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Ventura-Antunes L, Nackenoff A, Romero-Fernandez W, Bosworth AM, Prusky A, Wang E, Carvajal-Tapia C, Shostak A, Harmsen H, Mobley B, Maldonado J, Solopova E, Caleb Snider J, David Merryman W, Lippmann ES, Schrag M. Arteriolar degeneration and stiffness in cerebral amyloid angiopathy are linked to β-amyloid deposition and lysyl oxidase. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.08.583563. [PMID: 38659767 PMCID: PMC11042178 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.08.583563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is a vasculopathy characterized by vascular β-amyloid (Aβ) deposition on cerebral blood vessels. CAA is closely linked to Alzheimer's disease (AD) and intracerebral hemorrhage. CAA is associated with the loss of autoregulation in the brain, vascular rupture, and cognitive decline. To assess morphological and molecular changes associated with the degeneration of penetrating arterioles in CAA, we analyzed post-mortem human brain tissue from 26 patients with mild, moderate, and severe CAA end neurological controls. The tissue was optically cleared for three-dimensional light sheet microscopy, and morphological features were quantified using surface volume rendering. We stained Aβ, vascular smooth muscle (VSM), lysyl oxidase (LOX), and vascular markers to visualize the relationship between degenerative morphological features, including vascular dilation, dolichoectasia (variability in lumenal diameter) and tortuosity, and the volumes of VSM, Aβ, and LOX in arterioles. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to assess arteriolar wall stiffness, and we identified a pattern of morphological features associated with degenerating arterioles in the cortex. The volume of VSM associated with the arteriole was reduced by around 80% in arterioles with severe CAA and around 60% in cases with mild/moderate CAA. This loss of VSM correlated with increased arteriolar diameter and variability of diameter, suggesting VSM loss contributes to arteriolar laxity. These vascular morphological features correlated strongly with Aβ deposits. At sites of microhemorrhage, Aβ was consistently present, although the morphology of the deposits changed from the typical organized ring shape to sharply contoured shards with marked dilation of the vessel. AFM showed that arteriolar walls with CAA were more than 400% stiffer than those without CAA. Finally, we characterized the association of vascular degeneration with LOX, finding strong associations with VSM loss and vascular degeneration. These results show an association between vascular Aβ deposition, microvascular degeneration, and increased vascular stiffness, likely due to the combined effects of replacement of VSM by β-amyloid, cross-linking of extracellular matrices (ECM) by LOX, and possibly fibrosis. This advanced microscopic imaging study clarifies the association between Aβ deposition and vascular fragility. Restoration of physiologic ECM properties in penetrating arteries may yield a novel therapeutic strategy for CAA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alex Nackenoff
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | | | - Allison M Bosworth
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Alex Prusky
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Emmeline Wang
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | | | - Alena Shostak
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Hannah Harmsen
- Department of Pathology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Bret Mobley
- Department of Pathology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Jose Maldonado
- Vanderbilt Neurovisualization Lab, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Elena Solopova
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - J. Caleb Snider
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - W. David Merryman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Ethan S Lippmann
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville TN, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Matthew Schrag
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville TN, USA
- Vanderbilt Memory and Alzheimer’s Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
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2
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Swinford CG, Risacher SL, Vosmeier A, Deardorff R, Chumin EJ, Dzemidzic M, Wu YC, Gao S, McDonald BC, Yoder KK, Unverzagt FW, Wang S, Farlow MR, Brosch JR, Clark DG, Apostolova LG, Sims J, Wang DJ, Saykin AJ. Amyloid and tau pathology are associated with cerebral blood flow in a mixed sample of nondemented older adults with and without vascular risk factors for Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2023; 130:103-113. [PMID: 37499587 PMCID: PMC10529454 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2023.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Identification of biomarkers for the early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an imperative step in developing effective treatments. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) is a potential early biomarker for AD; generally, older adults with AD have decreased CBF compared to normally aging peers. CBF deviates as the disease process and symptoms progress. However, further characterization of the relationships between CBF and AD risk factors and pathologies is still needed. We assessed the relationships between CBF quantified by arterial spin-labeled magnetic resonance imaging, hypertension, APOEε4, and tau and amyloid positron emission tomography in 77 older adults: cognitively normal, subjective cognitive decline, and mild cognitive impairment. Tau and amyloid aggregation were related to altered CBF, and some of these relationships were dependent on hypertension or APOEε4 status. Our findings suggest a complex relationship between risk factors, AD pathologies, and CBF that warrants future studies of CBF as a potential early biomarker for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecily G Swinford
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Shannon L Risacher
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Aaron Vosmeier
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Rachael Deardorff
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Evgeny J Chumin
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana University Network Science Institute, Bloomington, IN, USA; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Mario Dzemidzic
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Yu-Chien Wu
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Sujuan Gao
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Biostatistics and Health Data Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Brenna C McDonald
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Karmen K Yoder
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Frederick W Unverzagt
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Sophia Wang
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Martin R Farlow
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Jared R Brosch
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - David G Clark
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Liana G Apostolova
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana University Network Science Institute, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Justin Sims
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Danny J Wang
- Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Andrew J Saykin
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana University Network Science Institute, Bloomington, IN, USA.
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Liu Z, McCutcheon FM, Ho H, Chia J, Xiao Y, Tippett I, Keragala CB, Cloud GC, Medcalf RL. Tranexamic acid in a mouse model of cerebral amyloid angiopathy: setting the stage for a novel stroke treatment approach. Res Pract Thromb Haemost 2023; 7:102166. [PMID: 37694270 PMCID: PMC10483050 DOI: 10.1016/j.rpth.2023.102166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhage (sICH) commonly occurs in patients with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). Amyloid also initiates plasminogen activation and might promote sICH. Objectives As amyloid-driven plasmin formation can be blocked by tranexamic acid (TXA), we aimed to evaluate the biodistribution and long-term consequences of TXA on brain amyloid-beta (Aβ) levels, inflammation, and neurologic function in APP/PS1 mice. Methods APP/PS1 mice overexpressing the mutant human amyloid precursor protein and wild-type littermates were randomized to TXA (20 mg/mL) or placebo in the drinking water for 6 months. TXA in plasma and various organs was determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Plasmin activity assays were performed to evaluate changes in fibrinolytic activity. Neurologic function was evaluated by Y-maze and parallel rod floor testing. Proximity ligation-based immunoassays were used to quantitate changes of 92 biomarkers of inflammation. Brain Aβ levels were assessed by immunohistochemistry. Results Long-term oral TXA administration inhibited fibrinolysis. TXA accumulated in the kidney (19.4 ± 11.2 μg/g) with 2- to 5-fold lower levels seen in the lung, spleen, and liver. TXA levels were lowest in the brain (0.28 ± 0.01 μg/g). Over 6 months, TXA had no discernible effect on motor coordination, novelty preference, or brain Aβ levels. TXA reduced plasma levels of epithelial cell adhesion molecule and increased CCL20. Conclusion Long-term TXA treatment does not alter brain Aβ levels or impact neurologic behavior in mice predisposed to amyloid deposition and had minor effects on the levels of inflammatory mediators. This finding supports the safety of TXA and lays the foundation for TXA as a novel treatment to reduce sICH in patients with CAA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zikou Liu
- Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Fiona M. McCutcheon
- Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Heidi Ho
- Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joanne Chia
- Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Yunxin Xiao
- Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Isabel Tippett
- Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Geoffrey C. Cloud
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Robert L. Medcalf
- Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Cheng GWY, Ma IWT, Huang J, Yeung SHS, Ho P, Chen Z, Mak HKF, Herrup K, Chan KWY, Tse KH. Cuprizone drives divergent neuropathological changes in different mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.24.547147. [PMID: 37546935 PMCID: PMC10402084 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.24.547147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Myelin degradation is a normal feature of brain aging that accelerates in Alzheimer's disease (AD). To date, however, the underlying biological basis of this correlation remains elusive. The amyloid cascade hypothesis predicts that demyelination is caused by increased levels of the β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide. Here we report on work supporting the alternative hypothesis that early demyelination is upstream of amyloid. We challenged two different mouse models of AD (R1.40 and APP/PS1) using cuprizone-induced demyelination and tracked the responses with both neuroimaging and neuropathology. In oppose to amyloid cascade hypothesis, R1.40 mice, carrying only a single human mutant APP (Swedish; APP SWE ) transgene, showed a more abnormal changes of magnetization transfer ratio and diffusivity than in APP/PS1 mice, which carry both APP SWE and a second PSEN1 transgene (delta exon 9; PSEN1 dE9 ). Although cuprizone targets oligodendrocytes (OL), magnetic resonance spectroscopy and targeted RNA-seq data in R1.40 mice suggested a possible metabolic alternation in axons. In support of alternative hypotheses, cuprizone induced significant intraneuronal amyloid deposition in young APP/PS1, but not in R1.40 mice, and it suggested the presence of PSEN deficiencies, may accelerate Aβ deposition upon demyelination. In APP/PS1, mature OL is highly vulnerable to cuprizone with significant DNA double strand breaks (53BP1 + ) formation. Despite these major changes in myelin, OLs, and Aβ immunoreactivity, no cognitive impairment or hippocampal pathology was detected in APP/PS1 mice after cuprizone treatment. Together, our data supports the hypothesis that myelin loss can be the cause, but not the consequence, of AD pathology. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The causal relationship between early myelin loss and the progression of Alzheimer's disease remains unclear. Using two different AD mouse models, R1.40 and APP/PS1, our study supports the hypothesis that myelin abnormalities are upstream of amyloid production and deposition. We find that acute demyelination initiates intraneuronal amyloid deposition in the frontal cortex. Further, the loss of oligodendrocytes, coupled with the accelerated intraneuronal amyloid deposition, interferes with myelin tract diffusivity at a stage before any hippocampus pathology or cognitive impairments occur. We propose that myelin loss could be the cause, not the consequence, of amyloid pathology during the early stages of Alzheimer's disease.
