored aspect of immunity. While previous studies have demonstrated that T cells sense homogeneous mechanical environments ex-vivo, their ability to discern and respond to simultaneous mechanical cues-resembling the complexity of in-vivo conditions-remained unexamined. By designing a mechanically patterned surface with alternating soft and stiff microdomains, this study simulates the diverse mechanical landscape encountered by T cells in-vivo. The findings reveal that T cells predominantly respond to this pattern as they would to a uniformly soft environment. This insight, showing that mechanical signals shape T cell activation and promote specific phenotypes, enhances our understanding of T cell biology and points to new directions for immunotherapy development.

Liver Extracellular Matrix in Colorectal Liver Metastasis

The liver is the most common site of metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC), and colorectal liver metastasis is one of the major causes of CRC-related deaths worldwide. The tumor microenvironment, particularly the extracellular matrix (ECM), plays a critical role in CRC metastasis and chemoresistance. Based on findings from clinical and basic research, this review attempts to offer a complete understanding of the role of the ECM in colorectal liver metastasis and to suggest potential ways for therapeutic intervention. First, the ECMs' role in regulating cancer cell fate is explored. We then discuss the hepatic ECM fingerprint and its influence on the metastatic behavior of CRC cells, highlighting key molecular interactions that promote metastasis. In addition, we examine how changes in the ECM within the metastatic niche contribute to chemoresistance, focusing on ECM remodeling by ECM stiffening and the activation of specific signaling pathways. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the development of novel strategies to overcome metastasis and improve outcomes for CRC patients.

Ex.50.T aptamer impairs tumor-stroma cross-talk in breast cancer by targeting gremlin-1

The tumor microenvironment profoundly influences tumor complexity, particularly in breast cancer, where cancer-associated fibroblasts play pivotal roles in tumor progression and therapy resistance. Extracellular vesicles are involved in mediating communication within the TME, specifically highlighting their role in promoting the transformation of normal fibroblasts into cancer-associated fibroblasts. Recently, we identified an RNA aptamer, namely ex.50.T, that binds with remarkable affinity to extracellular vesicles shed from triple-negative breast cancer cells. Here, through in vitro assays and computational analyses, we demonstrate that the binding of ex.50.T to extracellular vesicles and parental breast cancer cells is mediated by recognition of gremlin-1 (GREM1), a bone morphogenic protein antagonist implicated in breast cancer aggressiveness and metastasis. Functionally, we uncover the role of ex.50.T as an innovative therapeutic agent in the process of tumor microenvironment re-modeling, impeding GREM1 signaling, blocking triple-negative breast cancer extracellular vesicles internalization in recipient cells, and counteracting the transformation of normal fibroblasts into cancer-associated fibroblasts. Altogether, our findings highlight ex.50.T as a novel therapeutical avenue for breast cancer and potentially other GREM1-dependent malignancies, offering insights into disrupting TME dynamics and enhancing cancer treatment strategies.

Cellular Kinetics and Biodistribution of Adoptive T Cell Therapies: from Biological Principles to Effects on Patient Outcomes

Cell-based immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment in recent years and is rapidly expanding as one of the major therapeutic options in immuno-oncology. So far ten adoptive T cell therapies (TCTs) have been approved by the health authorities for cancer treatment, and they have shown remarkable anti-tumor efficacy with potent and durable responses. While adoptive T cell therapies have shown success in treating hematological malignancies, they are lagging behind in establishing promising efficacy in treating solid tumors, partially due to our incomplete understanding of the cellular kinetics (CK) and biodistribution (including tumoral penetration) of cell therapy products. Indeed, recent clinical studies have provided ample evidence that CK of TCTs can influence clinical outcomes in both hematological malignancies and solid tumors. In this review, we will discuss the current knowledge on the CK and biodistribution of anti-tumor TCTs. We will first describe the typical CK and biodistribution characteristics of these "living" drugs, and the biological factors that influence these characteristics. We will then review the relationships between CK and pharmacological responses of TCT, and potential strategies in enhancing the persistence and tumoral penetration of TCTs in the clinic. Finally, we will also summarize bioanalytical methods, preclinical in vitro and in vivo tools, and in silico modeling approaches used to assess the CK and biodistribution of TCTs.

Emerging Frontiers in Colorectal Cancer Therapy: From Targeted Molecules to Immunomodulatory Breakthroughs and Cell-Based Approaches

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is ranked as the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally, necessitating urgent advancements in therapeutic approaches. The emergence of groundbreaking therapies, including chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cell therapies, oncolytic viruses, and immune checkpoint inhibitors, marks a transformative era in oncology. These innovative modalities, tailored to individual genetic and molecular profiles, hold the promise of significantly enhancing patient outcomes. This comprehensive review explores the latest clinical trials and advancements, encompassing targeted molecular therapies, immunomodulatory agents, and cell-based therapies. By evaluating the strengths, limitations, and potential synergies of these approaches, this research aims to reshape the treatment landscape and improve clinical outcomes for CRC patients, offering new found hope for those who have exhausted conventional options. The culmination of this work is anticipated to pave the way for transformative clinical trials, ushering in a new era of personalized and effective CRC therapy.

