1
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LeVine SM. The Azalea Hypothesis of Alzheimer Disease: A Functional Iron Deficiency Promotes Neurodegeneration. Neuroscientist 2024; 30:525-544. [PMID: 37599439 PMCID: PMC10876915 DOI: 10.1177/10738584231191743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Chlorosis in azaleas is characterized by an interveinal yellowing of leaves that is typically caused by a deficiency of iron. This condition is usually due to the inability of cells to properly acquire iron as a consequence of unfavorable conditions, such as an elevated pH, rather than insufficient iron levels. The causes and effects of chlorosis were found to have similarities with those pertaining to a recently presented hypothesis that describes a pathogenic process in Alzheimer disease. This hypothesis states that iron becomes sequestered (e.g., by amyloid β and tau), causing a functional deficiency of iron that disrupts biochemical processes leading to neurodegeneration. Additional mechanisms that contribute to iron becoming unavailable include iron-containing structures not undergoing proper recycling (e.g., disrupted mitophagy and altered ferritinophagy) and failure to successfully translocate iron from one compartment to another (e.g., due to impaired lysosomal acidification). Other contributors to a functional deficiency of iron in patients with Alzheimer disease include altered metabolism of heme or altered production of iron-containing proteins and their partners (e.g., subunits, upstream proteins). A review of the evidence supporting this hypothesis is presented. Also, parallels between the mechanisms underlying a functional iron-deficient state in Alzheimer disease and those occurring for chlorosis in plants are discussed. Finally, a model describing the generation of a functional iron deficiency in Alzheimer disease is put forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven M. LeVine
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, US
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2
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Zhao M, Ma G, Yan X, Li X, Wang E, Xu XX, Zhao JB, Ma X, Zeng J. Microbial infection promotes amyloid pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease via modulating γ-secretase. Mol Psychiatry 2024; 29:1491-1500. [PMID: 38273109 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-024-02428-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Microbial infection as a type of environmental risk factors is considered to be associated with long-term increased risk of dementia, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is characterized by two neuropathologically molecular hallmarks of hyperphosphorylated tau and amyloid-β (Aβ), the latter generated by several biochemically reactive enzymes, including γ-secretase. However, how infectious risk factors contribute to pathological development of the AD core molecules remains to be addressed. In this work, we utilized a modified herpes simplex virus type 1 (mHSV-1) and found that its hippocampal infection locally promotes Aβ pathology in 5 × FAD mice, the commonly used amyloid model. Mechanistically, we identified HSV-1 membrane glycoprotein US7 (Envelope gI) that interacts with and modulates γ-secretase and consequently facilitates Aβ production. Furthermore, we presented evidence that adenovirus-associated virus-mediated locally hippocampal overexpression of the US7 aggravates Aβ pathology in 5 × FAD mice. Collectively, these findings identify a herpesviral factor regulating γ-secretase in the development and progression of AD and represent a causal molecular link between infectious pathogens and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Zhao
- Songjiang Research Institute, Songjiang Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 201600, China
- Department of Neurology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Guanqin Ma
- Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, Yunnan, China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Xiaoxu Yan
- Songjiang Research Institute, Songjiang Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 201600, China
- Department of Neurology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Xiaohong Li
- Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, Yunnan, China
| | - Erlin Wang
- Songjiang Research Institute, Songjiang Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 201600, China
- Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, Yunnan, China
| | - Xiang-Xiong Xu
- Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, Yunnan, China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Jie-Bin Zhao
- Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, Yunnan, China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Xueling Ma
- Department of Neurology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, Heilongjiang, China.
| | - Jianxiong Zeng
- Songjiang Research Institute, Songjiang Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 201600, China.
- Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, Yunnan, China.
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China.
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Information, Kunming, 650201, Yunnan, China.
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3
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Gharat R, Dixit G, Khambete M, Prabhu A. Targets, trials and tribulations in Alzheimer therapeutics. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 962:176230. [PMID: 38042464 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.176230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by abnormal accumulation of extracellular amyloid beta senile plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles in the parts of the brain responsible for cognition. The therapeutic burden for the management of AD relies solely on cholinesterase inhibitors that provide only symptomatic relief. The urgent need for disease-modifying drugs has resulted in intensive research in this domain, which has led to better understanding of the disease pathology and identification of a plethora of new pathological targets. Currently, there are over a hundred and seventy clinical trials exploring disease modification, cognitive enhancement, and reduction of neuro-psychiatric complications. However, the path to developing safe and efficacious AD therapeutics has not been without challenges. Several clinical trials have been terminated in advanced stages due to lack of therapeutic translation or increased incidence of adverse events. This review presents an in-depth look at the various therapeutic targets of AD and the lessons learnt during their clinical assessment. Comprehensive understanding of the implication of modulating various aspects of Alzheimer brain pathology is crucial for development of drugs with potential to halt disease progression in Alzheimer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruchita Gharat
- SVKM's Dr. Bhanuben Nanavati College of Pharmacy, VM Road, Vile Parle (West), Mumbai, 400056, Maharashtra, India
| | - Gargi Dixit
- SVKM's Dr. Bhanuben Nanavati College of Pharmacy, VM Road, Vile Parle (West), Mumbai, 400056, Maharashtra, India
| | - Mihir Khambete
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Arati Prabhu
- SVKM's Dr. Bhanuben Nanavati College of Pharmacy, VM Road, Vile Parle (West), Mumbai, 400056, Maharashtra, India.