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Yu Y, Zhang N, Xiang B, Ding N, Liu J, Huang J, Zhao M, Zhao Y, Wang Y, Ma Z. In vivo characterization of cerebrovascular impairment induced by amyloid β peptide overload in glymphatic clearance system using swept-source optical coherence tomography. NEUROPHOTONICS 2023; 10:015005. [PMID: 36817752 PMCID: PMC9933996 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.10.1.015005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Antiamyloid β ( A β ) immunotherapy is a promising therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease (AD) but generates large amounts of soluble A β peptides that could overwhelm the clearance pathway, leading to serious side effects. Direct implications of A β in glymphatic drainage transport for cerebral vasculature and tissue are not well known. Studies are needed to resolve this issue and pave the way to better monitoring abnormal vascular events that may occur in A β -modifying therapies for AD. AIM The objective is to characterize the modification of cerebral vasculature and tissue induced by soluble A β abundantly present in the glymphatic clearance system. APPROACH A β 1 - 42 peptide was injected intracerebroventricularly and swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) was used to monitor the progression of changes in the brain microvascular network and tissue in vivo over 14 days. Parameters reflecting vascular morphology and structure as well as tissue status were quantified and compared before treatment. RESULTS Vascular perfusion density, vessel length, and branch density decreased sharply and persistently following peptide administration. In comparison, vascular average diameter and vascular tortuosity were moderately increased at the late stage of monitoring. Endpoint density gradually increased, and the global optical attenuation coefficient value decreased significantly over time. CONCLUSIONS A β burden in the glymphatic system directly contributes to cerebrovascular structural and morphological abnormalities and global brain tissue damage, suggesting severe deleterious properties of soluble cerebrospinal fluid- A β . We also show that OCT can be used as an effective tool to monitor cerebrovascular dynamics and tissue property changes in response to therapeutic treatments in drug discovery research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Yu
- Northeastern University at Qinhuangdao, School of Control Engineering, Qinhuangdao, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Precision Optical Sensing and Measurement Technology, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Northeastern University at Qinhuangdao, School of Control Engineering, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Ben Xiang
- Northeastern University, College of Information Science and Engineering, Shenyang, China
| | - Ning Ding
- Northeastern University, College of Information Science and Engineering, Shenyang, China
| | - Jian Liu
- Northeastern University at Qinhuangdao, School of Control Engineering, Qinhuangdao, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Precision Optical Sensing and Measurement Technology, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Jiangmei Huang
- First Hospital of Qinhuangdao, Department of Pathology, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Min Zhao
- First Hospital of Qinhuangdao, Department of Pathology, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Yuqian Zhao
- Northeastern University at Qinhuangdao, School of Control Engineering, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Northeastern University at Qinhuangdao, School of Control Engineering, Qinhuangdao, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Precision Optical Sensing and Measurement Technology, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Zhenhe Ma
- Northeastern University at Qinhuangdao, School of Control Engineering, Qinhuangdao, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Precision Optical Sensing and Measurement Technology, Qinhuangdao, China
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6
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Deshpande A, Elliott J, Kari N, Jiang B, Michel P, Toosizadeh N, Fahadan PT, Kidwell C, Wintermark M, Laksari K. Novel imaging markers for altered cerebrovascular morphology in aging, stroke, and Alzheimer's disease. J Neuroimaging 2022; 32:956-967. [PMID: 35838658 PMCID: PMC9474631 DOI: 10.1111/jon.13023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Altered brain vasculature is a key phenomenon in several neurologic disorders. This paper presents a quantitative assessment of the anatomical variations in the Circle of Willis (CoW) and vascular morphology in healthy aging, acute ischemic stroke (AIS) and Alzheimer's Disease (AD). METHODS We used our novel automatic method to segment and extract geometric features of the cerebral vasculature from MR angiography scans of 175 healthy subjects, which were used to create a probabilistic atlas of cerebrovasculature and to study normal aging and intersubject variations in CoW anatomy. Subsequently, we quantified and analyzed vascular alterations in 45AIS and 50 AD patients, two prominent cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative disorders. RESULTS In the sampled cohort, we determined that the CoW is fully formed in only 35% of healthy adults and found significantly (p < .05) increased tortuosity and fractality, with increasing age and also with disease in both AIS and AD. We also found significantly lower vessel length, volume, and number of branches in AIS patients, as expected. The AD cerebral vessels exhibited significantly smaller diameter and more complex branching patterns, compared to age-matched healthy adults. These changes were significantly heightened (p < .05) among healthy, early onset mild AD, and moderate/severe dementia groups. CONCLUSION Although our study does not include longitudinal data due to paucity of such datasets, the specific geometric features and quantitative comparisons demonstrate the potential for using vascular morphology as a noninvasive imaging biomarker for neurologic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jordan Elliott
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona
| | - Nitya Kari
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona
| | - Bin Jiang
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University
| | - Patrik Michel
- Department of Neurology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nima Toosizadeh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona
- Arizona Center on Aging, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona
| | - Pouya Tahsili Fahadan
- Neuroscience Intensive Care Unit, Medical Critical Care Service and Department of Medical Education, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Inova Fairfax Medical Campus
- Departments of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | | | | | - Kaveh Laksari
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Arizona
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7
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Vargas-George S, Dave KR. Models of cerebral amyloid angiopathy-related intracerebral hemorrhage. BRAIN HEMORRHAGES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hest.2022.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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8
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Kindler D, Maschio C, Ni R, Zerbi V, Razansky D, Klohs J. Arterial spin labeling demonstrates preserved regional cerebral blood flow in the P301L mouse model of tauopathy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2022; 42:686-693. [PMID: 34822744 PMCID: PMC8943618 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x211062274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
There is growing evidence for the vascular contribution to cognitive impairment and dementia in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. While perfusion deficits have been observed in patients with Alzheimer's disease and tauopaties, little is known about the role of tau in vascular dysfunction. In the present study, regional cerebral blood (rCBF) was characterized in P301L mice with arterial spin labeling. No differences in rCBF in P301L mice compared to their age-matched non-transgenic littermates at mid (10-12 months of age) and advanced (19-21 months of age) disease stages. This was concomitant with preservation of cortical brain structure as assessed with structural T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. These results show that hypoperfusion and neurodegeneration are not a phenotype of P301L mice. More studies are thus needed to understand the relationship of tau, neurodegeneration and vascular dysfunction and its modulators in AD and primary tauopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Kindler
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, 27219ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Cinzia Maschio
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ruiqing Ni
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, 27219ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Valerio Zerbi
- Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland.,Neural Control of Movement Lab, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, 27219ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Razansky
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, 27219ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland.,Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jan Klohs
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, 27219ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland
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Liao FF, Lin G, Chen X, Chen L, Zheng W, Raghow R, Zhou FM, Shih AY, Tan XL. Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase-Deficient Mice: A Model of Spontaneous Cerebral Small-Vessel Disease. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2021; 191:1932-1945. [PMID: 33711310 PMCID: PMC8647425 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2021.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Age-related cerebral small-vessel disease (CSVD) is a major cause of stroke and dementia. Despite a widespread acceptance of small-vessel arteriopathy, lacunar infarction, diffuse white matter injury, and cognitive impairment as four cardinal features of CSVD, a unifying pathologic mechanism of CSVD remains elusive. Herein, we introduce partial endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS)-deficient mice as a model of age-dependent, spontaneous CSVD. These mice developed cerebral hypoperfusion and blood-brain barrier leakage at a young age, which progressively worsened with advanced age. Their brains exhibited elevated oxidative stress, astrogliosis, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, microbleeds, microinfarction, and white matter pathology. Partial eNOS-deficient mice developed gait disturbances at middle age, and hippocampus-dependent memory deficits at older ages. These mice also showed enhanced expression of bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) in brain pericytes before myelin loss and white matter pathology. Because BMP4 signaling not only promotes astrogliogenesis but also blocks oligodendrocyte differentiation, we posit that paracrine actions of BMP4, localized within the neurovascular unit, promote white matter disorganization and neurodegeneration. These observations point to BMP4 signaling pathway in the aging brain vasculature as a potential therapeutic target. Finally, because studies in partial eNOS-deficient mice corroborated recent clinical evidence that blood-brain barrier disruption is a primary cause of white matter pathology, the mechanism of impaired nitric oxide signaling-mediated CSVD warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca-Fang Liao
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee.
| | - Geng Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee; Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical University, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xingyong Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee; Department of Neurology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Provincial Clinical College of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Ling Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee; Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, The School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Wei Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee; Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical University, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Rajendra Raghow
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - Fu-Ming Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - Andy Y Shih
- Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
| | - Xing-Lin Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee; Department of Neurology, Nanhai Hospital of Southern Medical University, Foshan, China
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10
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Tataryn NM, Singh V, Dyke JP, Berk-Rauch HE, Clausen DM, Aronowitz E, Norris EH, Strickland S, Ahn HJ. Vascular endothelial growth factor associated dissimilar cerebrovascular phenotypes in two different mouse models of Alzheimer's Disease. Neurobiol Aging 2021; 107:96-108. [PMID: 34416494 PMCID: PMC8595520 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Vascular perturbations and cerebral hypometabolism are emerging as important components of Alzheimer's disease (AD). While various in vivo imaging modalities have been designed to detect changes of cerebral perfusion and metabolism in AD patients and animal models, study results were often heterogenous with respect to imaging techniques and animal models. We therefore evaluated cerebral perfusion and glucose metabolism of two popular transgenic AD mouse strains, TgCRND8 and 5xFAD, at 7 and 12 months-of-age under identical conditions and analyzed possible molecular mechanisms underlying heterogeneous cerebrovascular phenotypes. Results revealed disparate findings in these two strains, displaying important aspects of AD progression. TgCRND8 mice showed significantly decreased cerebral blood flow and glucose metabolism with unchanged cerebral blood volume (CBV) at 12 months-of-age whereas 5xFAD mice showed unaltered glucose metabolism with significant increase in CBV at 12 months-of-age and a biphasic pattern of early hypoperfusion followed by a rebound to normal cerebral blood flow in late disease. Finally, immunoblotting assays suggested that VEGF dependent vascular tone change may restore normoperfusion and increase CBV in 5xFAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas M Tataryn
- Tri-Institutional Training Program in Laboratory Animal Medicine and Science, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medicine, and The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, USA and Center for Comparative Medicine and Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA; Patricia and John Rosenwald Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA; Division of Comparative Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Vishal Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neurosciences, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Jonathan P Dyke
- Citigroup Biomedical Imaging Center, Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Hanna E Berk-Rauch
- Patricia and John Rosenwald Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dana M Clausen
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neurosciences, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Eric Aronowitz
- Citigroup Biomedical Imaging Center, Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Erin H Norris
- Patricia and John Rosenwald Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sidney Strickland
- Patricia and John Rosenwald Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Hyung Jin Ahn
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neurosciences, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA; Brain Health Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, USA.