Quantitative characterization of the 3D self-organization of PDAC tumor spheroids reveals cell type and matrix dependence through advanced microscopy analysis

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by an abundant tumor-associated stroma composed from pancreatic stellate cells, which play a critical role in tumor progression. Developing accurate in vitro models requires understanding the complex interactions between tumor cells and their microenvironment. In this study, we present a quantitative imaging-based characterization of the three dimensional (3D) self-organization of PDAC tumour spheroids using a microfluidic platform that mimics key aspects of the tumor microenvironment. Our model incorporates collagen type I hydrogels to recreate the extracellular matrix, activated human pancreatic stellate cells (HPSCs), and various tumor cell types. Advanced imaging techniques, including Lattice Lightsheet Microscopy, allowed us to analyze the 3D growth and spatial organization of the spheroids, revealing intricate biomechanical interactions. Our results indicate that alterations in matrix properties-such as stiffness, pore size, and hydraulic permeability-due to variations in collagen concentration significantly influence the growth patterns and organization of PDAC spheroids, depending on tumor subtype and epithelial-mesenchymal phenotype. Higher collagen concentrations promoted larger spheroids in epithelial-like cell lines, while mesenchymal-type cells required increased collagen for self-organization into smaller spheroids. Furthermore, coculture with HPSCs affected spheroid formation distinctly based on each PDAC cell line's genetic and phenotypic traits. HPSCs had opposing effects on epithelial-like cell lines: one cell line exhibited enhanced spheroid growth, while another showed inhibited formation, whereas mesenchymal-like spheroids showed minimal impact. These results provide insights into tumor-stroma interactions, emphasizing the importance of the cell-specific and matrix-dependent factors for advancing our understanding of PDAC progression and informing future therapeutic strategies.

Radiogenomic Landscape of Metastatic Endocrine-Positive Breast Cancer Resistant to Aromatase Inhibitors

Breast cancer poses a significant global health challenge and includes various subtypes, such as endocrine-positive, HER2-positive, and triple-negative. Endocrine-positive breast cancer, characterized by estrogen and progesterone receptors, is commonly treated with aromatase inhibitors. However, resistance to these inhibitors can hinder patient outcomes due to genetic and epigenetic alterations, mutations in the estrogen receptor 1 gene, and changes in signaling pathways. Radiogenomics combines imaging techniques like MRI and CT scans with genomic profiling methods to identify radiographic biomarkers associated with resistance. This approach enhances our understanding of resistance mechanisms and metastasis patterns, linking them to specific genomic profiles and common metastasis sites like the bone and brain. By integrating radiogenomic data, personalized treatment strategies can be developed, improving predictive and prognostic capabilities. Advancements in imaging and genomic technologies offer promising avenues for enhancing radiogenomic research. A thorough understanding of resistance mechanisms is crucial for developing effective treatment strategies, making radiogenomics a valuable integrative approach in personalized medicine that aims to improve clinical outcomes for patients with metastatic endocrine-positive breast cancer.

Targeting HER2-Positive Solid Tumors with CAR NK Cells: CD44 Expression Is a Critical Modulator of HER2-Specific CAR NK Cell Efficacy

Background/Objectives: Monoclonal antibody therapies for HER2-positive tumors frequently encounter resistance, requiring alternative treatment strategies. This study investigates the use of natural killer (NK) cells expressing HER2-specific chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) to address this issue. CAR NK cells have several benefits over CAR T cells: they are less likely to cause severe side effects such as cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity, can be sourced from various origins, and do not trigger Graft versus Host Disease, making them ideal for "off-the-shelf" applications. Methods: We have generated NK-92 cell lines expressing first, second and third-generation HER2-specific CARs with CD28 and/or 41BB costimulatory domains using a retroviral transduction system, followed by FACS sorting and expansion to obtain pure HER2-CAR NK-92 cell products for functional benchmarking. Results: In vitro tests showed that these CAR NK cells were effective against both trastuzumab-sensitive (CD44-) and -resistant (CD44+) tumors in monolayer cultures. However, in three-dimensional spheroid models and in vivo xenografts, they were less effective against CD44+ trastuzumab-resistant tumors. Conclusions: This reduced efficacy highlights the significant role of the tumor microenvironment, particularly the extracellular matrix, in hindering the therapeutic potential of CAR NK cells. Despite the promising in vitro performance of CAR NK cells, this study emphasizes the need for improved strategies to enhance their penetration and effectiveness in resistant tumors: optimizing CAR constructs and devising methods to overcome extracellular matrix barriers are crucial for advancing CAR NK cell therapies in oncology.

Dynamic Nanostructure-Based DNA Logic Gates for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

DNA logic gates with dynamic nanostructures have made a profound impact on cancer diagnosis and treatment. Through programming the dynamic structure changes of DNA nanodevices, precise molecular recognition with signal amplification and smart therapeutic strategies have been reported. This enhances the specificity and sensitivity of cancer theranostics, and improves diagnosis precision and treatment outcomes. This review explores the basic components of dynamic DNA nanostructures and corresponding DNA logic gates, as well as their applications for cancer diagnosis and therapies. The dynamic DNA nanostructures would contribute to cancer early detection and personalized treatment.

Nanoscale strategies: doxorubicin resistance challenges and enhancing cancer therapy with advanced nanotechnological approaches

Doxorubicin (DOX), an anthracycline, is widely used in cancer treatment by interfering RNA and DNA synthesis. Its broad antitumour spectrum makes it an effective therapy for a wide array of cancers. However, the prevailing drug-resistant cancer has proven to be a significant drawback to the success of the conventional chemotherapy regime and DOX has been identified as a major hurdle. Furthermore, the clinical application of DOX has been limited by rapid breakdown, increased toxicity, and decreased half-time life, highlighting an urgent need for more innovative delivery methods. Although advancements have been made, achieving a complete cure for cancer remains elusive. The development of nanoparticles offers a promising avenue for the precise delivery of DOX into the tumour microenvironment, aiming to increase the drug concentration at the target site while reducing side effects. Despite the good aspects of this technology, the classical nanoparticles struggle with issues such as premature drug leakage, low bioavailability, and insufficient penetration into tumours due to an inadequate enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Recent advancements have focused on creating stimuli-responsive nanoparticles and employing various chemosensitisers, including natural compounds and nucleic acids, fortifying the efficacy of DOX against resistant cancers. The efforts to refine nanoparticle targeting precision to improve DOX delivery are reviewed. This includes using receptor-mediated endocytosis systems to maximise the internalisation of drugs. The potential benefits and drawbacks of these novel techniques constitute significant areas of ongoing study, pointing to a promising path forward in addressing the challenges posed by drug-resistant cancers.