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4
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Kandi S, Cline EN, Rivera BM, Viola KL, Zhu J, Condello C, LeDuc RD, Klein WL, Kelleher NL, Patrie SM. Amyloid β Proteoforms Elucidated by Quantitative LC/MS in the 5xFAD Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. J Proteome Res 2023; 22:3475-3488. [PMID: 37847596 PMCID: PMC10840081 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.3c00353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
Numerous Aβ proteoforms, identified in the human brain, possess differential neurotoxic and aggregation propensities. These proteoforms contribute in unknown ways to the conformations and resultant pathogenicity of oligomers, protofibrils, and fibrils in Alzheimer's disease (AD) manifestation owing to the lack of molecular-level specificity to the exact chemical composition of underlying protein products with widespread interrogating techniques, like immunoassays. We evaluated Aβ proteoform flux using quantitative top-down mass spectrometry (TDMS) in a well-studied 5xFAD mouse model of age-dependent Aβ-amyloidosis. Though the brain-derived Aβ proteoform landscape is largely occupied by Aβ1-42, 25 different forms of Aβ with differential solubility were identified. These proteoforms fall into three natural groups defined by hierarchical clustering of expression levels in the context of mouse age and proteoform solubility, with each group sharing physiochemical properties associated with either N/C-terminal truncations or both. Overall, the TDMS workflow outlined may hold tremendous potential for investigating proteoform-level relationships between insoluble fibrils and soluble Aβ, including low-molecular-weight oligomers hypothesized to serve as the key drivers of neurotoxicity. Similarly, the workflow may also help to validate the utility of AD-relevant animal models to recapitulate amyloidosis mechanisms or possibly explain disconnects observed in therapeutic efficacy in animal models vs humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumya Kandi
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Erika N Cline
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Brianna M Rivera
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Kirsten L Viola
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Jiuhe Zhu
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Carlo Condello
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- Department of Neurology, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Richard D LeDuc
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - William L Klein
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Neil L Kelleher
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Steven M Patrie
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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5
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Sammeta SS, Banarase TA, Rahangdale SR, Wankhede NL, Aglawe MM, Taksande BG, Mangrulkar SV, Upaganlawar AB, Koppula S, Kopalli SR, Umekar MJ, Kale MB. Molecular understanding of ER-MT communication dysfunction during neurodegeneration. Mitochondrion 2023; 72:59-71. [PMID: 37495165 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2023.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Biological researchers are seeing organelles in a new light. These cellular entities have been believed to be singular and distinctive structures that performed specialized purposes for a very long time. But in recentpast years, scientists have learned that organelles become dynamic and make physical contact. Additionally, Biological processes are regulated by organelles interactions and its alteration play an important role in cell malfunctioning and several pathologies, including neurodegenerative diseases. Mitochondrial-ER contact sites (MERCS) have received considerable attention in the domain of cell homeostasis and dysfunction, specifically in the area of neurodegeneration. This is largely due to the significant role of this subcellular compartment in a diverse array of vital cellular functions, including Ca2+ homeostasis, transport, bioenergetics and turnover, mitochondrial dynamics, apoptotic signaling, ER stress, and inflammation. A significant number of disease-associated proteins were found to physically interact with the ER-Mitochondria (ER-MT) interface, causing structural and/or functional alterations in this compartment. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the structure and functions of the ER-MT contact sites, as well as the possible repercussions of their alteration in notable neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and fronto-temporal dementia. The constraints and complexities in defining the nature and origin of the highlighted defects in ER-MT communication, as well as their concise contribution to the neurodegenerative process, are illustrated in particular. The possibility of using MERCS as a potential drug target to prevent neuronal damage and ultimately neurodegeneration is the topic of our final discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivkumar S Sammeta
- Smt. Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441002, India
| | - Trupti A Banarase
- Smt. Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441002, India
| | - Sandip R Rahangdale
- Smt. Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441002, India
| | - Nitu L Wankhede
- Smt. Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441002, India
| | - Manish M Aglawe
- Smt. Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441002, India
| | - Brijesh G Taksande
- Smt. Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441002, India
| | - Shubhada V Mangrulkar
- Smt. Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441002, India
| | - Aman B Upaganlawar
- SNJB's Shriman Sureshdada Jain College of Pharmacy, Neminagar, Chandwad, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
| | - Sushruta Koppula
- College of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Konkuk University, Chungju-Si, Chungcheongbuk Do 27478, Republic of Korea
| | - Spandana Rajendra Kopalli
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Sejong University, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05006, Republic of Korea
| | - Milind J Umekar
- Smt. Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441002, India
| | - Mayur B Kale
- Smt. Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441002, India.
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6
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Lee S, Love MS, Modukuri R, Chatterjee AK, Huerta L, Lawson AP, McNamara CW, Mead JR, Hedstrom L, Cuny GD. Structure-activity relationship of BMS906024 derivatives for Cryptosporidium parvum growth inhibition. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2023; 90:129328. [PMID: 37196868 PMCID: PMC10290938 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2023.129328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BMS906024, a γ-secretase inhibitor that blocks Notch signaling, was previously shown to inhibit Cryptosporidium parvum growth in vitro. A structure-activity relationship (SAR) analysis of BMS906024 reported herein demonstrates the importance of the stereochemistry of the C-3 benzodiazepine and the succinyl β-substituent. However, concomitant removal of the succinyl α-substituent and switching the primary amide with secondary amides was tolerated. For example, 32 (SH287) inhibited C. parvum growth in HCT-8 host cells with an EC50 = 6.4 nM and an EC90 = 16 nM; however, blocking C. parvum growth with BMS906024 derivatives was correlative with inhibition of Notch signaling, highlighting that additional SAR analysis will be needed to separate these two activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seungheon Lee
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Health Building 2, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Melissa S Love
- Calibr, a Division of The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Ramkumar Modukuri
- Calibr, a Division of The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Arnab K Chatterjee
- Calibr, a Division of The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Lauren Huerta
- Calibr, a Division of The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Ann P Lawson
- Department of Biology, Brandeis University, 415 South St., Waltham, MA 02454, USA
| | - Case W McNamara
- Calibr, a Division of The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Jan R Mead
- Atlanta VA Medical Center and Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Lizbeth Hedstrom
- Department of Biology, Brandeis University, 415 South St., Waltham, MA 02454, USA; Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South St., Waltham, MA 02454, USA
| | - Gregory D Cuny
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Health Building 2, Houston, TX 77204, USA.