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11
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Skaaraas GHES, Melbye C, Puchades MA, Leung DSY, Jacobsen Ø, Rao SB, Ottersen OP, Leergaard TB, Torp R. Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease Associates with Upregulated Angiopoietin and Downregulated Hypoxia-Inducible Factor. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 83:1651-1663. [PMID: 34459401 PMCID: PMC8609707 DOI: 10.3233/jad-210571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Background: Vascular pathology is a common feature in patients with advanced Alzheimer’s disease, with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) and microvascular changes commonly observed at autopsies and in genetic mouse models. However, despite a plethora of studies addressing the possible impact of CAA on brain vasculature, results have remained contradictory, showing reduced, unchanged, or even increased capillary densities in human and rodent brains overexpressing amyloid-β in Alzheimer’s disease and Down’s syndrome. Objective: We asked if CAA is associated with changes in angiogenetic factors or receptors and if so, whether this would translate into morphological alterations in pericyte coverage and vessel density. Methods: We utilized the transgenic mice carrying the Arctic (E693G) and Swedish (KM670/6701NL) amyloid precursor protein which develop severe CAA in addition to parenchymal plaques. Results: The main finding of the present study was that CAA in Tg-ArcSwe mice is associated with upregulated angiopoietin and downregulated hypoxia-inducible factor. In the same mice, we combined immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy to quantify the extent of CAA and investigate to which degree vessels associated with amyloid plaques were pathologically affected. We found that despite a severe amount of CAA and alterations in several angiogenetic factors in Tg-ArcSwe mice, this was not translated into significant morphological alterations like changes in pericyte coverage or vessel density. Conclusion: Our data suggest that CAA does not impact vascular density but might affect capillary turnover by causing changes in the expression levels of angiogenetic factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christoffer Melbye
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Maja A Puchades
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Doreen Siu Yi Leung
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Shreyas B Rao
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole Petter Ottersen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Trygve B Leergaard
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Reidun Torp
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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12
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Bracko O, Cruz Hernández JC, Park L, Nishimura N, Schaffer CB. Causes and consequences of baseline cerebral blood flow reductions in Alzheimer's disease. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2021; 41:1501-1516. [PMID: 33444096 PMCID: PMC8221770 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x20982383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Reductions of baseline cerebral blood flow (CBF) of ∼10-20% are a common symptom of Alzheimer's disease (AD) that appear early in disease progression and correlate with the severity of cognitive impairment. These CBF deficits are replicated in mouse models of AD and recent work shows that increasing baseline CBF can rapidly improve the performance of AD mice on short term memory tasks. Despite the potential role these data suggest for CBF reductions in causing cognitive symptoms and contributing to brain pathology in AD, there remains a poor understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms causing them. This review compiles data on CBF reductions and on the correlation of AD-related CBF deficits with disease comorbidities (e.g. cardiovascular and genetic risk factors) and outcomes (e.g. cognitive performance and brain pathology) from studies in both patients and mouse models, and discusses several potential mechanisms proposed to contribute to CBF reductions, based primarily on work in AD mouse models. Future research aimed at improving our understanding of the importance of and interplay between different mechanisms for CBF reduction, as well as at determining the role these mechanisms play in AD patients could guide the development of future therapies that target CBF reductions in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Bracko
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Jean C Cruz Hernández
- Center for Systems Biology and Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Laibaik Park
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Nozomi Nishimura
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Chris B Schaffer
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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13
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Ries M, Watts H, Mota BC, Lopez MY, Donat CK, Baxan N, Pickering JA, Chau TW, Semmler A, Gurung B, Aleksynas R, Abelleira-Hervas L, Iqbal SJ, Romero-Molina C, Hernandez-Mir G, d’Amati A, Reutelingsperger C, Goldfinger MH, Gentleman SM, Van Leuven F, Solito E, Sastre M. Annexin A1 restores cerebrovascular integrity concomitant with reduced amyloid-β and tau pathology. Brain 2021; 144:1526-1541. [PMID: 34148071 PMCID: PMC8262982 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awab050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease, characterized by brain deposits of amyloid-β plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, is also linked to neurovascular dysfunction and blood-brain barrier breakdown, affecting the passage of substances into and out of the brain. We hypothesized that treatment of neurovascular alterations could be beneficial in Alzheimer's disease. Annexin A1 (ANXA1) is a mediator of glucocorticoid anti-inflammatory action that can suppress microglial activation and reduce blood-brain barrier leakage. We have reported recently that treatment with recombinant human ANXA1 (hrANXA1) reduced amyloid-β levels by increased degradation in neuroblastoma cells and phagocytosis by microglia. Here, we show the beneficial effects of hrANXA1 in vivo by restoring efficient blood-brain barrier function and decreasing amyloid-β and tau pathology in 5xFAD mice and Tau-P301L mice. We demonstrate that young 5xFAD mice already suffer cerebrovascular damage, while acute pre-administration of hrANXA1 rescued the vascular defects. Interestingly, the ameliorated blood-brain barrier permeability in young 5xFAD mice by hrANXA1 correlated with reduced brain amyloid-β load, due to increased clearance and degradation of amyloid-β by insulin degrading enzyme (IDE). The systemic anti-inflammatory properties of hrANXA1 were also observed in 5xFAD mice, increasing IL-10 and reducing TNF-α expression. Additionally, the prolonged treatment with hrANXA1 reduced the memory deficits and increased synaptic density in young 5xFAD mice. Similarly, in Tau-P301L mice, acute hrANXA1 administration restored vascular architecture integrity, affecting the distribution of tight junctions, and reduced tau phosphorylation. The combined data support the hypothesis that blood-brain barrier breakdown early in Alzheimer's disease can be restored by hrANXA1 as a potential therapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Ries
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Helena Watts
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Bibiana C Mota
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | | | - Nicoleta Baxan
- Biological Imaging Centre, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Tsz Wing Chau
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Annika Semmler
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Brinda Gurung
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Antonio d’Amati
- William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University London SMD, London, UK
| | - Chris Reutelingsperger
- Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Fred Van Leuven
- Experimental Genetics Group-LEGTEGG, Department of Human Genetics, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Egle Solito
- William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University London SMD, London, UK
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Universitá degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
| | - Magdalena Sastre
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
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14
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Massalimova A, Ni R, Nitsch RM, Reisert M, von Elverfeldt D, Klohs J. Diffusion Tensor Imaging Reveals Whole-Brain Microstructural Changes in the P301L Mouse Model of Tauopathy. NEURODEGENER DIS 2021; 20:173-184. [PMID: 33975312 DOI: 10.1159/000515754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Increased expression of hyperphosphorylated tau and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles are associated with neuronal loss and white matter damage. Using high-resolution ex vivo diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), we investigated microstructural changes in the white and grey matter in the P301L mouse model of human tauopathy at 8.5 months of age. For unbiased computational analysis, we implemented a pipeline for voxel-based analysis (VBA) and atlas-based analysis (ABA) of DTI mouse brain data. METHODS Hemizygous and homozygous transgenic P301L mice and non-transgenic littermates were used. DTI data were acquired for generation of fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), radial diffusivity (RD), and axial diffusivity (AD) maps. VBA on the entire brain was performed using SPM8 and the SPM Mouse toolbox. Initially, all DTI maps were coregistered with the Allen mouse brain atlas to bring them to one common coordinate space. In VBA, coregistered DTI maps were normalized and smoothed in order to perform two-sample and unpaired t tests with false discovery rate correction to compare hemizygotes with non-transgenic littermates, homozygotes with non-transgenic littermates, and hemizygotes with homozygotes on each DTI parameter map. In ABA, the average values for selected regions of interests were computed with coregistered DTI maps and labels in Allen mouse brain atlas. Afterwards, a Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA on ranks with a Tukey post hoc test was executed on the estimated average values. RESULTS With VBA, we found pronounced and brain-wide spread changes when comparing homozygous, P301L mice with non-transgenic littermates, which were not seen when comparing hemizygous P301L with non-transgenic animals. Statistical comparison of DTI metrics in selected brain regions by ABA corroborated findings from VBA. FA was found to be decreased in most brain regions, while MD, RD, and AD were increased in homozygotes compared to hemizygotes and non-transgenic littermates. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION High-resolution ex vivo DTI demonstrated brain-wide microstructural and gene-dose-dependent changes in the P301L mouse model of human tauopathy. The DTI analysis pipeline may serve for the phenotyping of models of tauopathy and other brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aidana Massalimova
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH & University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ruiqing Ni
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH & University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roger M Nitsch
- Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland.,Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Marco Reisert
- Department of Radiology, Medical Physics, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Dominik von Elverfeldt
- Department of Radiology, Medical Physics, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jan Klohs
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH & University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland
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15
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Hankeova S, Salplachta J, Zikmund T, Kavkova M, Van Hul N, Brinek A, Smekalova V, Laznovsky J, Dawit F, Jaros J, Bryja V, Lendahl U, Ellis E, Nemeth A, Fischler B, Hannezo E, Kaiser J, Andersson ER. DUCT reveals architectural mechanisms contributing to bile duct recovery in a mouse model for Alagille syndrome. eLife 2021; 10:60916. [PMID: 33635272 PMCID: PMC7909953 DOI: 10.7554/elife.60916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Organ function depends on tissues adopting the correct architecture. However, insights into organ architecture are currently hampered by an absence of standardized quantitative 3D analysis. We aimed to develop a robust technology to visualize, digitalize, and segment the architecture of two tubular systems in 3D: double resin casting micro computed tomography (DUCT). As proof of principle, we applied DUCT to a mouse model for Alagille syndrome (Jag1Ndr/Ndr mice), characterized by intrahepatic bile duct paucity, that can spontaneously generate a biliary system in adulthood. DUCT identified increased central biliary branching and peripheral bile duct tortuosity as two compensatory processes occurring in distinct regions of Jag1Ndr/Ndr liver, leading to full reconstitution of wild-type biliary volume and phenotypic recovery. DUCT is thus a powerful new technology for 3D analysis, which can reveal novel phenotypes and provide a standardized method of defining liver architecture in mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Hankeova
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.,Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Salplachta
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Zikmund
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Kavkova
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Noémi Van Hul
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Adam Brinek
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Smekalova
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Laznovsky
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Feven Dawit
- Department of Pediatrics, Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology (CLINTEC), Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital, Solna, Sweden
| | - Josef Jaros
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Vítězslav Bryja
- Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Urban Lendahl
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Ewa Ellis
- Department of Pediatrics, Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology (CLINTEC), Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital, Solna, Sweden
| | - Antal Nemeth
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Björn Fischler
- Department of Pediatrics, Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology (CLINTEC), Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital, Solna, Sweden
| | - Edouard Hannezo
- Institute of Science and Technology, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Jozef Kaiser
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Emma Rachel Andersson
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.,Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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16
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Razansky D, Klohs J, Ni R. Multi-scale optoacoustic molecular imaging of brain diseases. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2021; 48:4152-4170. [PMID: 33594473 PMCID: PMC8566397 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-021-05207-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The ability to non-invasively visualize endogenous chromophores and exogenous probes and sensors across the entire rodent brain with the high spatial and temporal resolution has empowered optoacoustic imaging modalities with unprecedented capacities for interrogating the brain under physiological and diseased conditions. This has rapidly transformed optoacoustic microscopy (OAM) and multi-spectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) into emerging research tools to study animal models of brain diseases. In this review, we describe the principles of optoacoustic imaging and showcase recent technical advances that enable high-resolution real-time brain observations in preclinical models. In addition, advanced molecular probe designs allow for efficient visualization of pathophysiological processes playing a central role in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, brain tumors, and stroke. We describe outstanding challenges in optoacoustic imaging methodologies and propose a future outlook.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Razansky
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich & ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, HIT E42.1, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland
- Faculty of Medicine and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jan Klohs
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich & ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, HIT E42.1, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ruiqing Ni
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich & ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, HIT E42.1, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Zurich Neuroscience Center (ZNZ), Zurich, Switzerland.
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Uiversity of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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17
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Steinman J, Sun HS, Feng ZP. Microvascular Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 14:618986. [PMID: 33536876 PMCID: PMC7849053 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.618986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with continual decline in cognition and ability to perform routine functions such as remembering familiar places or understanding speech. For decades, amyloid beta (Aβ) was viewed as the driver of AD, triggering neurodegenerative processes such as inflammation and formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). This approach has not yielded therapeutics that cure the disease or significant improvements in long-term cognition through removal of plaques and Aβ oligomers. Some researchers propose alternate mechanisms that drive AD or act in conjunction with amyloid to promote neurodegeneration. This review summarizes the status of AD research and examines research directions including and beyond Aβ, such as tau, inflammation, and protein clearance mechanisms. The effect of aging on microvasculature is highlighted, including its contribution to reduced blood flow that impairs cognition. Microvascular alterations observed in AD are outlined, emphasizing imaging studies of capillary malfunction. The review concludes with a discussion of two therapies to protect tissue without directly targeting Aβ for removal: (1) administration of growth factors to promote vascular recovery in AD; (2) inhibiting activity of a calcium-permeable ion channels to reduce microglial activation and restore cerebral vascular function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe Steinman
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Hong-Shuo Sun
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Zhong-Ping Feng
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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18
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Kim SH, Ahn JH, Yang H, Lee P, Koh GY, Jeong Y. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy aggravates perivascular clearance impairment in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2020; 8:181. [PMID: 33153499 PMCID: PMC7643327 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-020-01042-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), defined as the accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) on the vascular wall, is a major pathology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and has been thought to be caused by the failure of Aβ clearance. Although two types of perivascular clearance mechanisms, intramural periarterial drainage (IPAD) and the perivascular cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) influx, have been identified, the exact contribution of CAA on perivascular clearance is still not well understood. In this study, we investigated the effect of CAA on the structure and function of perivascular clearance systems in the APP/PS1 transgenic mouse model. To investigate the pathological changes accompanied by CAA progression, the key elements of perivascular clearance such as the perivascular basement membrane, vascular smooth muscle cells (vSMCs), and vascular pulsation were evaluated in middle-aged (7–9 months) and old-aged (19–21 months) mice using in vivo imaging and immunofluorescence staining. Changes in IPAD and perivascular CSF influx were identified by ex vivo fluorescence imaging after dextran injection into the parenchyma or cisterna magna. Amyloid deposition on the vascular wall disrupted the integrity and morphology of the arterial basement membrane. With CAA progression, vascular pulsation was augmented, and conversely, vSMC coverage was decreased. These pathological changes were more pronounced in the surface arteries with earlier amyloid accumulation than in penetrating arteries. IPAD and perivascular CSF influx were impaired in the middle-aged APP/PS1 mice and further aggravated in old age, showing severely impaired tracer influx and efflux patterns. Reduced clearance was also observed in old wild-type mice without changing the tracer distribution pattern in the influx and efflux pathway. These findings suggest that CAA is not merely a consequence of perivascular clearance impairment, but rather a contributor to this process, causing changes in arterial function and structure and increasing AD severity.