Tumor dormancy and relapse: understanding the molecular mechanisms of cancer recurrence

Cancer recurrence, driven by the phenomenon of tumor dormancy, presents a formidable challenge in oncology. Dormant cancer cells have the ability to evade detection and treatment, leading to relapse. This review emphasizes the urgent need to comprehend tumor dormancy and its implications for cancer recurrence. Despite notable advancements, significant gaps remain in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying dormancy and the lack of reliable biomarkers for predicting relapse. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the cellular, angiogenic, and immunological aspects of dormancy. It highlights the current therapeutic strategies targeting dormant cells, particularly combination therapies and immunotherapies, which hold promise in preventing relapse. By elucidating these mechanisms and proposing innovative research methodologies, this review aims to deepen our understanding of tumor dormancy, ultimately facilitating the development of more effective strategies for preventing cancer recurrence and improving patient outcomes.

MAP1LC3C repression reduces CIITA- and HLA class II expression in non-small cell lung cancer

In the last decade, advancements in understanding the genetic landscape of lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) have significantly impacted therapy development. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have shown great promise, improving overall and progression-free survival in approximately 25% of the patients. However, challenges remain, such as the lack of predictive biomarkers, difficulties in patient stratification, and identifying mechanisms that cancers use to become immune-resistant ("immune-cold"). Analysis of TCGA datasets reveals reduced MAP1LC3C expression in cancer. Further analysis indicates that low MAP1LC3C is associated with reduced CIITA and HLA expression and with decreased immune cell infiltration. In tumor cells, silencing MAP1LC3C inhibits CIITA expression and suppresses HLA class II production. These findings suggest that cancer cells are selected for low MAP1LC3C expression to evade efficient immune responses.

Microbes, macrophages, and melanin: a unifying theory of disease as exemplified by cancer

It is widely accepted that cancer mostly arises from random spontaneous mutations triggered by environmental factors. Our theory challenges the idea of the random somatic mutation theory (SMT). The SMT does not fit well with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in that the same relatively few mutations would occur so frequently and that these mutations would lead to death rather than survival of the fittest. However, it would fit well under the theory of evolution, if we were to look at it from the vantage point of pathogens and their supporting microbial communities colonizing humans and mutating host cells for their own benefit, as it does give them an evolutionary advantage and they are capable of selecting genes to mutate and of inserting their own DNA or RNA into hosts. In this article, we provide evidence that tumors are actually complex microbial communities composed of various microorganisms living within biofilms encapsulated by a hard matrix; that these microorganisms are what cause the genetic mutations seen in cancer and control angiogenesis; that these pathogens spread by hiding in tumor cells and M2 or M2-like macrophages and other phagocytic immune cells and traveling inside them to distant sites camouflaged by platelets, which they also reprogram, and prepare the distant site for metastasis; that risk factors for cancer are sources of energy that pathogens are able to utilize; and that, in accordance with our previous unifying theory of disease, pathogens utilize melanin for energy for building and sustaining tumors and metastasis. We propose a paradigm shift in our understanding of what cancer is, and, thereby, a different trajectory for avenues of treatment and prevention.

Nano-Based Strategies Aiming at Tumor Microenvironment for Improved Cancer Therapy

Malignant tumors pose a considerable threat to human life and health. Traditional treatments, such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy, often lack specificity, leading to collateral damage to normal tissues. Tumor microenvironment (TME) is characterized by hypoxia, acidity, redox imbalances, and elevated ATP levels factors that collectively promote tumor growth and metastasis. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the nanoparticles developed in recent years for TME-responsive strategies or TME-modulating methods for tumor therapy. The TME-responsive strategies focus on designing and synthesizing nanoparticles that can interact with the tumor microenvironment to achieve precisely controlled drug release. These nanoparticles activate drug release under specific conditions within the tumor environment, thereby enhancing the efficacy of the drugs while reducing toxicity to normal cells. Moreover, simply eliminating tumor cells does not fundamentally solve the problem. Only by comprehensively regulating the TME to make it unsuitable for tumor cell survival and proliferation can we achieve more thorough therapeutic effects and reduce the risk of tumor recurrence. TME regulation strategies aim to suppress the growth and metastasis of tumor cells by modulating various components within the TME. These strategies not only improve treatment outcomes but also have the potential to lay the foundation for future personalized cancer therapies.

The Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer Perspective on Tissue-Based Technologies for Immuno-Oncology Biomarker Discovery and Application

With immuno-oncology becoming the standard of care for a variety of cancers, identifying biomarkers that reliably classify patient response, resistance, or toxicity becomes the next critical barrier toward improving care. Multiparametric, multi-omics, and computational platforms generating an unprecedented depth of data are poised to usher in the discovery of increasingly robust biomarkers for enhanced patient selection and personalized treatment approaches. Deciding which developing technologies to implement in clinical settings ultimately, applied either alone or in combination, relies on weighing pros and cons, from minimizing patient sampling to maximizing data outputs, and assessing the reproducibility and representativeness of findings, while lessening data fragmentation toward harmonization. These factors are all assessed while taking into consideration the shortest turnaround time. The Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer Biomarkers Committee convened to identify important advances in biomarker technologies and to address advances in biomarker discovery using multiplexed IHC and immunofluorescence, their coupling to single-cell transcriptomics, along with mass spectrometry-based quantitative and spatially resolved proteomics imaging technologies. We summarize key metrics obtained, ease of interpretation, limitations and dependencies, technical improvements, and outward comparisons of these technologies. By highlighting the most interesting recent data contributed by these technologies and by providing ways to improve their outputs, we hope to guide correlative research directions and assist in their evolution toward becoming clinically useful in immuno-oncology.