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7
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Carús-Cadavieco M, Berenguer López I, Montoro Canelo A, Serrano-Lope MA, González-de la Fuente S, Aguado B, Fernández-Rodrigo A, Saido TC, Frank García A, Venero C, Esteban JA, Guix F, Dotti CG. Cognitive decline in diabetic mice predisposed to Alzheimer's disease is greater than in wild type. Life Sci Alliance 2023; 6:e202201789. [PMID: 37059474 PMCID: PMC10105330 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202201789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we tested the hypothesis that the development of dementia in individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) requires a genetic background of predisposition to neurodegenerative disease. As a proof of concept, we induced T2DM in middle-aged hAPP NL/F mice, a preclinical model of Alzheimer's disease. We show that T2DM produces more severe behavioral, electrophysiological, and structural alterations in these mice compared with wild-type mice. Mechanistically, the deficits are not paralleled by higher levels of toxic forms of Aβ or by neuroinflammation but by a reduction in γ-secretase activity, lower levels of synaptic proteins, and by increased phosphorylation of tau. RNA-seq analysis of the cerebral cortex of hAPP NL/F and wild-type mice suggests that the former could be more susceptible to T2DM because of defects in trans-membrane transport. The results of this work, on the one hand, confirm the importance of the genetic background in the severity of the cognitive disorders in individuals with T2DM and, on the other hand, suggest, among the involved mechanisms, the inhibition of γ-secretase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Carús-Cadavieco
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inés Berenguer López
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alba Montoro Canelo
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
- Escuela Técnica Superior (E.T.S) de Ingeniería Agronómica, Alimentaria y de Biosistemas, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A Serrano-Lope
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Begoña Aguado
- Genomics and NGS Facility, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM) CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alba Fernández-Rodrigo
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Takaomi C Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
| | - Ana Frank García
- Department of Neurology, Division Neurodegenerative Disease, University Hospital La Paz, Madrid, Spain
| | - César Venero
- Department of Psychobiology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - José A Esteban
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francesc Guix
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Bioengineering, Institut Químic de Sarrià (IQS) - Universitat Ramón Llull (URL), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos G Dotti
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
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8
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Guzmán-Ocampo DC, Aguayo-Ortiz R, Velasco-Bolom JL, Gupta PL, Roitberg AE, Dominguez L. Elucidating the Protonation State of the γ-Secretase Catalytic Dyad. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023; 14:261-269. [PMID: 36562727 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
γ-Secretase (GS) is an intramembrane aspartyl protease that participates in the sequential cleavage of C99 to generate different isoforms of the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides that are associated with the development of Alzheimer's disease. Due to its importance in the proteolytic processing of C99 by GS, we performed pH replica exchange molecular dynamics (pH-REMD) simulations of GS in its apo and substrate-bound forms to sample the protonation states of the catalytic dyad. We found that the catalytic dyad is deprotonated at physiological pH in our apo form, but the presence of the substrate at the active site displaces its monoprotonated state toward physiological pH. Our results show that Asp257 acts as the general base and Asp385 as the general acid during the cleavage mechanism. We identified different amino acids such as Lys265, Arg269, and the PAL motif interacting with the catalytic dyad and promoting changes in its acid-base behavior. Finally, we also found a significant pKa shift of Glu280 related to the internalization of TM6-CT in the GS-apo form. Our study provides critical mechanistic insight into the GS mechanism and the basis for future research on the genesis of Aβ peptides and the development of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dulce C Guzmán-Ocampo
- Facultad de Química, Departamento de Fisicoquímica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City04510, Mexico
| | - Rodrigo Aguayo-Ortiz
- Facultad de Química, Departamento de Farmacia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City04510, Mexico
| | - José-Luis Velasco-Bolom
- Facultad de Química, Departamento de Fisicoquímica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City04510, Mexico
| | - Pancham Lal Gupta
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida32611-7200, United States
| | - Adrian E Roitberg
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida32611-7200, United States
| | - Laura Dominguez
- Facultad de Química, Departamento de Fisicoquímica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City04510, Mexico
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9
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Alexander C, Li T, Hattori Y, Chiu D, Frost GR, Jonas L, Liu C, Anderson CJ, Wong E, Park L, Iadecola C, Li YM. Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1α binds and activates γ-secretase for Aβ production under hypoxia and cerebral hypoperfusion. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:4264-4273. [PMID: 35764706 PMCID: PMC9722522 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01676-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Hypoxic-ischemic injury has been linked with increased risk for developing Alzheimer's disease (AD). The underlying mechanism of this association is poorly understood. Here, we report distinct roles for hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (Hif-1α) in the regulation of BACE1 and γ-secretase activity, two proteases involved in the production of amyloid-beta (Aβ). We have demonstrated that Hif-1α upregulates both BACE1 and γ-secretase activity for Aβ production in brain hypoxia-induced either by cerebral hypoperfusion or breathing 10% O2. Hif-1α binds to γ-secretase, which elevates the amount of active γ-secretase complex without affecting the level of individual subunits in hypoxic-ischemic mouse brains. Additionally, the expression of full length Hif-1α increases BACE1 and γ-secretase activity in primary neuronal culture, whereas a transcriptionally incompetent Hif-1α variant only activates γ-secretase. These findings indicate that Hif-1α transcriptionally upregulates BACE1 and nontranscriptionally activates γ-secretase for Aβ production in hypoxic-ischemic conditions. Consequently, Hif-1α-mediated Aβ production may be an adaptive response to hypoxic-ischemic injury, subsequently leading to increased risk for AD. Preventing the interaction of Hif-1α with γ-secretase may therefore be a promising therapeutic strategy for AD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney Alexander
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Programs of Neurosciences and Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Thomas Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Programs of Neurosciences and Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yorito Hattori
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Danica Chiu
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Programs of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Georgia R Frost
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Programs of Neurosciences and Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lauren Jonas
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Programs of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Chenge Liu
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Programs of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Corey J Anderson
- Programs of Neurosciences and Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Eitan Wong
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Laibaik Park
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Costantino Iadecola
- Programs of Neurosciences and Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
- Programs of Neurosciences and Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA.