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19
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Sharp PS, Ameen-Ali KE, Boorman L, Harris S, Wharton S, Howarth C, Shabir O, Redgrave P, Berwick J. Neurovascular coupling preserved in a chronic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease: Methodology is critical. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2020; 40:2289-2303. [PMID: 31760864 PMCID: PMC7585931 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x19890830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Impaired neurovascular coupling has been suggested as an early pathogenic factor in Alzheimer's disease (AD), which could serve as an early biomarker of cerebral pathology. We have established an anaesthetic regime to allow repeated measurements of neurovascular function over three months in the J20 mouse model of AD (J20-AD) and wild-type (WT) controls. Animals were 9-12 months old at the start of the experiment. Mice were chronically prepared with a cranial window through which 2-Dimensional optical imaging spectroscopy (2D-OIS) was used to generate functional maps of the cerebral blood volume and saturation changes evoked by whisker stimulation and vascular reactivity challenges. Unexpectedly, the hemodynamic responses were largely preserved in the J20-AD group. This result failed to confirm previous investigations using the J20-AD model. However, a final acute electrophysiology and 2D-OIS experiment was performed to measure both neural and hemodynamic responses concurrently. In this experiment, previously reported deficits in neurovascular coupling in the J20-AD model were observed. This suggests that J20-AD mice may be more susceptible to the physiologically stressing conditions of an acute experimental procedure compared to WT animals. These results therefore highlight the importance of experimental procedure when determining the characteristics of animal models of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul S Sharp
- Nanomedicine Lab, Division of Pharmacy and Optometry, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.,Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Kamar E Ameen-Ali
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.,Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Luke Boorman
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Sam Harris
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Stephen Wharton
- Department of Neuroscience, Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Clare Howarth
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Osman Shabir
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Peter Redgrave
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Jason Berwick
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Hill LK, Hoang DM, Chiriboga LA, Wisniewski T, Sadowski MJ, Wadghiri YZ. Detection of Cerebrovascular Loss in the Normal Aging C57BL/6 Mouse Brain Using in vivo Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Angiography. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:585218. [PMID: 33192479 PMCID: PMC7606987 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.585218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Microvascular rarefaction, or the decrease in vascular density, has been described in the cerebrovasculature of aging humans, rats, and, more recently, mice in the presence and absence of age-dependent diseases. Given the wide use of mice in modeling age-dependent human diseases of the cerebrovasculature, visualization, and quantification of the global murine cerebrovasculature is necessary for establishing the baseline changes that occur with aging. To provide in vivo whole-brain imaging of the cerebrovasculature in aging C57BL/6 mice longitudinally, contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography (CE-MRA) was employed using a house-made gadolinium-bearing micellar blood pool agent. Enhancement in the vascular space permitted quantification of the detectable, or apparent, cerebral blood volume (aCBV), which was analyzed over 2 years of aging and compared to histological analysis of the cerebrovascular density. A significant loss in the aCBV was detected by CE-MRA over the aging period. Histological analysis via vessel-probing immunohistochemistry confirmed a significant loss in the cerebrovascular density over the same 2-year aging period, validating the CE-MRA findings. While these techniques use widely different methods of assessment and spatial resolutions, their comparable findings in detected vascular loss corroborate the growing body of literature describing vascular rarefaction aging. These findings suggest that such age-dependent changes can contribute to cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, which are modeled using wild-type and transgenic laboratory rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay K. Hill
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, NYU Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
- Department of Radiology, Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI2R), NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Radiology, Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, United States
| | - Dung Minh Hoang
- Department of Radiology, Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI2R), NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Radiology, Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Luis A. Chiriboga
- Department of Pathology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Department of Pathology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Martin J. Sadowski
- Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Youssef Z. Wadghiri
- Department of Radiology, Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI2R), NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Radiology, Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
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Shen Y, Hua L, Yeh CK, Shen L, Ying M, Zhang Z, Liu G, Li S, Chen S, Chen X, Yang X. Ultrasound with microbubbles improves memory, ameliorates pathology and modulates hippocampal proteomic changes in a triple transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Am J Cancer Res 2020; 10:11794-11819. [PMID: 33052247 PMCID: PMC7546002 DOI: 10.7150/thno.44152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease manifested by cognitive impairment. As a unique approach to open the blood-brain barrier (BBB) noninvasively and temporarily, a growing number of studies showed that low-intensity focused ultrasound in combination with microbubbles (FUS/MB), in the absence of therapeutic agents, is capable of ameliorating amyloid or tau pathology, concurrent with improving memory deficits of AD animal models. However, the effects of FUS/MB on both the two pathologies simultaneously, as well as the memory behaviors, have not been reported so far. Methods: In this study, female triple transgenic AD (3×Tg-AD) mice at eight months of age with both amyloid-β (Aβ) deposits and tau phosphorylation were treated by repeated FUS/MB in the unilateral hippocampus twice per week for six weeks. The memory behaviors were investigated by the Y maze, the Morris water maze and the step-down passive avoidance test following repeated FUS/MB treatments. Afterwards, the involvement of Aβ and tau pathology were assessed by immunohistochemical analysis. Neuronal health and phagocytosis of Aβ deposits by microglia in the hippocampus were examined by confocal microscopy. Further, hippocampal proteomic alterations were analyzed by employing two-dimensional fluorescence difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) combined with mass spectrometry. Results: The three independent memory tasks were indicative of evident learning and memory impairments in eight-month-old 3×Tg-AD mice, which developed intraneuronal Aβ, extracellular diffuse Aβ deposits and phosphorylated tau in the hippocampus and amygdala. Following repeated FUS/MB treatments, significant improvement in learning and memory ability of the 3×Tg-AD mice was achieved. Amelioration in both Aβ deposits and phosphorylated tau in the sonicated hemisphere was induced in FUS/MB-treated 3×Tg-AD mice. Albeit without increase in neuron density, enhancement in axonal neurofilaments emerged from the FUS/MB treatment. Confocal microscopy revealed activated microglia engulfing Aβ deposits in the FUS/MB-treated hippocampus. Further, proteomic analysis revealed 20 differentially expressed proteins, associated with glycolysis, neuron projection, mitochondrial pathways, metabolic process and ubiquitin binding etc., in the hippocampus between FUS/MB-treated and sham-treated 3×Tg-AD mice. Conclusions: Our findings reinforce the positive therapeutic effects on AD models with both Aβ and tau pathology induced by FUS/MB-mediated BBB opening, further supporting the potential of this treatment regime for clinical applications.
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Xu X, Meng T, Wen Q, Tao M, Wang P, Zhong K, Shen Y. Dynamic changes in vascular size and density in transgenic mice with Alzheimer's disease. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:17224-17234. [PMID: 32908022 PMCID: PMC7521516 DOI: 10.18632/aging.103672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we used vessel size imaging to investigate the specific microvascular changes and most susceptible brain regions during AD progression in an amyloid precursor protein 23 (APP23) transgenic AD mouse model. Using 9.4 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the values of microvascular density (Density), mean vessel diameter (mVD), and vessel size index (VSI) were compared between APP23 and wild-type (WT) mice at 3, 6, 9, 14, and 20 months of age. Our results demonstrate that in 20-month old APP23 and WT mice, the Density values were significantly decreased, while the vascular dilatation and diameter had increased. However, a transient increase in the cortex Density at 14-months was observed in APP23 mice. Additionally, our results suggest that the hippocampus is the susceptible brain region affected by the abnormal microvascular angiogenesis during the early stages of AD. Together, our findings indicate that vessel size imaging using MRI can provide novel biomarkers for the early detection of AD, and for monitoring the effects of vascular-targeted therapeutics in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Xu
- Institute on Aging and Brain Disorders, First University Affiliated Hospital, Neurodegenerative Disorder Research Center, Division of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Material Science National Laboratory at Microscale, CAS-Key Laboratory of Brain Functions and Brain Disorders, Center for Excellent in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Hefei, China,Department of Radiology, Tongji Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China,School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tong Meng
- School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingqing Wen
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Mengling Tao
- Department of Radiology, Tongji Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China,School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Peijun Wang
- Department of Radiology, Tongji Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China,School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Kai Zhong
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China,Key Laboratory of Anhui Province for High Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Hefei, China,Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Yong Shen
- Institute on Aging and Brain Disorders, First University Affiliated Hospital, Neurodegenerative Disorder Research Center, Division of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Material Science National Laboratory at Microscale, CAS-Key Laboratory of Brain Functions and Brain Disorders, Center for Excellent in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Hefei, China
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23
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Maliszewska-Cyna E, Vecchio LM, Thomason LAM, Oore JJ, Steinman J, Joo IL, Dorr A, McLaurin J, Sled JG, Stefanovic B, Aubert I. The effects of voluntary running on cerebrovascular morphology and spatial short-term memory in a mouse model of amyloidosis. Neuroimage 2020; 222:117269. [PMID: 32818618 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Physical activity has been correlated with a reduced risk of cognitive decline, including that associated with vascular dementia, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD); recent literature suggests this may in part result from benefits to the cerebrovascular network. Using a transgenic (Tg) mouse model of AD, we evaluated the effect of running on cortical and hippocampal vascular morphology, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, amyloid plaque load, and spatial memory. TgCRND8 mice present with progressive amyloid pathology, advancing from the cortex to the hippocampus in a time-dependent manner. We postulated that the characteristic progression of pathology could lead to differential, time-dependent effects of physical activity on vascular morphology in these brain regions at 6 months of age. We used two-photon fluorescent microscopy and 3D vessel tracking to characterize vascular and amyloid pathology in sedentary TgCRND8 mice compared those who have a history of physical activity (unlimited access to a running wheel, from 3 to 6 months of age). In sedentary TgCRND8 mice, capillary density was found to be lower in the cortex and higher in the hippocampus compared to non-transgenic (nonTg) littermates. Capillary length, vessel branching, and non-capillary vessel tortuosity were also higher in the hippocampus of sedentary TgCRND8 compared to nonTg mice. Three months of voluntary running resulted in normalizing cortical and hippocampal microvascular morphology, with no significant difference between TgCRND8 and nonTg mice. The benefits of physical activity on cortical and hippocampal vasculature in 6-month old TgCRND8 mice were not paralleled by significant changes on parenchymal and cerebral amyloid pathology. Short-term spatial memory- as evaluated by performance in the Y-maze- was significantly improved in running compared to sedentary TgCRND8 mice. These results suggest that long-term voluntary running contributes to the maintenance of vascular morphology and spatial memory in TgCRND8 mice, even in the absence of an effect on amyloid pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewelina Maliszewska-Cyna
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, 2075 Bayview Ave, S112, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Laura M Vecchio
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, 2075 Bayview Ave, S112, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada.