Viscosity regulates cell spreading and cell-extracellular matrix interactions

Fluid viscosity and osmolarity are among some of the underappreciated mechanical stimuli that cells can detect. Abnormal changes of multiple fluidic factors such as viscosity and osmolarity have been linked with diseases such as cystic fibrosis, cancer, and coronary heart disease. Changes in viscosity have been recently suggested as a regulator of cell locomotion. These novel studies focus on cell migration and spreading on glass substrates and through microchannels, and it remains a question whether viscosity impacts the cellular remodeling of extracellular matrices (ECMs). Here, we demonstrate that elevated viscosity induces cellular remodeling of collagen substrates and enhances cell spreading on ECM-mimetic substrates. Our results expand on recent work showing that viscosity induces increased cellular forces and demonstrates that viscosity can drive local ECM densification. Our data further show that microtubules, Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1), actin-related protein 2/3 (Arp2/3) complex, Rho-associated protein kinase 1 (ROCK), and myosin are important regulators of viscosity-induced ECM remodeling. In the context of viscosity-induced cell spreading, cells cultured on glass and collagen substrates exhibit markedly different responses to pharmacological treatments, indicating that microtubules, Rac1, and Arp2/3 play distinct roles in regulating cellular spreading depending on the substrate. In addition, our results demonstrate that high osmotic pressures override viscosity-induced cell spreading by suppressing membrane ruffling. Our results demonstrate viscosity as a regulator of ECM remodeling and cell spreading in a fibrillar microenvironment. We also reveal a complex interplay between viscosity and osmolarity. We anticipate that our research can pave the way for future investigations into the crucial roles played by viscosity in both physiological and pathological conditions.

Doxorubicin and topotecan resistance in ovarian cancer: Gene expression and microenvironment analysis in 2D and 3D models

This study explores the mechanisms underlying chemotherapy resistance in ovarian cancer (OC) using doxorubicin (DOX) and topotecan (TOP)-resistant cell lines derived from the drug-sensitive A2780 ovarian cancer cell line. Both two-dimensional (2D) monolayer cell cultures and three-dimensional (3D) spheroid models were employed to examine the differential drug responses in these environments. The results revealed that 3D spheroids demonstrated significantly higher resistance to DOX and TOP than 2D cultures, suggesting a closer mimicry of in vivo tumour conditions. Molecular analyses identified overexpression of essential drug resistance-related genes, including MDR1 and BCRP, and extracellular matrix (ECM) components, such as MYOT and SPP1, which were more pronounced in resistant cell lines. MDR1 and BCRP overexpression contribute to chemotherapy resistance in OC by expelling drugs like DOX and TOP. Targeting these transporters with inhibitors or gene silencing could improve drug efficacy, making them key therapeutic targets to enhance treatment outcomes for drug-resistant OC. The study further showed that EMT-associated markers, including VIM, SNAIL1, and SNAIL2, were upregulated in the 3D spheroids, reflecting a more mesenchymal phenotype. These findings suggest that factors beyond gene expression, such as spheroid architecture, cell-cell interactions, and drug penetration, contribute to the enhanced resistance observed in 3D cultures. These results highlight the importance of 3D cell culture models for a more accurate representation of tumour drug resistance mechanisms in ovarian cancer, providing valuable insights for therapeutic development.

The tumor microenvironment: shaping cancer progression and treatment response

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a crucial role in cancer progression and treatment response. It comprises a complex network of stromal cells, immune cells, extracellular matrix, and blood vessels, all of which interact with cancer cells and influence tumor behaviour. This review article provides an in-depth examination of the TME, focusing on stromal cells, blood vessels, signaling molecules, and ECM, along with commonly available therapeutic compounds that target these components. Moreover, we explore the TME as a novel strategy for discovering new anti-tumor drugs. The dynamic and adaptive nature of the TME offers opportunities for targeting specific cellular interactions and signaling pathways. We discuss emerging approaches, such as combination therapies that simultaneously target cancer cells and modulate the TME. Finally, we address the challenges and future prospects in targeting the TME. Overcoming drug resistance, improving drug delivery, and identifying new therapeutic targets within the TME are among the challenges discussed. We also highlight the potential of personalized medicine and the integration of emerging technologies, such as immunotherapy and nanotechnology, in TME-targeted therapies. This comprehensive review provides insights into the TME and its therapeutic implications. Understanding the TME's complexity and targeting its components offer promising avenues for the development of novel anti-tumor therapies and improved patient outcomes.

Targeting the tumor microenvironment with mesenchymal stem cells based delivery approach for efficient delivery of anticancer agents: An updated review

Drug delivery to cancer cells continues to present a major therapeutic challenge. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess an intrinsic ability to migrate specifically to tumor tissues, making them promising candidates for targeted drug delivery. Evidence from preclinical studies indicates that MSCs loaded with therapeutic anti-cancer agents exhibit considerable anti-tumor activity. Moreover, several clinical trials are currently evaluating their effectiveness in cancer patients. The integration of MSCs with synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) enhances their therapeutic potential, particularly through the use of cell membrane-coated NPs, which represent a significant advancement in the field. This review systematically investigates the tumor microenvironment, the sources of MSCs, the tumor homing mechanisms, and the methods of loading and releasing anticancer drugs from MSCs. Furthermore, cutting-edge strategies to improve the efficacy of MSCs based drug delivery systems (DDS) including the innovative use of MSC membrane coated nanoparticles have been discussed. The study concludes with an overview of the therapeutic use of MSCs as drug carriers, including a detailed analysis of the mechanisms by which MSCs deliver therapeutics to cancer cells, enabling targeted drug delivery. It aims to elucidate the current state of this approach, identify key areas for development, and outline potential future directions for advancing MSCs based cancer therapies.