- Programs of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA.
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10
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Implications of Microorganisms in Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:4584-4615. [PMID: 36286029 PMCID: PMC9600878 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44100314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a deadly brain degenerative disorder that leads to brain shrinkage and dementia. AD is manifested with hyperphosphorylated tau protein levels and amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide buildup in the hippocampus and cortex regions of the brain. The nervous tissue of AD patients also contains fungal proteins and DNA which are linked to bacterial infections, suggesting that polymicrobial infections also occur in the brains of those with AD. Both immunohistochemistry and next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques were employed to assess fungal and bacterial infections in the brain tissue of AD patients and non-AD controls, with the most prevalent fungus genera detected in AD patients being Alternaria, Botrytis, Candida, and Malassezia. Interestingly, Fusarium was the most common genus detected in the control group. Both AD patients and controls were also detectable for Proteobacteria, followed by Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroides for bacterial infection. At the family level, Burkholderiaceae and Staphylococcaceae exhibited higher levels in the brains of those with AD than the brains of the control group. Accordingly, there is thought to be a viscous cycle of uncontrolled neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the brain, caused by agents such as the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1), Chlamydophilapneumonia, and Spirochetes, and the presence of apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4), which is associated with an increased proinflammatory response in the immune system. Systemic proinflammatory cytokines are produced by microorganisms such as Cytomegalovirus, Helicobacter pylori, and those related to periodontal infections. These can then cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and lead to the onset of dementia. Here, we reviewed the relationship between the etiology of AD and microorganisms (such as bacterial pathogens, Herpesviridae viruses, and periodontal pathogens) according to the evidence available to understand the pathogenesis of AD. These findings might guide a targeted anti-inflammatory therapeutic approach to AD.
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11
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Fan L, Liu H, Zhu G, Singh S, Yu Z, Wang S, Luo H, Liu S, Xu Y, Ge J, Jiang D, Pang J. Caspase-4/11 is critical for angiogenesis by repressing Notch1 signaling via inhibiting γ-secretase activity. Br J Pharmacol 2022; 179:4809-4828. [PMID: 35737588 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Notch1 activation mediated by γ-secretase is critical for angiogenesis. GeneCards database predicted that Caspase-4 (CASP4, with murine ortholog CASP11) interacts with presenilin-1, the catalytic core of γ-secretase. Therefore, we investigated the role of CASP4/11 in angiogenesis. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH In vivo, we studied the role of Casp11 in several angiogenesis mouse models using Casp11 wild-type and knockout mice. In vitro, we detected the effects of CASP4 on endothelial functions and Notch signaling by depleting or overexpressing CASP4 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The functional domain responsible for the binding of CASP4 and presenilin-1 was detected by mutagenesis and co-immunoprecipitation. KEY RESULTS Casp11 deficiency remarkably impaired adult angiogenesis in ischemic hindlimbs, melanoma xenografts and Matrigel plugs, but not the developmental angiogenesis of retina. Bone marrow transplantation revealed that the pro-angiogenic effect depended on CASP11 derived from non-hematopoietic cells. CASP4 expression was induced by inflammatory factors and CASP4 knockdown decreased cell viability, proliferation, migration and tube formation in HUVECs. Mechanistically, CASP4/11 deficiency increased Notch1 activation in vivo and in vitro, while CASP4 overexpression repressed Notch1 signaling in HUVECs. Moreover, CASP4 knockdown increased γ-secretase activity. γ-Secretase inhibitor DAPT restored the effects of CASP4 siRNA on Notch1 activation and angiogenesis in HUVECs. Notably, the catalytic activity of CASP4/11 was dispensable. Instead, CASP4 directly interacted with presenilin-1 through the caspase recruitment domain (CARD). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These findings reveal a critical role of CASP4/11 in adult angiogenesis and make this molecule a promising therapeutic target for angiogenesis-related diseases in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Fan
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Cardiology, Pan-vascular Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Pan-vascular Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Guofu Zhu
- Department of Cardiology, Pan-vascular Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shekhar Singh
- Department of Cardiology, Pan-vascular Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ze Yu
- Department of Cardiology, Pan-vascular Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shumin Wang
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Hong Luo
- Department of Medical Laboratory, College of Laboratory Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Shiying Liu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yawei Xu
- Department of Cardiology, Pan-vascular Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Junbo Ge
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Cardiology, Pan-vascular Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Dongyang Jiang
- Department of Cardiology, Pan-vascular Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinjiang Pang
- Aab Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
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12