| | - Lynsie A M Thomason
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences, Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Canada
| | - Jonathan J Oore
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, 2075 Bayview Ave, S112, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - Joe Steinman
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Canada; Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Illsung Lewis Joo
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences, Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Canada
| | - Adrienne Dorr
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences, Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Canada
| | - JoAnne McLaurin
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, 2075 Bayview Ave, S112, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - John G Sled
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Canada; Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Bojana Stefanovic
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences, Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Canada; Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Isabelle Aubert
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, 2075 Bayview Ave, S112, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
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24
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Kumar S, Lemere CA, Walter J. Phosphorylated Aβ peptides in human Down syndrome brain and different Alzheimer's-like mouse models. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2020; 8:118. [PMID: 32727580 PMCID: PMC7388542 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-020-00959-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The deposition of neurotoxic amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides in extracellular plaques in the brain parenchyma is one of the most prominent neuropathological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and considered to be closely related to the pathogenesis of this disease. A number of recent studies demonstrate the heterogeneity in the composition of Aβ deposits in AD brains, due to the occurrence of elongated, truncated and post-translationally modified Aβ peptides that have peculiar characteristics in aggregation behavior and biostability. Importantly, the detection of modified Aβ species has been explored to characterize distinct stages of AD, with phosphorylated Aβ being present in the clinical phase of AD. People with Down syndrome (DS) develop AD pathology by 40 years of age likely due to the overproduction of Aβ caused by the additional copy of the gene encoding the amyloid precursor protein on chromosome 21. In the current study, we analysed the deposition of phosphorylated and non-phosphorylated Aβ species in human DS, AD, and control brains. In addition, deposition of these Aβ species was analysed in brains of a series of established transgenic AD mouse models using phosphorylation-state specific Aβ antibodies. Significant amounts of Aβ phosphorylated at serine residue 8 (pSer8Aβ) and unmodified Aβ were detected in the brains of DS and AD cases. The brains of different transgenic mouse models with either only human mutant amyloid precursor protein (APP), or combinations of human mutant APP, Presenilin (PS), and tau transgenes showed distinct age-dependent and spatiotemporal deposition of pSer8Aβ in extracellular plaques and within the vasculature. Together, these results demonstrate the deposition of phosphorylated Aβ species in DS brains, further supporting the similarity of Aβ deposition in AD and DS. Thus, the detection of phosphorylated and other modified Aβ species could contribute to the understanding and dissection of the complexity in the age-related and spatiotemporal deposition of Aβ variants in AD and DS as well as in distinct mouse models.
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25
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Bracko O, Vinarcsik LK, Cruz Hernández JC, Ruiz-Uribe NE, Haft-Javaherian M, Falkenhain K, Ramanauskaite EM, Ali M, Mohapatra A, Swallow MA, Njiru BN, Muse V, Michelucci PE, Nishimura N, Schaffer CB. High fat diet worsens Alzheimer's disease-related behavioral abnormalities and neuropathology in APP/PS1 mice, but not by synergistically decreasing cerebral blood flow. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9884. [PMID: 32555372 PMCID: PMC7303150 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-65908-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity is linked to increased risk for and severity of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Cerebral blood flow (CBF) reductions are an early feature of AD and are also linked to obesity. We recently showed that non-flowing capillaries, caused by adhered neutrophils, contribute to CBF reduction in mouse models of AD. Because obesity could exacerbate the vascular inflammation likely underlying this neutrophil adhesion, we tested links between obesity and AD by feeding APP/PS1 mice a high fat diet (Hfd) and evaluating behavioral, physiological, and pathological changes. We found trends toward poorer memory performance in APP/PS1 mice fed a Hfd, impaired social interactions with either APP/PS1 genotype or a Hfd, and synergistic impairment of sensory-motor function in APP/PS1 mice fed a Hfd. The Hfd led to increases in amyloid-beta monomers and plaques in APP/PS1 mice, as well as increased brain inflammation. These results agree with previous reports showing obesity exacerbates AD-related pathology and symptoms in mice. We used a crowd-sourced, citizen science approach to analyze imaging data to determine the impact of the APP/PS1 genotype and a Hfd on capillary stalling and CBF. Surprisingly, we did not see an increase in the number of non-flowing capillaries or a worsening of the CBF deficit in APP/PS1 mice fed a Hfd as compared to controls, suggesting that capillary stalling is not a mechanistic link between a Hfd and increased severity of AD in mice. Reducing capillary stalling by blocking neutrophil adhesion improved CBF and short-term memory function in APP/PS1 mice, even when fed a Hfd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Bracko
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Lindsay K Vinarcsik
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Nancy E Ruiz-Uribe
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Kaja Falkenhain
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Muhammad Ali
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Aditi Mohapatra
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Madisen A Swallow
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Brendah N Njiru
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Victorine Muse
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Nozomi Nishimura
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Chris B Schaffer
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
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26
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Petrushina I, Hovakimyan A, Harahap-Carrillo IS, Davtyan H, Antonyan T, Chailyan G, Kazarian K, Antonenko M, Jullienne A, Hamer MM, Obenaus A, King O, Zagorski K, Blurton-Jones M, Cribbs DH, Lander H, Ghochikyan A, Agadjanyan MG. Characterization and preclinical evaluation of the cGMP grade DNA based vaccine, AV-1959D to enter the first-in-human clinical trials. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 139:104823. [PMID: 32119976 PMCID: PMC8772258 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The DNA vaccine, AV-1959D, targeting N-terminal epitope of Aβ peptide, has been proven immunogenic in mice, rabbits, and non-human primates, while its therapeutic efficacy has been shown in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here we report for the first time on IND-enabling biodistribution and safety/toxicology studies of cGMP-grade AV-1959D vaccine in the Tg2576 mouse model of AD. We also tested acute neuropathology safety profiles of AV-1959D in another AD disease model, Tg-SwDI mice with established vascular and parenchymal Aβ pathology in a pre-clinical translational study. Biodistribution studies two days after the injection demonstrated high copy numbers of AV-1959D plasmid after single immunization of Tg2576 mice at the injection sites but not in the tissues of distant organs. Plasmids persisted at the injection sites of some mice 60 days after vaccination. In Tg2576 mice with established amyloid pathology, we did not observe short- or long-term toxicities after multiple immunizations with three doses of AV-1959D. Assessment of the repeated dose acute safety of AV-1959D in cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) prone Tg-SwDI mice did not reveal any immunotherapy-induced vasogenic edema detected by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or increased microhemorrhages. Multiple immunizations of Tg-SwDI mice with AV-1959D did not induce T and B cell infiltration, glial activation, vascular deposition of Aβ, or neuronal degeneration (necrosis and apoptosis) greater than that in the control group determined by immunohistochemistry of brain tissues. Taken together, the safety data from two different mouse models of AD substantiate a favorable safety profile of the cGMP grade AV-1959D vaccine supporting its progression to first-in-human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Petrushina
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Armine Hovakimyan
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
| | | | - Hayk Davtyan
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA; Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA; Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Tatevik Antonyan
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
| | - Gor Chailyan
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
| | - Konstantin Kazarian
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
| | - Maxim Antonenko
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
| | - Amandine Jullienne
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Mary M Hamer
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Andre Obenaus
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA; Preclinical and Translational Imaging Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Olga King
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
| | - Karen Zagorski
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
| | - Mathew Blurton-Jones
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA; Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA; Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - David H Cribbs
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Harry Lander
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
| | - Anahit Ghochikyan
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA.
| | - Michael G Agadjanyan
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, CA, USA.
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27
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Klohs J. An Integrated View on Vascular Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease. NEURODEGENER DIS 2020; 19:109-127. [PMID: 32062666 DOI: 10.1159/000505625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cerebrovascular disease is a common comorbidity in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). It is believed to contribute additively to the cognitive impairment and to lower the threshold for the development of dementia. However, accumulating evidence suggests that dysfunction of the cerebral vasculature and AD neuropathology interact in multiple ways. Vascular processes even proceed AD neuropathology, implicating a causal role in the etiology of AD. Thus, the review aims to provide an integrated view on vascular dysfunction in AD. SUMMARY In AD, the cerebral vasculature undergoes pronounced cellular, morphological and structural changes, which alters regulation of blood flow, vascular fluid dynamics and vessel integrity. Stiffening of central blood vessels lead to transmission of excessive pulsatile energy to the brain microvasculature, causing end-organ damage. Moreover, a dysregulated hemostasis and chronic vascular inflammation further impede vascular function, where its mediators interact synergistically. Changes of the cerebral vasculature are triggered and driven by systemic vascular abnormalities that are part of aging, and which can be accelerated and aggravated by cardiovascular diseases. Key Messages: In AD, the cerebral vasculature is the locus where multiple pathogenic processes converge and contribute to cognitive impairment. Understanding the molecular mechanism and pathophysiology of vascular dysfunction in AD and use of vascular blood-based and imaging biomarker in clinical studies may hold promise for future prevention and therapy of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Klohs
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland, .,Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland,
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28
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Bourassa P, Tremblay C, Schneider JA, Bennett DA, Calon F. Brain mural cell loss in the parietal cortex in Alzheimer's disease correlates with cognitive decline and TDP-43 pathology. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2020; 46:458-477. [PMID: 31970820 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Brain mural cells (BMC), smooth muscle cells and pericytes, interact closely with endothelial cells and modulate numerous cerebrovascular functions. A loss of BMC function is suspected to play a role in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). METHODS BMC markers, namely smooth muscle alpha actin (α-SMA) for smooth muscle cells, as well as platelet-derived growth factor receptor β (PDGFRβ) and aminopeptidase N (ANPEP or CD13) for pericytes, were assessed by Western immunoblotting in microvessel extracts from the parietal cortex of 60 participants of the Religious Orders study, with ages at death ranging from 75 to 98 years old. RESULTS Participants clinically diagnosed with AD had lower vascular levels of α-SMA, PDGFRβ and CD13. These reductions were correlated with lower cognitive scores for global cognition, episodic and semantic memory, perceptual speed and visuospatial ability. In addition, α-SMA, PDGFRβ and CD13 were negatively correlated with vascular Aβ40 concentrations. Vascular levels of BMC markers were also inversely correlated with insoluble cleaved phosphorylated transactive response DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43) (25 kDa) and positively correlated with soluble cleaved phosphorylated TDP-43 (35 kDa) in cortical homogenates, suggesting strong association between BMC loss and cleaved phosphorylated TDP-43 aggregation. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study highlight a loss of BMC in AD. The associations between α-SMA, PDGFRβ and CD13 vascular levels with cognitive scores, TDP-43 aggregation and cerebrovascular accumulation of Aβ in the parietal cortex suggest that BMC loss contributes to both AD symptoms and pathology, further strengthening the link between cerebrovascular defects and dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Bourassa
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada.,Axe Neurosciences, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - C Tremblay
- Axe Neurosciences, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - J A Schneider
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - D A Bennett
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - F Calon
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada.,Axe Neurosciences, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
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Escrig A, Canal C, Sanchis P, Fernández-Gayol O, Montilla A, Comes G, Molinero A, Giralt M, Giménez-Llort L, Becker-Pauly C, Rose-John S, Hidalgo J. IL-6 trans-signaling in the brain influences the behavioral and physio-pathological phenotype of the Tg2576 and 3xTgAD mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Brain Behav Immun 2019; 82:145-159. [PMID: 31401302 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2019.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most commonly diagnosed dementia but its underlying pathological mechanisms still unclear. Neuroinflammation and secretion of cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) accompany the main hallmarks of the disease: amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. In this study, we analyzed the role of IL-6 trans-signaling in two mouse models of AD, Tg2576 and 3xTg-AD mice. The inhibition of IL-6 trans-signaling partially rescued the AD-induced mortality in females of both models. Before amyloid plaques deposition, it reversed AD-induced changes in exploration and anxiety (but did not affect locomotion) in Tg2576 female mice. However, after plaque deposition the only behavioral trait affected by the inhibition of IL-6 trans-signaling was locomotion. Results in the Morris water maze suggest that cognitive flexibility was reduced by the blocking of the IL-6 trans-signaling in young and old Tg2576 female mice. The inhibition of IL-6 trans-signaling also decreased amyloid plaque burden in cortex and hippocampus, and Aβ40 and Aβ42 levels in the cortex, of Tg2576 female mice. The aforementioned changes might be correlated with changes in blood vessels and matrix structure and organization rather than changes in neuroinflammation. 3xTgAD mice showed a very mild phenotype regarding amyloid cascade, but results were in accordance with those of Tg2576 mice. These results strongly suggest that the inhibition of the IL-6 trans-signaling could represent a powerful therapeutic target in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Escrig
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Carla Canal
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Paula Sanchis
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Olaya Fernández-Gayol
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Alejandro Montilla
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Gemma Comes
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Amalia Molinero
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Mercedes Giralt
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Lydia Giménez-Llort
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Christoph Becker-Pauly
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, 24098, Germany
| | - Stefan Rose-John
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, 24098, Germany
| | - Juan Hidalgo
- Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Spain.