RhoA and Rac1 as Mechanotransduction Mediators in Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related deaths, creating an urgent need for innovative diagnostic solutions. Mechanobiology, a cutting-edge field that investigates how physical forces influence cell behavior, is now revealing new insights into cancer progression. This research focuses on two crucial players: RhoA and Rac1, small yet powerful proteins that regulate the structure and movement of cancer cells. RhoA controls cell adhesion and migration, while Rac1 drives cell movement and invasion. As CRC tumors grow and reshape the colon's mechanical environment, these pathways become disrupted, accelerating cancer progression. Examining the level of RhoA and Rac1 in CRC clinical samples under mechanical strain reveals their potential as diagnostic markers. Tracking the activity of these proteins can unlock valuable insights into cancer cell dissemination, offering new avenues for understanding and diagnosing CRC. This approach holds promise for earlier detection and better outcomes by offering key insights for more effective diagnostic strategies.

Tumor-Associated Extracellular Matrix Obstacles for CAR-T Cell Therapy: Approaches to Overcoming

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy yields good results in the treatment of various hematologic malignancies. However, the efficacy of CAR-T cell therapy against solid tumors has proven to be limited, primarily because the tumor-associated extracellular matrix (ECM) creates an intractable barrier for the cytotoxic CAR-T cells that are supposed to kill cancer cells. This review unravels the multifaceted role of the tumor-associated ECM in impeding CAR-T cell infiltration, survival, and functions within solid tumors. We analyze the situations when intratumoral ECM limits the efficacy of CAR-T cell therapy by being a purely physical barrier that complicates lymphocyte penetration/migration and also acts as an immunosuppressive factor that impairs the antitumor activities of CAR-T cells. In addition, we highlight promising approaches such as engineering CAR-T cells with improved capabilities to penetrate and migrate into/through the intratumoral ECM, combination therapies aimed at attenuating the high density and immunosuppressive potential of the intratumoral ECM, and others that enable overcoming ECM-related obstacles. A detailed overview of the data of relevant studies not only helps to better understand the interactions between CAR-T cells and the intratumoral ECM but also outlines potential ways to more effectively use CAR-T cell therapy against solid tumors.

Proteoglycan-degrading enzymes engineered for enhanced tumor microenvironment interaction in renal cell carcinoma

This work optimized proteoglycan-degrading enzymes through targeted mutagenesis to enhance their interaction with the tumor microenvironment in Renal Cell Carcinoma (RCC). A comprehensive mutagenesis approach identified 60 key mutations significantly improving enzymatic activity, stability, and structural integrity. When compared to Wild Type (WT) enzyme, a remarkable increase in specific activity by 35 % (p < 0.001) and a considerable decrease in the Km values for hyaluronidases from 2.5 mM to 1.5 mM (p < 0.05), as a result of these modifications. Computational methods are then employed to analyze the active site of the enzymes to detect potential residues that may alter. These computational techniques include molecular docking and protein structure prediction. The structural models of the enzymes are created by utilizing homology modeling and crystallography. These models demonstrate the spatial arrangement of the amino acid enzymes. It also illustrated the specific mutations to improve the potential of enzymes to relate to the Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of tumors. The computational screening methods effectively predicted how the modifications impact enzyme catalytic efficiency and stability. The modified enzymes retained 85 % of the enzyme activity, while the WT retained 60 %. Thus, the modified enzymes demonstrated better thermal stability than WT. Vitro test analyses show that the proteoglycan breakdown was significantly reduced by 70 % (p < 0.001), and for effective proteoglycan breakdown, hyaluronidase concentration is needed. This work proposed a novel therapeutic approach called proteoglycan-degrading enzymes for the treatment of RCC. These proteoglycan-degrading enzymes are more stable and effective for treating RCC, as demonstrated in the outcomes. Customized proteoglycan-degrading enzymes make the therapy more effective. The effective breakdown of the tumor's ECM in RCC models establishes this customized proteoglycan-degrading enzyme. These enzymes are effective for this customized cancer treatment as they improve stability, activity, and interaction with the TME.

Emerging Approaches in Glioblastoma Treatment: Modulating the Extracellular Matrix Through Nanotechnology

Glioblastoma's (GB) complex tumor microenvironment (TME) promotes its progression and resistance to therapy. A critical component of TME is the extracellular matrix (ECM), which plays a pivotal role in promoting the tumor's invasive behavior and aggressiveness. Nanotechnology holds significant promise for GB treatment, with the potential to address challenges posed by both the blood-brain barrier and the GB ECM. By enabling targeted delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents, nanotechnology offers the prospect of improving treatment efficacy and diagnostic accuracy at the tumor site. This review provides a comprehensive exploration of GB, including its epidemiology, classification, and current treatment strategies, alongside the intricacies of its TME. It highlights nanotechnology-based strategies, focusing on nanoparticle formulations such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and gold nanoparticles, which have shown promise in GB therapy. Furthermore, it explores how different emerging nanotechnology strategies modulate the ECM to overcome the challenges posed by its high density, which restricts drug distribution within GB tumors. By emphasizing the intersection of nanotechnology and GB ECM, this review underscores an innovative approach to advancing GB treatment. It addresses the limitations of current therapies, identifies new research avenues, and emphasizes the potential of nanotechnology to improve patient outcomes.