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Decourt B, D’Souza GX, Shi J, Ritter A, Suazo J, Sabbagh MN. The Cause of Alzheimer's Disease: The Theory of Multipathology Convergence to Chronic Neuronal Stress. Aging Dis 2022; 13:37-60. [PMID: 35111361 PMCID: PMC8782548 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2021.0529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The field of Alzheimer's disease (AD) research critically lacks an all-inclusive etiology theory that would integrate existing hypotheses and explain the heterogeneity of disease trajectory and pathologies observed in each individual patient. Here, we propose a novel comprehensive theory that we named: the multipathology convergence to chronic neuronal stress. Our new theory reconsiders long-standing dogmas advanced by previous incomplete theories. Firstly, while it is undeniable that amyloid beta (Aβ) is involved in AD, in the seminal stage of the disease Aβ is unlikely pathogenic. Instead, we hypothesize that the root cause of AD is neuronal stress in the central nervous system (CNS), and Aβ is expressed as part of the physiological response to protect CNS neurons from stress. If there is no return to homeostasis, then Aβ becomes overexpressed, and this includes the generation of longer forms that are more toxic and prone to oligomerization. Secondly, AD etiology is plausibly not strictly compartmentalized within the CNS but may also result from the dysfunction of other physiological systems in the entire body. This view implies that AD may not have a single cause, but rather needs to be considered as a spectrum of multiple chronic pathological modalities converging to the persistent stressing of CNS neurons. These chronic pathological modalities, which include cardiovascular disease, metabolic disorders, and CNS structural changes, often start individually, and over time combine with other chronic modalities to incrementally escalate the amount of stress applied to CNS neurons. We present the case for considering Aβ as a marker of neuronal stress in response to hypoxic, toxic, and starvation events, rather than solely a marker of AD. We also detail numerous human chronic conditions that can lead to neuronal stress in the CNS, making the link with co-morbidities encountered in daily clinical AD practice. Finally, we explain how our theory could be leveraged to improve clinical care for AD and related dementia in personalized medicine paradigms in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Decourt
- Translational Neurodegenerative Research Laboratory, Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Las Vegas, NV 89106, USA.
| | - Gary X D’Souza
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Jiong Shi
- Translational Neurodegenerative Research Laboratory, Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Las Vegas, NV 89106, USA.
- Cleveland Clinic Nevada and Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Las Vegas, NV 89106, USA.
| | - Aaron Ritter
- Cleveland Clinic Nevada and Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Las Vegas, NV 89106, USA.
| | - Jasmin Suazo
- Translational Neurodegenerative Research Laboratory, Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Las Vegas, NV 89106, USA.
| | - Marwan N Sabbagh
- Translational Neurodegenerative Research Laboratory, Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Las Vegas, NV 89106, USA.
- Cleveland Clinic Nevada and Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Las Vegas, NV 89106, USA.
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13
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Luo JE, Li YM. Turning the tide on Alzheimer's disease: modulation of γ-secretase. Cell Biosci 2022; 12:2. [PMID: 34983641 PMCID: PMC8725520 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-021-00738-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of neurodegenerative disorder. Amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques are integral to the "amyloid hypothesis," which states that the accumulation of Aβ peptides triggers a cascade of pathological events leading to neurodegeneration and ultimately AD. While the FDA approved aducanumab, the first Aβ-targeted therapy, multiple safe and effective treatments will be needed to target the complex pathologies of AD. γ-Secretase is an intramembrane aspartyl protease that is critical for the generation of Aβ peptides. Activity and specificity of γ-secretase are regulated by both obligatory subunits and modulatory proteins. Due to its complex structure and function and early clinical failures with pan inhibitors, γ-secretase has been a challenging drug target for AD. γ-secretase modulators, however, have dramatically shifted the approach to targeting γ-secretase. Here we review γ-secretase and small molecule modulators, from the initial characterization of a subset of NSAIDs to the most recent clinical candidates. We also discuss the chemical biology of γ-secretase, in which small molecule probes enabled structural and functional insights into γ-secretase before the emergence of high-resolution structural studies. Finally, we discuss the recent crystal structures of γ-secretase, which have provided valuable perspectives on substrate recognition and molecular mechanisms of small molecules. We conclude that modulation of γ-secretase will be part of a new wave of AD therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna E Luo
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA. .,Program of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA. .,Program of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
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14
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Tatar M. The role of Aβ in Alzheimer's Disease as an Evolutionary Outcome of Optimized Innate Immune Defense. J Prev Alzheimers Dis 2022; 9:580-588. [PMID: 36281662 PMCID: PMC10535726 DOI: 10.14283/jpad.2022.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive manifestation of aging associated with accumulated Amyloid β. It remains frustratingly unclear why this protein accumulates and how it contributes to Alzheimer's Disease pathology. In one recent hypothesis, Amyloid β is suggested to function as an antimicrobial peptide in innate immune defense within the brain, where Amyloid β gains toxicity when it becomes abundant. This essay proposes an evolutionary explanation for why Amyloid β expression is regulated at an optimum based on its function as a defense and how this leads to disease. Among its potential physiological functions, Amyloid β confers benefits to reduce direct pathogen damage while this simultaneously entails cellular cost of defense. Optimal Amyloid β expression occurs when the gain in fitness from an incremental increase is balanced by the marginal cost of this increase. It proposes that natural selection acting upon the young favored systems to maintain Amyloid β at an optimal level through mechanisms that induce the defense and repress its expression. With age, the force of natural selection declines and permits mechanisms of negative feedback repression to degenerate. Consequently, Amyloid β is expressed beyond its optimum. Age also elevates cumulative pathogen exposure, reduces pathogen barriers and reactivates latent pathogens. The net effect is elevated, chronic induction of Amyloid β in the brain. The model recommends attention to innate immune negative regulation in the brain to discover ways to restore these functions toward a youthful state in the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Tatar
- Marc Tatar, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Box GW, Walter Hall Brown University, Providence RI 02912, USA, Office: +1 401-863-3455, Fax: +1 401-863-2166,
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15