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30
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Xiong Y, Zhang Z, He L, Ma Y, Han H, Zhao X, Guo H. Intracranial simultaneous noncontrast angiography and intraplaque hemorrhage (SNAP) MRA: Analyzation, optimization, and extension for dynamic MRA. Magn Reson Med 2019; 82:1646-1659. [DOI: 10.1002/mrm.27855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuhui Xiong
- Center for Biomedical Imaging Research, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine Tsinghua University Beijing People's Republic of China
| | - Zhe Zhang
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing People's Republic of China
| | - Le He
- Center for Biomedical Imaging Research, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine Tsinghua University Beijing People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Ma
- Tsinghua University Yuquan Hospital Beijing People's Republic of China
| | - Hualu Han
- Center for Biomedical Imaging Research, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine Tsinghua University Beijing People's Republic of China
| | - Xihai Zhao
- Center for Biomedical Imaging Research, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine Tsinghua University Beijing People's Republic of China
| | - Hua Guo
- Center for Biomedical Imaging Research, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine Tsinghua University Beijing People's Republic of China
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31
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Lee SC, Park HH, Kim SH, Koh SH, Han SH, Yoon MY. Ultrasensitive Fluorescence Detection of Alzheimer's Disease Based on Polyvalent Directed Peptide Polymer Coupled to a Nanoporous ZnO Nanoplatform. Anal Chem 2019; 91:5573-5581. [PMID: 30938150 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b03735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Amyloid-beta 42 (Aβ42), the key biomarker of Alzheimer's disease (AD), aggregates to form neurotoxic amyloid plaques. In this work, we modified two fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled Aβ42-targeting peptides and designed an Aβ42-specific ultrasensitive polyvalent-directed peptide polymer (PDPP) to enhance AD diagnosis sensitivity. The dissociation constant of Aβ42 by PDPP was 103-fold higher than the single-site-directed peptide. The improved binding was due to the ability of PDPP to detect multiple receptors on the target. The power of the PDPP diagnostic probe was verified in its application to detect Aβ42 in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which showed a lower limit of detection (LOD) in the fg mL-1 range that is more sensitive than detection by antibodies or single peptides. In addition, we present a novel ultrasensitive diagnostic system using an array of nanoporous ZnO nanoparticles, which play a role in fluorescence signal amplification, to further improve AD diagnosis sensitivity. We enhanced the signal on the basis of the properties of nanoporous ZnO nanoparticles and measured and quantified an ultralow concentration (ag mL-1 range) of Aβ42. This PDPP coupled to the nanoporous ZnO-based system is a novel approach to AD diagnosis that might also be useful for the detection of other target biomarkers and clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Choon Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Research Institute for Natural Sciences , Hanyang University , Seoul 04763 , Republic of Korea.,Department of Chemistry , Georgia State University , Atlanta , Georgia 30303 , United States
| | - Hyun-Hee Park
- Department of Neurology , Hanyang University College of Medicine , Seoul 04763 , Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Heon Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Research Institute for Natural Sciences , Hanyang University , Seoul 04763 , Republic of Korea
| | - Seong-Ho Koh
- Department of Neurology , Hanyang University College of Medicine , Seoul 04763 , Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hwan Han
- Department of Chemistry and Research Institute for Natural Sciences , Hanyang University , Seoul 04763 , Republic of Korea
| | - Moon-Young Yoon
- Department of Chemistry and Research Institute for Natural Sciences , Hanyang University , Seoul 04763 , Republic of Korea
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32
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Li HC, Chen PY, Cheng HF, Kuo YM, Huang CC. In Vivo Visualization of Brain Vasculature in Alzheimer's Disease Mice by High-Frequency Micro-Doppler Imaging. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2019; 66:3393-3401. [PMID: 30872220 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2019.2904702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Cerebrovascular disorders are associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Functional analysis of the cerebral vasculature requires an in vivo approach to visualize the blood flow in small animal brains. This paper proposes a high-frequency micro-Doppler imaging (HFμDI) technology for mapping mouse cerebral vasculature. METHODS HFμDI used a 40-MHz transducer with an ultrafast ultrasound imaging technology that enabled in vivo visualization of the mouse brain up to 3 mm in depth; furthermore, a minimal vessel diameter of 48 μm could be determined. RESULTS Animal experiments determined that the cortical and hippocampal vessel density in young wild-type (WT) mice was similar to that in middle-aged WT mice. However, compared with the vessel density in middle-aged WT mice, that in middle-aged mice with AD was significantly lower, particularly in the hippocampus. DISCUSSION In vivo observation of cerebral vasculature demonstrated the effectiveness of HFμDI for the preclinical study of AD, and a potential way for human diagnosis was provided.
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33
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Tangestani Fard M, Stough C. A Review and Hypothesized Model of the Mechanisms That Underpin the Relationship Between Inflammation and Cognition in the Elderly. Front Aging Neurosci 2019; 11:56. [PMID: 30930767 PMCID: PMC6425084 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Age is associated with increased risk for several disorders including dementias, cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, obesity, and diabetes. Age is also associated with cognitive decline particularly in cognitive domains associated with memory and processing speed. With increasing life expectancies in many countries, the number of people experiencing age-associated cognitive impairment is increasing and therefore from both economic and social terms the amelioration or slowing of cognitive aging is an important target for future research. However, the biological causes of age associated cognitive decline are not yet, well understood. In the current review, we outline the role of inflammation in cognitive aging and describe the role of several inflammatory processes, including inflamm-aging, vascular inflammation, and neuroinflammation which have both direct effect on brain function and indirect effects on brain function via changes in cardiovascular function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Con Stough
- Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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34
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Neumann U, Machauer R, Shimshek DR. The β-secretase (BACE) inhibitor NB-360 in preclinical models: From amyloid-β reduction to downstream disease-relevant effects. Br J Pharmacol 2019; 176:3435-3446. [PMID: 30657591 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of β-secretase 1 (BACE-1; also known as β-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme-1) is a current approach to fight the amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease, and a number of BACE-1 inhibitors are being tested in clinical trials. The BACE-1 inhibitor NB-360, although not a clinical compound, turned out to be a valuable pharmacological tool to investigate the effects of BACE-1 inhibition on the deposition of different Aβ species in amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgenic mice. Furthermore, chronic animal studies with NB-360 revealed relationships between BACE-1 inhibition, Aβ deposition, and Aβ-related downstream effects on neuroinflammation, neuronal function, and markers of neurodegeneration. NB-360 effects on the processing of physiological BACE-1 substrates as well as on nonenzymatic BACE-1 functions have been investigated, complementing studies in BACE-1 knockout mice. Because NB-360 is also an inhibitor for BACE-2, nonclinical studies in adult animals revealed physiological effects of BACE-2 inhibition. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Therapeutics for Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease: New Directions for Precision Medicine. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.18/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf Neumann
- Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Machauer
- Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Derya R Shimshek
- Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, Basel, Switzerland
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35
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Ni R, Kindler DR, Waag R, Rouault M, Ravikumar P, Nitsch R, Rudin M, Camici GG, Liberale L, Kulic L, Klohs J. fMRI Reveals Mitigation of Cerebrovascular Dysfunction by Bradykinin Receptors 1 and 2 Inhibitor Noscapine in a Mouse Model of Cerebral Amyloidosis. Front Aging Neurosci 2019; 11:27. [PMID: 30890928 PMCID: PMC6413713 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques can be used to assess cerebrovascular dysfunction in Alzheimer’s disease, an important and early contributor to pathology. We hypothesized that bradykinin receptor inhibition alleviates the vascular dysfunction in a transgenic arcAβ mouse model of cerebral amyloidosis and that fMRI techniques can be used to monitor the treatment response. Transgenic arcAβ mice, and non-transgenic littermates of 14 months-of-age were either treated with the bradykinin receptors 1 and 2 blocker noscapine or received normal drinking water as control over 3 months (n = 8–11/group) and all mice were assessed using fMRI at the end of the treatment period. Perfusion MRI using an arterial spin labeling technique showed regional hypoperfusion in arcAβ compared to non-transgenic controls, which was alleviated by noscapine treatment. Similarly, measuring cerebral blood volume changes upon pharmacological stimulation using vessel dilator acetazolamide revealed recovery of regional impairment of cerebral vascular reactivity in arcAβ mice upon noscapine treatment. In addition, we assessed with immunohistochemistry beta-amyloid (Aβ) and inflammation levels in brain sections. Immunohistological stainings for Aβ deposition (6E10) and related microgliosis (Iba1) in the cortex and hippocampus were found comparable between noscapine-treated and untreated arcAβ mice. In addition, levels of soluble and insoluble Aβ38, Aβ40, Aβ42 were found to be similar in brain tissue homogenates of noscapine-treated and untreated arcAβ mice using electro-chemiluminescent based immunoassay. In summary, bradykinin receptors blockade recovered cerebral vascular dysfunction in a mouse model of cerebral amyloidosis. fMRI methods revealed the functional deficit in disease condition and were useful tools to monitor the treatment response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiqing Ni
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Zurich Neuroscience Center, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Diana Rita Kindler
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Rebecca Waag
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Marie Rouault
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Zurich Neuroscience Center, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Priyanka Ravikumar
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Roger Nitsch
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Markus Rudin
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Giovanni G Camici
- Zurich Neuroscience Center, Zürich, Switzerland.,Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Luca Liberale
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Luka Kulic
- Zurich Neuroscience Center, Zürich, Switzerland.,Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jan Klohs
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Zurich Neuroscience Center, Zürich, Switzerland
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36
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Aldea R, Weller RO, Wilcock DM, Carare RO, Richardson G. Cerebrovascular Smooth Muscle Cells as the Drivers of Intramural Periarterial Drainage of the Brain. Front Aging Neurosci 2019; 11:1. [PMID: 30740048 PMCID: PMC6357927 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The human brain is the organ with the highest metabolic activity but it lacks a traditional lymphatic system responsible for clearing waste products. We have demonstrated that the basement membranes of cerebral capillaries and arteries represent the lymphatic pathways of the brain along which intramural periarterial drainage (IPAD) of soluble metabolites occurs. Failure of IPAD could explain the vascular deposition of the amyloid-beta protein as cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), which is a key pathological feature of Alzheimer's disease. The underlying mechanisms of IPAD, including its motive force, have not been clarified, delaying successful therapies for CAA. Although arterial pulsations from the heart were initially considered to be the motive force for IPAD, they are not strong enough for efficient IPAD. This study aims to unravel the driving force for IPAD, by shifting the perspective of a heart-driven clearance of soluble metabolites from the brain to an intrinsic mechanism of cerebral arteries (e.g., vasomotion-driven IPAD). We test the hypothesis that the cerebrovascular smooth muscle cells, whose cycles of contraction and relaxation generate vasomotion, are the drivers of IPAD. A novel multiscale model of arteries, in which we treat the basement membrane as a fluid-filled poroelastic medium deformed by the contractile cerebrovascular smooth muscle cells, is used to test the hypothesis. The vasomotion-induced intramural flow rates suggest that vasomotion-driven IPAD is the only mechanism postulated to date capable of explaining the available experimental observations. The cerebrovascular smooth muscle cells could represent valuable drug targets for prevention and early interventions in CAA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxana Aldea