Unveiling novel regulatory mechanisms of miR-5195-3p in pelvic organ prolapse pathogenesis†

Pelvic organ prolapse is a condition that significantly affects women's quality of life. The pathological mechanism of pelvic organ prolapse is not yet fully understood, and its pathogenesis is often caused by multiple factors, including the metabolic imbalance of the extracellular matrix. This study aims to investigate the role of miR-5195-3p, a microRNA, in the pathology of pelvic organ prolapse and its regulatory mechanism. Using various molecular biology techniques such as real-time reverse transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), fluorescence in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and Western blot, miR-5195-3p expression was examined in vaginal wall tissues obtained from pelvic organ prolapse patients. Results revealed an up-regulation of miR-5195-3p expression in these tissues, showing a negative correlation with the expression of extracellular matrix-related proteins. Further analysis using bioinformatics tools identified Lipoxygenase (LOX) as a potential target in pelvic organ prolapse. Dual luciferase reporter gene experiments confirmed LOX as a direct target of miR-5195-3p. Interestingly, regulating the expression of LOX also influenced the transforming growth factor β1 signaling pathway and had an impact on extracellular matrix metabolism. This finding suggests that miR-5195-3p controls extracellular matrix metabolism by targeting LOX and modulating the TGF-β1 signaling pathway. In conclusion, this study unveils the involvement of miR-5195-3p in the pathological mechanism of pelvic organ prolapse by regulating extracellular matrix metabolism through the LOX/TGF-β1 axis. These findings reveal new mechanisms in the pathogenesis of pelvic organ prolapse, providing a theoretical foundation and therapeutic targets for further research on pelvic organ prolapse treatment.

Enhancing precision in cancer treatment: the role of gene therapy and immune modulation in oncology

Gene therapy has long been a cornerstone in the treatment of rare diseases and genetic disorders, offering targeted solutions to conditions once considered untreatable. As the field advances, its transformative potential is now expanding into oncology, where personalized therapies address the genetic and immune-related complexities of cancer. This review highlights innovative therapeutic strategies, including gene replacement, gene silencing, oncolytic virotherapy, CAR-T cell therapy, and CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, with a focus on their application in both hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary tool in precision medicine, enables precise editing of cancer-driving mutations, enhancing immune responses and disrupting tumor growth mechanisms. Additionally, emerging approaches target ferroptosis-a regulated, iron-dependent form of cell death-offering new possibilities for selectively inducing tumor cell death in resistant cancers. Despite significant breakthroughs, challenges such as tumor heterogeneity, immune evasion, and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) remain. To overcome these barriers, novel approaches like dual-targeting, armored CAR-T cells, and combination therapies with immune checkpoint inhibitors and ferroptosis inducers are being explored. Additionally, the rise of allogeneic "off-the-shelf" CAR-T therapies offers scalable and more accessible treatment options. The regulatory landscape is evolving to accommodate these advancements, with frameworks like RMAT (Regenerative Medicine Advanced Therapy) in the U.S. and ATMP (Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products) in Europe fast-tracking the approval of gene therapies. However, ethical considerations surrounding CRISPR-based gene editing-such as off-target effects, germline editing, and ensuring equitable access-remain at the forefront, requiring ongoing ethical oversight. Advances in non-viral delivery systems, such as lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) and exosomes, are improving the safety and efficacy of gene therapies. By integrating these innovations with combination therapies and addressing regulatory and ethical concerns, gene therapy is poised to revolutionize cancer treatment, providing durable, effective, and personalized solutions for both hematologic and solid tumors.

Harnessing the tumor microenvironment: targeted cancer therapies through modulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is integral to cancer progression, impacting metastasis and treatment response. It consists of diverse cell types, extracellular matrix components, and signaling molecules that interact to promote tumor growth and therapeutic resistance. Elucidating the intricate interactions between cancer cells and the TME is crucial in understanding cancer progression and therapeutic challenges. A critical process induced by TME signaling is the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), wherein epithelial cells acquire mesenchymal traits, which enhance their motility and invasiveness and promote metastasis and cancer progression. By targeting various components of the TME, novel investigational strategies aim to disrupt the TME's contribution to the EMT, thereby improving treatment efficacy, addressing therapeutic resistance, and offering a nuanced approach to cancer therapy. This review scrutinizes the key players in the TME and the TME's contribution to the EMT, emphasizing avenues to therapeutically disrupt the interactions between the various TME components. Moreover, the article discusses the TME's implications for resistance mechanisms and highlights the current therapeutic strategies toward TME modulation along with potential caveats.

Leveraging Single-Cell Multi-Omics to Decode Tumor Microenvironment Diversity and Therapeutic Resistance

Recent developments in single-cell multi-omics technologies have provided the ability to identify diverse cell types and decipher key components of the tumor microenvironment (TME), leading to important advancements toward a much deeper understanding of how tumor microenvironment heterogeneity contributes to cancer progression and therapeutic resistance. These technologies are able to integrate data from molecular genomic, transcriptomic, proteomics, and metabolomics studies of cells at a single-cell resolution scale that give rise to the full cellular and molecular complexity in the TME. Understanding the complex and sometimes reciprocal relationships among cancer cells, CAFs, immune cells, and ECs has led to novel insights into their immense heterogeneity in functions, which can have important consequences on tumor behavior. In-depth studies have uncovered immune evasion mechanisms, including the exhaustion of T cells and metabolic reprogramming in response to hypoxia from cancer cells. Single-cell multi-omics also revealed resistance mechanisms, such as stromal cell-secreted factors and physical barriers in the extracellular matrix. Future studies examining specific metabolic pathways and targeting approaches to reduce the heterogeneity in the TME will likely lead to better outcomes with immunotherapies, drug delivery, etc., for cancer treatments. Future studies will incorporate multi-omics data, spatial relationships in tumor micro-environments, and their translation into personalized cancer therapies. This review emphasizes how single-cell multi-omics can provide insights into the cellular and molecular heterogeneity of the TME, revealing immune evasion mechanisms, metabolic reprogramming, and stromal cell influences. These insights aim to guide the development of personalized and targeted cancer therapies, highlighting the role of TME diversity in shaping tumor behavior and treatment outcomes.