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Sen S, Hallee L, Lam CK. The Potential of Gamma Secretase as a Therapeutic Target for Cardiac Diseases. J Pers Med 2021; 11:jpm11121294. [PMID: 34945766 PMCID: PMC8703931 DOI: 10.3390/jpm11121294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Heart diseases are some of the most common and pressing threats to human health worldwide. The American Heart Association and the National Institute of Health jointly work to annually update data on cardiac diseases. In 2018, 126.9 million Americans were reported as having some form of cardiac disorder, with an estimated direct and indirect total cost of USD 363.4 billion. This necessitates developing therapeutic interventions for heart diseases to improve human life expectancy and economic relief. In this review, we look into gamma-secretase as a potential therapeutic target for cardiac diseases. Gamma-secretase, an aspartyl protease enzyme, is responsible for the cleavage and activation of a number of substrates that are relevant to normal cardiac development and function as found in mutation studies. Some of these substrates are involved in downstream signaling processes and crosstalk with pathways relevant to heart diseases. Most of the substrates and signaling events we explored were found to be potentially beneficial to maintain cardiac function in diseased conditions. This review presents an updated overview of the current knowledge on gamma-secretase processing of cardiac-relevant substrates and seeks to understand if the modulation of gamma-secretase activity would be beneficial to combat cardiac diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujoita Sen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA;
| | - Logan Hallee
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA;
| | - Chi Keung Lam
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-302-831-3165
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16
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Park YH, Pyun JM, Hodges A, Jang JW, Bice PJ, Kim S, Saykin AJ, Nho K. Dysregulated expression levels of APH1B in peripheral blood are associated with brain atrophy and amyloid-β deposition in Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Res Ther 2021; 13:183. [PMID: 34732252 PMCID: PMC8567578 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-021-00919-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The interaction between the brain and periphery might play a crucial role in the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS Using blood transcriptomic profile data from two independent AD cohorts, we performed expression quantitative trait locus (cis-eQTL) analysis of 29 significant genetic loci from a recent large-scale genome-wide association study to investigate the effects of the AD genetic variants on gene expression levels and identify their potential target genes. We then performed differential gene expression analysis of identified AD target genes and linear regression analysis to evaluate the association of differentially expressed genes with neuroimaging biomarkers. RESULTS A cis-eQTL analysis identified and replicated significant associations in seven genes (APH1B, BIN1, FCER1G, GATS, MS4A6A, RABEP1, TRIM4). APH1B expression levels in the blood increased in AD and were associated with entorhinal cortical thickness and global cortical amyloid-β deposition. CONCLUSION An integrative analysis of genetics, blood-based transcriptomic profiles, and imaging biomarkers suggests that APH1B expression levels in the blood might play a role in the pathogenesis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Ho Park
- Department of Neurology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital and Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Min Pyun
- Department of Neurology, Uijeongbu Eulji Medical Center, Eulji University, Uijeongbu, Republic of Korea
| | - Angela Hodges
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jae-Won Jang
- Department of Neurology, Kangwon National University Hospital, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Paula J Bice
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, and the Indiana Alzheimer Disease Center, Center for Neuroimaging, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - SangYun Kim
- Department of Neurology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital and Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Andrew J Saykin
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, and the Indiana Alzheimer Disease Center, Center for Neuroimaging, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Kwangsik Nho
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, and the Indiana Alzheimer Disease Center, Center for Neuroimaging, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
- Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
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17
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Kedia S, Mandal K, Netrakanti PR, Jose M, Sisodia SS, Nair D. Nanoscale organization of Nicastrin, the substrate receptor of the γ-secretase complex, as independent molecular domains. Mol Brain 2021; 14:158. [PMID: 34645511 PMCID: PMC8515736 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-021-00855-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations in the canonical processing of Amyloid Precursor Protein generate proteoforms that contribute to the onset of Alzheimer’s Disease. Modified composition of γ-secretase or mutations in its subunits has been directly linked to altered generation of Amyloid beta. Despite biochemical evidence about the role of γ-secretase in the generation of APP, the molecular origin of how spatial heterogeneity in the generation of proteoforms arises is not well understood. Here, we evaluated the localization of Nicastrin, a γ-secretase subunit, at nanometer sized functional zones of the synapse. With the help of super resolution microscopy, we confirm that Nicastrin is organized into nanodomains of high molecular density within an excitatory synapse. A similar nanoorganization was also observed for APP and the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase, Presenilin 1, that were discretely associated with Nicastrin nanodomains. Though Nicastrin is a functional subunit of γ-secretase, the Nicastrin and Presenilin1 nanodomains were either colocalized or localized independent of each other. The Nicastrin and Presenilin domains highlight a potential independent regulation of these molecules different from their canonical secretase function. The collisions between secretases and substrate molecules decide the probability and rate of product formation for transmembrane proteolysis. Our observations of secretase nanodomains indicate a spatial difference in the confinement of substrate and secretases, affecting the local probability of product formation by increasing their molecular availability, resulting in differential generation of proteoforms even within single synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shekhar Kedia
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, 560012, Bangalore, India
| | - Kousik Mandal
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, 560012, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Mini Jose
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, 560012, Bangalore, India
| | - Sangram S Sisodia
- Centre for Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology, The University of Chicago, 60637, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Deepak Nair
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, 560012, Bangalore, India.