- Mathematical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Roy O Weller
- Clinical Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Donna M Wilcock
- Department of Physiology, Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Roxana O Carare
- Clinical Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Giles Richardson
- Mathematical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
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37
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Kniewallner KM, Foidl BM, Humpel C. Platelets isolated from an Alzheimer mouse damage healthy cortical vessels and cause inflammation in an organotypic ex vivo brain slice model. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15483. [PMID: 30341392 PMCID: PMC6195547 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33768-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelets are anuclear blood cells and play a major role in hemostasis and thrombosis. Platelets express amyloid-precursor protein (APP), release beta-amyloid (Aβ) and are stimulated (pre-activated) in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We hypothesize that such stimulated platelets severely damage brain vessels which subsequently leads to cerebrovascular damage in AD. In order to study this issue we isolated platelets from AD mice (expressing APP with the Swedish-Dutch-Iowa mutations), labeled them with the red fluorescent dye PKH26 and transcardially infused these freshly isolated platelets into the brains of anesthetized healthy C57BL6 wildtype mice. Brains were immediately taken, 110 µm thick organotypic brain slices prepared and cultured for 1 or 14 days. We observed that red PKH26+ fluorescent platelets were localized in collagen IV and Lectin-649 counterstained cortical brain vessels and that platelets from AD mice severely damaged cortical brain vessels in wildtype mice and entered the brain parenchyma. Confocal microscopy showed immunoreactivity for matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and beta-amyloid around these platelets. The effect was completely inhibited with an MMP inhibitor. Furthermore, isolated AD platelets caused inflammation and activated microglia around the site where platelets damaged cortical brain vessels. We conclude that AD-derived platelets more aggressively damage healthy vessels which may consequently play a role in the progression of cerebral amyloid angiopathy in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin M Kniewallner
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Exp. Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry I, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bettina M Foidl
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Exp. Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry I, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christian Humpel
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Exp. Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry I, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
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38
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Jandke S, Garz C, Schwanke D, Sendtner M, Heinze HJ, Carare RO, Schreiber S. The association between hypertensive arteriopathy and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in spontaneously hypertensive stroke-prone rats. Brain Pathol 2018; 28:844-859. [PMID: 30062722 PMCID: PMC8028507 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to test the hypothesis that in spontaneously hypertensive stroke‐prone rats (SHRSP), non‐amyloid cerebral small vessel disease/hypertensive arteriopathy (HA) results in vessel wall injury that may promote cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). Our study comprised 21 male SHRSP (age 17–44 weeks) and 10 age‐ and sex‐matched Wistar control rats, that underwent two‐photon (2PM) imaging of the arterioles in the parietal cortex using Methoxy‐X04, Dextran and cerebral blood flow (CBF) measurements. Our data suggest that HA in SHRSP progresses in a temporal and age‐dependent manner, starting from small vessel wall damage (stage 1A), proceeding to CBF reduction (stage 1B), non‐occlusive (stage 2), and finally, occlusive thrombi (stage 3). Wistar animals also demonstrated small vessel wall damage, but were free of any of the later HA stages. Nearly half of all SHRSP additionally displayed vascular Methoxy‐X04 positivity indicative of cortical CAA. Vascular β‐amyloid deposits were found in small vessels characterized by thrombotic occlusions (stage 2 or 3). Post‐mortem analysis of the rat brains confirmed the findings derived from intravital 2PM microscopy. Our data thus overall suggest that advanced HA may play a role in CAA development with the two small vessel disease entities might be related to the same pathological spectrum of the aging brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solveig Jandke
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Cornelia Garz
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Schwanke
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Sendtner
- Institute of Clinical Neurobiology, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Hans-Jochen Heinze
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
| | | | - Stefanie Schreiber
- Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within the Helmholtz Association, Magdeburg, Germany
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Abstract
Endothelins were discovered more than thirty years ago as potent vasoactive compounds. Beyond their well-documented cardiovascular properties, however, the contributions of the endothelin pathway have been demonstrated in several neuroinflammatory processes and the peptides have been reported as clinically relevant biomarkers in neurodegenerative diseases. Several studies report that endothelin-1 significantly contributes to the progression of neuroinflammatory processes, particularly during infections in the central nervous system (CNS), and is associated with a loss of endothelial integrity at the blood brain barrier level. Because of the paucity of clinical trials with endothelin-1 antagonists in several infectious and non-infectious neuroinflammatory diseases, it remains an open question whether the 21 amino acid peptide is a mediator/modulator rather than a biomarker of the progression of neurodegeneration. This review focuses on the potential roles of endothelins in the pathology of neuroinflammatory processes, including infectious diseases of viral, bacterial or parasitic origin in which the synthesis of endothelins or its pharmacology have been investigated from the cell to the bedside in several cases, as well as in non-infectious inflammatory processes such as neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimers Disease or central nervous system vasculitis.
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40
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Ni R, Rudin M, Klohs J. Cortical hypoperfusion and reduced cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen in the arcAβ mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2018; 10:38-47. [PMID: 29682448 PMCID: PMC5909030 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The effect of cerebral amyloidosis on cerebral hemodynamics was investigated with photoacoustic tomography (PAT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). First, the sensitivity and robustness of PAT for deriving metrics of vascular and tissue oxygenation in the murine brain was assessed in wild-type mice with a hyperoxia-normoxia challenge. Secondly, cerebral oxygenation was assessed in young and aged arcAβ mice and wild-type controls with PAT, while cerebral blood flow (CBF) was determined by perfusion MRI. The investigations revealed that PAT can sensitively and robustly detect physiological changes in vascular and tissue oxygenation. An advanced stage of cerebral amyloidosis in arcAβ mice is accompanied by a decreases in cortical CBF and the cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen (CMRO2), as oxygen extraction fraction (OEF) has been found unaffected. Thus, PAT constitutes a robust non-invasive tool for deriving metrics of tissue oxygenation, extraction and metabolism in the mouse brain under physiological and disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiqing Ni
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich & ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus Rudin
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich & ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jan Klohs
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich & ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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41
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Asaad M, Lee JH. A guide to using functional magnetic resonance imaging to study Alzheimer's disease in animal models. Dis Model Mech 2018; 11:dmm031724. [PMID: 29784664 PMCID: PMC5992611 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.031724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is a leading healthcare challenge facing our society today. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of the brain has played an important role in our efforts to understand how Alzheimer's disease alters brain function. Using fMRI in animal models of Alzheimer's disease has the potential to provide us with a more comprehensive understanding of the observations made in human clinical fMRI studies. However, using fMRI in animal models of Alzheimer's disease presents some unique challenges. Here, we highlight some of these challenges and discuss potential solutions for researchers interested in performing fMRI in animal models. First, we briefly summarize our current understanding of Alzheimer's disease from a mechanistic standpoint. We then overview the wide array of animal models available for studying this disease and how to choose the most appropriate model to study, depending on which aspects of the condition researchers seek to investigate. Finally, we discuss the contributions of fMRI to our understanding of Alzheimer's disease and the issues to consider when designing fMRI studies for animal models, such as differences in brain activity based on anesthetic choice and ways to interrogate more specific questions in rodents beyond those that can be addressed in humans. The goal of this article is to provide information on the utility of fMRI, and approaches to consider when using fMRI, for studies of Alzheimer's disease in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mazen Asaad
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jin Hyung Lee
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Kasza Á, Penke B, Frank Z, Bozsó Z, Szegedi V, Hunya Á, Németh K, Kozma G, Fülöp L. Studies for Improving a Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease: Icv Administration of Well-Characterized β-Amyloid 1-42 Oligomers Induce Dysfunction in Spatial Memory. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22112007. [PMID: 29156571 PMCID: PMC6150403 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22112007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
During the past 15 years, several genetically altered mouse models of human Alzheimer’s disease (AD) have been developed. These costly models have greatly facilitated the evaluation of novel therapeutic approaches. Injecting synthetic β-amyloid (Aβ) 1-42 species into different parts of the brain of non-transgenic rodents frequently provided unreliable results, owing to a lack of a genuine characterization of the administered Aβ aggregates. Previously, we have published a new rat AD-model in which protofibrillar-fibrillar Aβ1-42 was administered into rat entorhinal cortex (Sipos 2007). In order to develop a more reliable model, we have injected well-characterized toxic soluble Aβ1-42 species (oligomers, protofibrils and fibrils) intracerebroventricularly (icv) into rat brain. Studies of the distribution of fluorescent-labeled Aβ1-42 in the brain showed that soluble Aβ-species diffused into all parts of the rat brain. After seven days, the Aβ-treated animals showed a significant decrease of spatial memory in Morris water maze test and impairment of synaptic plasticity (LTP) measured in acute hippocampal slices. The results of histological studies (decreased number of viable neurons, increased tau levels and decreased number of dendritic spines) also supported that icv administration of well-characterized toxic soluble Aβ species into rat brain provides a reliable rat AD-model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ágnes Kasza
- Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dome square 8, Szeged H-6720, Hungary.
| | - Botond Penke
- Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dome square 8, Szeged H-6720, Hungary.
| | - Zsuzsanna Frank
- Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dome square 8, Szeged H-6720, Hungary.
| | - Zsolt Bozsó
- Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dome square 8, Szeged H-6720, Hungary.
| | - Viktor Szegedi
- Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dome square 8, Szeged H-6720, Hungary.
| | - Ákos Hunya
- LipidArt Research and Development Ltd., Temesvári krt. 62, Szeged H-6726, Hungary.
| | - Klaudia Németh
- Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dome square 8, Szeged H-6720, Hungary.
| | - Gábor Kozma
- Department of Applied and Environmental Chemistry, University of Szeged, Rerrich Béla square 1, Szeged H-6720, Hungary.
| | - Lívia Fülöp
- Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dome square 8, Szeged H-6720, Hungary.