TBX3 shapes an immunosuppressive microenvironment and induces immunotherapy resistance

Background: Identifying biomarkers that predict immunotherapy efficacy and discovering new targets for combination therapies are critical elements for improving the prognosis of bladder cancer (BLCA) patients. Methods: Firstly, we explored the expression patterns of TBX3 in normal and pan-cancer tissues and the correlation between TBX3 and the immune microenvironment using data from multiple public databases. Then, we combined various techniques, including bulk RNA sequencing, single-cell RNA sequencing, high-throughput cytokine arrays, functional experiments, ProcartaPlex multiplex immunoassays and TissueFAXS panoramic tissue quantification assays, to demonstrate that TBX3 shapes an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) in BLCA. Results: We identified TBX3 as a key factor associated with the immunosuppressive microenvironment in BLCA through a systematic multi-omics analysis. We found that TBX3 is primarily expressed in malignant cells, where TBX3high tumor cells increase the secretion of TGFβ1, which promotes the infiltration of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), thereby forming an immunosuppressive microenvironment. We further demonstrated that TBX3 enhances TGFβ1 expression by binding to the TGFβ1 promoter, and blocking TGFβ1 counteracts the immunosuppressive effects of TBX3. Moreover, TBX3 reduced the cancer-killing efficiency of CD8+ T cells by decreasing the proportion of GZMB+ CD8+ T cells, and knocking down TBX3 combined with anti-PD-1 treatment increased CD8+ T cell infiltration and reduced CAFs in vivo. We also validated the inverse relationship between TBX3+ malignant cells and CD8+ T cells and the positive relationship with CAFs in tissue microarrays. Lastly, we found that TBX3 predicted immunotherapy efficacy in our real-world immunotherapy cohort and multiple public cohorts. Conclusion: In summary, TBX3 promotes BLCA progression and immunotherapy resistance by inducing an immunosuppressive microenvironment, and targeting TBX3 could enhance the efficacy of immunotherapy for BLCA.

Integrated singlecell and bulk RNA-seq analysis identifies a prognostic signature related to inflammation in colorectal cancer

Inflammation can influence the development of CRC as well as immunotherapy and plays a key role in CRC. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the potential of inflammation-related genes in CRC risk prediction. Inflammation gene models were constructed and validated by combining transcriptomic and single-cell data from TCGA and GEO databases, and the expression of inflammation-related genes was verified by RT-qPCR. We identified two molecular subtypes and three genetic subtypes, two risk subgroups according to median risk values, constructed a prognostic model including thirteen genes (TIMP1, GDF15, UCN, KRT4, POU4F1, NXPH1, SIX2, NPC1L1, KLK12, IGFL1, FOXD1, ASPG, and CYP4F8), and validated the performance of each aspect of the model in an external database. Patients in the high-risk group had worse survival with reduced immune cell infiltration and a greater tumor mutational load. The risk score correlated strongly with the immune checkpoints PD1, PDL1, PDL2, and CTLA4, and it is possible that high-risk patients are more sensitive to treatment involving immune checkpoints. In the single-cell data, GDF15 was most significantly expressed in cancer cell populations. Therefore, we further validated their expression in cells and tissues using qPCR. In summary, we developed a prognostic marker associated with inflammatory genes to provide new directions for subsequent studies and to help clinicians assess the prognosis of CRC patients as well as to develop personalized treatment strategies.

Unraveling the Role of the Tumor Extracellular Matrix to Inform Nanoparticle Design for Nanomedicine

The extracellular matrix (ECM)-and its mechanobiology-regulates key cellular functions that drive tumor growth and development. Accordingly, mechanotherapy is emerging as an effective approach to treat fibrotic diseases such as cancer. Through restoring the ECM to healthy-like conditions, this treatment aims to improve tissue perfusion, facilitating the delivery of chemotherapies. In particular, the manipulation of ECM is gaining interest as a valuable strategy for developing innovative treatments based on nanoparticles (NPs). However, further progress is required; for instance, it is known that the presence of a dense ECM, which hampers the penetration of NPs, primarily impacts the efficacy of nanomedicines. Furthermore, most 2D in vitro studies fail to recapitulate the physiological deposition of matrix components. To address these issues, a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between the ECM and NPs is needed. This review focuses on the main features of the ECM and its complex interplay with NPs. Recent advances in mechanotherapy are discussed and insights are offered into how its combination with nanomedicine can help improve nanomaterials design and advance their clinical translation.

Recent Developments in Glioblastoma-On-A-Chip for Advanced Drug Screening Applications

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive form of cancer, comprising ≈80% of malignant brain tumors. However, there are no effective treatments for GBM due to its heterogeneity and the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the delivery of therapeutics to the brain. Despite in vitro models contributing to the understanding of GBM, conventional 2D models oversimplify the complex tumor microenvironment. Organ-on-a-chip (OoC) models have emerged as promising platforms that recapitulate human tissue physiology, enabling disease modeling, drug screening, and personalized medicine. There is a sudden increase in GBM-on-a-chip models that can significantly advance the knowledge of GBM etiology and revolutionize drug development by reducing animal testing and enhancing translation to the clinic. In this review, an overview of GBM-on-a-chip models and their applications is reported for drug screening and discussed current challenges and potential future directions for GBM-on-a-chip models.