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18
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Ryan KC, Ashkavand Z, Sarasija S, Laboy JT, Samarakoon R, Norman KR. Increased mitochondrial calcium uptake and concomitant mitochondrial activity by presenilin loss promotes mTORC1 signaling to drive neurodegeneration. Aging Cell 2021; 20:e13472. [PMID: 34499406 PMCID: PMC8520713 DOI: 10.1111/acel.13472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic dysfunction and protein aggregation are common characteristics that occur in age‐related neurodegenerative disease. However, the mechanisms underlying these abnormalities remain poorly understood. We have found that mutations in the gene encoding presenilin in Caenorhabditis elegans, sel‐12, results in elevated mitochondrial activity that drives oxidative stress and neuronal dysfunction. Mutations in the human presenilin genes are the primary cause of familial Alzheimer's disease. Here, we demonstrate that loss of SEL‐12/presenilin results in the hyperactivation of the mTORC1 pathway. This hyperactivation is caused by elevated mitochondrial calcium influx and, likely, the associated increase in mitochondrial activity. Reducing mTORC1 activity improves proteostasis defects and neurodegenerative phenotypes associated with loss of SEL‐12 function. Consistent with high mTORC1 activity, we find that SEL‐12 loss reduces autophagosome formation, and this reduction is prevented by limiting mitochondrial calcium uptake. Moreover, the improvements of proteostasis and neuronal defects in sel‐12 mutants due to mTORC1 inhibition require the induction of autophagy. These results indicate that mTORC1 hyperactivation exacerbates the defects in proteostasis and neuronal function in sel‐12 mutants and demonstrate a critical role of presenilin in promoting neuronal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry C. Ryan
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology Albany Medical College Albany New York USA
| | - Zahra Ashkavand
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology Albany Medical College Albany New York USA
| | - Shaarika Sarasija
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology Albany Medical College Albany New York USA
| | - Jocelyn T. Laboy
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology Albany Medical College Albany New York USA
| | - Rohan Samarakoon
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology Albany Medical College Albany New York USA
| | - Kenneth R. Norman
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology Albany Medical College Albany New York USA
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19
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Zambrano P, Suwalsky M, Jemiola-Rzeminska M, Gallardo-Nelson MJ, Strzalka K, Muñoz-Torrero D. Protective Role of a Donepezil-Huprine Hybrid against the β-Amyloid (1-42) Effect on Human Erythrocytes. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22179563. [PMID: 34502472 PMCID: PMC8431064 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aβ(1-42) peptide is a neurotoxic agent strongly associated with the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Current treatments are still of very low effectiveness, and deaths from AD are increasing worldwide. Huprine-derived molecules have a high affinity towards the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), act as potent Aβ(1-42) peptide aggregation inhibitors, and improve the behavior of experimental animals. AVCRI104P4 is a multitarget donepezil-huprine hybrid that improves short-term memory in a mouse model of AD and exerts protective effects in transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans that express Aβ(1-42) peptide. At present, there is no information about the effects of this compound on human erythrocytes. Thus, we considered it important to study its effects on the cell membrane and erythrocyte models, and to examine its protective effect against the toxic insult induced by Aβ(1-42) peptide in this cell and models. This research was developed using X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) on molecular models of the human erythrocyte membrane constituted by lipid bilayers built of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) and dimyristoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DMPE). They correspond to phospholipids representative of those present in the external and internal monolayers, respectively, of most plasma and neuronal membranes. The effect of AVCRI104P4 on human erythrocyte morphology was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The experimental results showed a protective effect of AVCRI104P4 against the toxicity induced by Aβ(1-42) peptide in human erythrocytes and molecular models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Zambrano
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-89-8578-2374
| | - Mario Suwalsky
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile;
| | - Malgorzata Jemiola-Rzeminska
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland; (M.J.-R.); (K.S.)
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
| | | | - Kazimierz Strzalka
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland; (M.J.-R.); (K.S.)