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Mouse models of neurodegenerative disease: preclinical imaging and neurovascular component. Brain Imaging Behav 2017; 12:1160-1196. [PMID: 29075922 DOI: 10.1007/s11682-017-9770-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases represent great challenges for basic science and clinical medicine because of their prevalence, pathologies, lack of mechanism-based treatments, and impacts on individuals. Translational research might contribute to the study of neurodegenerative diseases. The mouse has become a key model for studying disease mechanisms that might recapitulate in part some aspects of the corresponding human diseases. Neurodegenerative disorders are very complicated and multifactorial. This has to be taken in account when testing drugs. Most of the drugs screening in mice are very difficult to be interpretated and often useless. Mouse models could be condiderated a 'pathway models', rather than as models for the whole complicated construct that makes a human disease. Non-invasive in vivo imaging in mice has gained increasing interest in preclinical research in the last years thanks to the availability of high-resolution single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), high field Magnetic resonance, Optical Imaging scanners and of highly specific contrast agents. Behavioral test are useful tool to characterize different animal models of neurodegenerative pathology. Furthermore, many authors have observed vascular pathological features associated to the different neurodegenerative disorders. Aim of this review is to focus on the different existing animal models of neurodegenerative disorders, describe behavioral tests and preclinical imaging techniques used for diagnose and describe the vascular pathological features associated to these diseases.
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Coles JA, Myburgh E, Brewer JM, McMenamin PG. Where are we? The anatomy of the murine cortical meninges revisited for intravital imaging, immunology, and clearance of waste from the brain. Prog Neurobiol 2017; 156:107-148. [PMID: 28552391 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Rapid progress is being made in understanding the roles of the cerebral meninges in the maintenance of normal brain function, in immune surveillance, and as a site of disease. Most basic research on the meninges and the neural brain is now done on mice, major attractions being the availability of reporter mice with fluorescent cells, and of a huge range of antibodies useful for immunocytochemistry and the characterization of isolated cells. In addition, two-photon microscopy through the unperforated calvaria allows intravital imaging of the undisturbed meninges with sub-micron resolution. The anatomy of the dorsal meninges of the mouse (and, indeed, of all mammals) differs considerably from that shown in many published diagrams: over cortical convexities, the outer layer, the dura, is usually thicker than the inner layer, the leptomeninx, and both layers are richly vascularized and innervated, and communicate with the lymphatic system. A membrane barrier separates them and, in disease, inflammation can be localized to one layer or the other, so experimentalists must be able to identify the compartment they are studying. Here, we present current knowledge of the functional anatomy of the meninges, particularly as it appears in intravital imaging, and review their role as a gateway between the brain, blood, and lymphatics, drawing on information that is scattered among works on different pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan A Coles
- Centre for Immunobiology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Sir Graeme Davis Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, United Kingdom.
| | - Elmarie Myburgh
- Centre for Immunology and Infection Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - James M Brewer
- Centre for Immunobiology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Sir Graeme Davis Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Paul G McMenamin
- Department of Anatomy & Developmental Biology, School of Biomedical and Psychological Sciences and Monash Biomedical Discovery Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, 10 Chancellor's Walk, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
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Lourenço CF, Ledo A, Barbosa RM, Laranjinha J. Neurovascular uncoupling in the triple transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease: Impaired cerebral blood flow response to neuronal-derived nitric oxide signaling. Exp Neurol 2017; 291:36-43. [PMID: 28161255 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO)-dependent pathways and cerebrovascular dysfunction have been shown to contribute to the cognitive decline and neurodegeneration observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD) but whether they represent initial factors or later changes of the disease is still a matter of debate. In this work, we aimed at investigating whether and to what extent neuronal-derived NO signaling and related neurovascular coupling are impaired along aging in the hippocampus of the triple transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's Disease (3xTg-AD). We performed a longitudinal study combining behavior studies, in vivo simultaneous measurements of NO concentration gradients and cerebral blood flow (CBF), along with detection of NO synthase (NOS) and markers of nitroxidative stress. Our results revealed an impairment in the neurovascular coupling along aging in the 3xTg-AD mice which preceded obvious cognitive decline. This impairment was characterized by diminished CBF changes in response to normal or even increased NO signals and associated with markers of nitroxidative stress. The results suggest that impairment in neurovascular coupling is primarily due to cerebrovascular dysfunction, rather than due to dysfunctional NO signaling from neurons to blood vessels. Overall, this work supports cerebrovascular dysfunction as a fundamental underlying process in AD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cátia F Lourenço
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Ana Ledo
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rui M Barbosa
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - João Laranjinha
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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Coleman RA, Liang C, Patel R, Ali S, Mukherjee J. Brain and Brown Adipose Tissue Metabolism in Transgenic Tg2576 Mice Models of Alzheimer Disease Assessed Using 18F-FDG PET Imaging. Mol Imaging 2017; 16:1536012117704557. [PMID: 28654383 PMCID: PMC5470140 DOI: 10.1177/1536012117704557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Revised: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Imaging animal models of Alzheimer disease (AD) is useful for the development of therapeutic drugs and understanding AD. Transgenic Swedish hAPPswe Tg2576 mice are a good model of β-amyloid plaques. We report 18F-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose (18F-FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of brain and intrascapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT) in transgenic mice 2576 (Tg2576) and wild-type (WT) mice. METHODS Transgenic Tg2576 mice and WT mice, >18 months were injected intraperitonally with ≈ 25 to 30 MBq 18F-FDG while awake. After 60 minutes, they were anesthetized with isoflurane (2.5%) and imaged with Inveon MicroPET. Select mice were killed, imaged ex vivo, and 20 µm sections cut for autoradiography. 18F-FDG uptake in brain and IBAT PET and brain autoradiographs were analyzed. RESULTS Fasting blood glucose levels averaged 120 mg/dL for WT and 100 mg/dL for Tg2576. Compared to WT, Tg2576 mice exhibited a decrease in SUVglc in the various brain regions. Average reductions in the cerebrum regions were as high as -20%, while changes in cerebellum were -3%. Uptake of 18F-FDG in IBAT decreased by -60% in Tg2576 mice and was found to be significant. Intrascapular brown adipose tissue findings in Tg2576 mice are new and not previously reported. Use of blood glucose for PET data analysis and corpus callosum as reference region for autoradiographic analysis were important to detect change in Tg2576 mice. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that 18F-FDG uptake in the Tg2576 mice brain show 18F-FDG deficits only when blood glucose is taken into consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. Coleman
- Preclinical Imaging, Department of Radiological Sciences, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Christopher Liang
- Preclinical Imaging, Department of Radiological Sciences, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Rima Patel
- Preclinical Imaging, Department of Radiological Sciences, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Sarah Ali
- Preclinical Imaging, Department of Radiological Sciences, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Jogeshwar Mukherjee
- Preclinical Imaging, Department of Radiological Sciences, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
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Reuter B, Venus A, Heiler P, Schad L, Ebert A, Hennerici MG, Grudzenski S, Fatar M. Development of Cerebral Microbleeds in the APP23-Transgenic Mouse Model of Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy-A 9.4 Tesla MRI Study. Front Aging Neurosci 2016; 8:170. [PMID: 27458375 PMCID: PMC4937037 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is characterized by extracellular deposition of amyloid β (Aβ) around cerebral arteries and capillaries and leads to an increased risk for vascular dementia, spontaneous lobar hemorrhage, convexal subarachnoid hemorrhage, and transient focal neurological episodes, which might be an indicator of imminent spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. In CAA cerebral microbleeds (cMBs) with a cortical/juxtacortical distribution are frequently observed in standard magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In vivo MRI of transgenic mouse models of CAA may serve as a useful tool to investigate translational aspects of the disease. Materials and Methods: APP23-transgenic mice demonstrate cerebrovascular Aβ deposition with subsequent neuropathological changes characteristic for CAA. We performed a 9.4 Tesla high field MRI study using T2, T2* and time of flight-magnetic resonance angiograpy (TOF-MRA) sequences in APP23-transgenic mice and wildtype (wt) littermates at the age of 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 months, respectively. Numbers, size, and location of cMBs are reported. Results: T2* imaging demonstrated cMBs (diameter 50–300 μm) located in the neocortex and, to a lesser degree, in the thalamus. cMBs were detected at the earliest at 16 months of age. Numbers increased exponentially with age, with 2.5 ± 2 (median ± interquartilrange) at 16 months, 15 ± 6 at 20 months, and 31.5 ± 17 at 24 months of age, respectively. Conclusion: We report the temporal and spatial development of cMBs in the aging APP23-transgenic mouse model which develops characteristic pathological patterns known from human CAA. We expect this mouse model to serve as a useful tool to non-invasively monitor mid- and longterm translational aspects of CAA and to investigate experimental therapeutic strategies in longitudinal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Reuter
- Department of Neurology and Neurophysiology, Freiburg University Freiburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Venus
- Department of Neurology, Universitätsmedizin Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany
| | - Patrick Heiler
- Computer Assisted Clinical Medicine, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany
| | - Lothar Schad
- Computer Assisted Clinical Medicine, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany
| | - Anne Ebert
- Department of Neurology, Universitätsmedizin Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany
| | - Michael G Hennerici
- Department of Neurology, Universitätsmedizin Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany
| | - Saskia Grudzenski
- Department of Neurology, Universitätsmedizin Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany
| | - Marc Fatar
- Department of Neurology, Universitätsmedizin Mannheim, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany
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Uekawa K, Hasegawa Y, Senju S, Nakagata N, Ma M, Nakagawa T, Koibuchi N, Kim-Mitsuyama S. Intracerebroventricular Infusion of Angiotensin-(1–7) Ameliorates Cognitive Impairment and Memory Dysfunction in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2016; 53:127-33. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-150642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ken Uekawa
- Departments of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Kumamoto University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yu Hasegawa
- Departments of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Kumamoto University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Satoru Senju
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Naomi Nakagata
- Division of Reproductive Engineering, Center for Animal Resources and Development, Kumamoto University, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Mingjie Ma
- Departments of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Kumamoto University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Takashi Nakagawa
- Departments of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Kumamoto University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Nobutaka Koibuchi
- Departments of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Kumamoto University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Shokei Kim-Mitsuyama
- Departments of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Kumamoto University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, Japan
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Longitudinal noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging of brain microhemorrhages in BACE inhibitor-treated APP transgenic mice. Neurobiol Aging 2016; 45:50-60. [PMID: 27459925 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Currently, several immunotherapies and BACE (Beta Site APP Cleaving Enzyme) inhibitor approaches are being tested in the clinic for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. A crucial mechanism-related safety concern is the exacerbation of microhemorrhages, which are already present in the majority of Alzheimer patients. To investigate potential safety liabilities of long-term BACE inhibitor therapy, we used aged amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgenic mice (APP23), which robustly develop cerebral amyloid angiopathy. T2*-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a translational method applicable in preclinical and clinical studies, was used for the detection of microhemorrhages throughout the entire brain, with subsequent histological validation. Three-dimensional reconstruction based on in vivo MRI and serial Perls' stained sections demonstrated a one-to-one matching of the lesions thus allowing for their histopathological characterization. MRI detected small Perls' positive areas with a high spatial resolution. Our data demonstrate that volumetric assessment by noninvasive MRI is well suited to monitor cerebral microhemorrhages in vivo. Furthermore, 3 months treatment of aged APP23 with the potent BACE-inhibitor NB-360 did not exacerbate microhemorrhages in contrast to Aβ-antibody β1. These results substantiate the safe use of BACE inhibitors regarding microhemorrhages in long-term clinical studies for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
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50
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Cerebrovascular pathology during the progression of experimental Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2016; 88:107-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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