Substrate stiffness-dependent activation of Hippo pathway in cancer associated fibroblasts

The tumor microenvironment (TME) comprises a heterogenous cell population within a complex three-dimensional (3D) extracellular matrix (ECM). Stromal cells within this TME are altered by signaling cues from cancer cells to support uncontrolled tumor growth and invasion events. Moreover, the ECM also plays a fundamental role in tumor development through pathological remodeling, stiffening and interaction with TME cells. In healthy tissues, Hippo signaling pathway actively contributes to tissue growth, cell proliferation and apoptosis. However, in cancer, the Hippo signaling pathway is highly dysregulated, leading to nuclear translocation of the YAP/TAZ complex, which directly contributes to uncontrolled cell proliferation and tissue growth, and ECM remodeling and stiffening processes. Here, we compare the effect of increasing cell culture substrate stiffness, derived from tumor progression, upon the dysregulation of the Hippo signaling pathway in colorectal cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and normal colorectal fibroblasts (NFs). We correlate the dysregulation of Hippo pathway with the magnitude of the traction forces exerted by healthy and malignant stromal cells. We found that ECM stiffening is crucial in Hippo pathway dysregulation in CAFs, but not in normal fibroblasts.

Therapeutic advantage of combinatorial chimeric antigen receptor T cell and chemotherapies

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapies have transformed outcomes for many patients with hematological malignancies. However, some patients do not respond to CAR T cell treatment, and adapting CAR T cells for treatment of solid and brain tumors has been met with many challenges, including a hostile tumor microenvironment and poor CAR T cell persistence. Thus, it is unlikely that CAR T cell therapy alone will be sufficient for consistent, complete tumor clearance across patients with cancer. Combinatorial therapies of CAR T cells and chemotherapeutics are a promising approach for overcoming this because chemotherapeutics could augment CAR T cells for improved antitumor activity or work in tandem with CAR T cells to clear tumors. Herein, we review efforts toward achieving successful CAR T cell and chemical drug combination therapies. We focus on combination therapies with approved chemotherapeutics because these will be more easily translated to the clinic but also review nonapproved chemotherapeutics and drug screens designed to reveal promising new CAR T cell and chemical drug combinations. Overall, this review highlights the promise of CAR T cell and chemotherapy combinations with a specific focus on how combinatorial therapy overcomes challenges faced by either monotherapy and supports the potential of this therapeutic strategy to improve outcomes for patients with cancer. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Improving currently available CAR T cell products via combinatorial therapy with chemotherapeutics has the potential to drastically expand the types of cancers and number of patients that could benefit from these therapies when neither alone has been sufficient to achieve tumor clearance. Herein, we provide a thorough review of the current efforts toward studying CAR T and chemotherapy combinatorial therapies and offer perspectives on optimal ways to identify new and effective combinations moving forward.

Unveiling the nexus: The tumor microenvironment as a strategic frontier in viral cancers

Viral infections are a significant factor in the etiology of various cancers, with the tumor microenvironment (TME) playing a crucial role in disease progression. This review delves into the complex interactions between viruses and the TME, highlighting how these interactions shape the course of viral cancers. We explore the distinct roles of immune cells, including T-cells, B-cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, within the TME and their influence on cancer progression. The review also examines how viral oncoproteins manipulate the TME to promote immune evasion and tumor survival. Unraveling these mechanisms highlights the emerging paradigm of targeting the TME as a novel approach to cancer treatment. Our analysis provides insights into the dynamic interplay between viruses and the TME, offering a roadmap for innovative treatments that leverage the unique characteristics of viral cancers.

Bidirectional crosstalk between the epithelial-mesenchymal transition and immunotherapy: A bibliometric study

Immunotherapy has recently attracted considerable attention. However, currently, a thorough analysis of the trends associated with the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and immunotherapy is lacking. In this study, we used bibliometric tools to provide a comprehensive overview of the progress in EMT-immunotherapy research. A total of 1,302 articles related to EMT and immunotherapy were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC). The analysis indicated that in terms of the volume of research, China was the most productive country (49.07%, 639), followed by the United States (16.89%, 220) and Italy (3.6%, 47). The United States was the most influential country according to the frequency of citations and citation burstiness. The results also suggested that Frontiers in Immunotherapy can be considered as the most influential journal with respect to the number of articles and impact factors. "Immune infiltration," "bioinformatics analysis," "traditional Chinese medicine," "gene signature," and "ferroptosis" were found to be emerging keywords in EMT-immunotherapy research. These findings point to potential new directions that can deepen our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the combined effects of immunotherapy and EMT and help develop strategies for improving immunotherapy.

Targeting Invasion: The Role of MMP-2 and MMP-9 Inhibition in Colorectal Cancer Therapy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains one of the most prevalent and lethal cancers worldwide, prompting ongoing research into innovative therapeutic strategies. This review aims to systematically evaluate the role of gelatinases, specifically MMP-2 and MMP-9, as therapeutic targets in CRC, providing a critical analysis of their potential to improve patient outcomes. Gelatinases, specifically MMP-2 and MMP-9, play critical roles in the processes of tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. Their expression and activity are significantly elevated in CRC, correlating with poor prognosis and lower survival rates. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the pathophysiological roles of gelatinases in CRC, highlighting their contribution to tumor microenvironment modulation, angiogenesis, and the metastatic cascade. We also critically evaluate recent advancements in the development of gelatinase inhibitors, including small molecule inhibitors, natural compounds, and novel therapeutic approaches like gene silencing techniques. Challenges such as nonspecificity, adverse side effects, and resistance mechanisms are discussed. We explore the potential of gelatinase inhibition in combination therapies, particularly with conventional chemotherapy and emerging targeted treatments, to enhance therapeutic efficacy and overcome resistance. The novelty of this review lies in its integration of recent findings on diverse inhibition strategies with insights into their clinical relevance, offering a roadmap for future research. By addressing the limitations of current approaches and proposing novel strategies, this review underscores the potential of gelatinase inhibitors in CRC prevention and therapy, inspiring further exploration in this promising area of oncological treatment.