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
| | - Diego Muñoz-Torrero
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry (CSIC Associated Unit), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food, Sciences, University of Barcelona (UB), E-08028 Barcelona, Spain;
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona (UB), E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
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20
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Dele-Oni DO, Christianson KE, Egri SB, Vaca Jacome AS, DeRuff KC, Mullahoo J, Sharma V, Davison D, Ko T, Bula M, Blanchard J, Young JZ, Litichevskiy L, Lu X, Lam D, Asiedu JK, Toder C, Officer A, Peckner R, MacCoss MJ, Tsai LH, Carr SA, Papanastasiou M, Jaffe JD. Proteomic profiling dataset of chemical perturbations in multiple biological backgrounds. Sci Data 2021; 8:226. [PMID: 34433823 PMCID: PMC8387426 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-021-01008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
While gene expression profiling has traditionally been the method of choice for large-scale perturbational profiling studies, proteomics has emerged as an effective tool in this context for directly monitoring cellular responses to perturbations. We previously reported a pilot library containing 3400 profiles of multiple perturbations across diverse cellular backgrounds in the reduced-representation phosphoproteome (P100) and chromatin space (Global Chromatin Profiling, GCP). Here, we expand our original dataset to include profiles from a new set of cardiotoxic compounds and from astrocytes, an additional neural cell model, totaling 5300 proteomic signatures. We describe filtering criteria and quality control metrics used to assess and validate the technical quality and reproducibility of our data. To demonstrate the power of the library, we present two case studies where data is queried using the concept of "connectivity" to obtain biological insight. All data presented in this study have been deposited to the ProteomeXchange Consortium with identifiers PXD017458 (P100) and PXD017459 (GCP) and can be queried at https://clue.io/proteomics .
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shawn B Egri
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | | | | | - James Mullahoo
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | - Vagisha Sharma
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, United States
| | - Desiree Davison
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | - Tak Ko
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, United States
| | - Michael Bula
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, United States
| | - Joel Blanchard
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, United States
| | - Jennie Z Young
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, United States
| | - Lev Litichevskiy
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | - Xiaodong Lu
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | - Daniel Lam
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | - Jacob K Asiedu
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | - Caidin Toder
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | - Adam Officer
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | - Ryan Peckner
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | - Michael J MacCoss
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, United States
| | - Li-Huei Tsai
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, United States
| | - Steven A Carr
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States
| | | | - Jacob D Jaffe
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, United States.
- Inzen Therapeutics, Cambridge, MA, 02139, United States.
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21
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McCaw TR, Inga E, Chen H, Jaskula‐Sztul R, Dudeja V, Bibb JA, Ren B, Rose JB. Gamma Secretase Inhibitors in Cancer: A Current Perspective on Clinical Performance. Oncologist 2021; 26:e608-e621. [PMID: 33284507 PMCID: PMC8018325 DOI: 10.1002/onco.13627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Gamma secretase inhibitors (GSIs), initially developed as Alzheimer's therapies, have been repurposed as anticancer agents given their inhibition of Notch receptor cleavage. The success of GSIs in preclinical models has been ascribed to induction of cancer stem-like cell differentiation and apoptosis, while also impairing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and sensitizing cells to traditional chemoradiotherapies. The promise of these agents has yet to be realized in the clinic, however, as GSIs have failed to demonstrate clinical benefit in most solid tumors with the notable exceptions of CNS malignancies and desmoid tumors. Disappointing clinical performance to date reflects important questions that remain to be answered. For example, what is the net impact of these agents on antitumor immune responses, and will they require concurrent targeting of tumor-intrinsic compensatory pathways? Addressing these limitations in our current understanding of GSI mechanisms will undoubtedly facilitate their rational incorporation into combinatorial strategies and provide a valuable tool with which to combat Notch-dependent cancers. In the present review, we provide a current understanding of GSI mechanisms, discuss clinical performance to date, and suggest areas for future investigation that might maximize the utility of these agents. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: The performance of gamma secretase inhibitors (GSIs) in clinical trials generally has not reflected their encouraging performance in preclinical studies. This review provides a current perspective on the clinical performance of GSIs across various solid tumor types alongside putative mechanisms of antitumor activity. Through exploration of outstanding gaps in knowledge as well as reasons for success in certain cancer types, the authors identify areas for future investigation that will likely enable incorporation of GSIs into rational combinatorial strategies for superior tumor control and patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler R. McCaw
- Divisions of Surgical Oncology, The University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - Evelyn Inga
- Divisions of Surgical Oncology, The University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - Herbert Chen
- Breast & Endocrine Surgery, The University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - Renata Jaskula‐Sztul
- Breast & Endocrine Surgery, The University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - Vikas Dudeja
- Divisions of Surgical Oncology, The University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - James A. Bibb
- Gastrointestinal Surgery, The University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - Bin Ren
- Vascular Surgery & Endovascular Therapy, Department of Surgery, The University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - J. Bart Rose
- Divisions of Surgical Oncology, The University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
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22
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Leal NS, Martins LM. Mind the Gap: Mitochondria and the Endoplasmic Reticulum in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9020227. [PMID: 33672391 PMCID: PMC7926795 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9020227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The way organelles are viewed by cell biologists is quickly changing. For many years, these cellular entities were thought to be unique and singular structures that performed specific roles. However, in recent decades, researchers have discovered that organelles are dynamic and form physical contacts. In addition, organelle interactions modulate several vital biological functions, and the dysregulation of these contacts is involved in cell dysfunction and different pathologies, including neurodegenerative diseases. Mitochondria–ER contact sites (MERCS) are among the most extensively studied and understood juxtapositioned interorganelle structures. In this review, we summarise the major biological and ultrastructural dysfunctions of MERCS in neurodegeneration, with a particular focus on Alzheimer’s disease as well as Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia. We also propose an updated version of the MERCS hypothesis in Alzheimer’s disease based on new findings. Finally, we discuss the possibility of MERCS being used as possible drug targets to halt cell death and neurodegeneration.
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23
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Hole KL, Williams RJ. Flavonoids as an Intervention for Alzheimer's Disease: Progress and Hurdles Towards Defining a Mechanism of Action. Brain Plast 2021; 6:167-192. [PMID: 33782649 PMCID: PMC7990465 DOI: 10.3233/bpl-200098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Attempts to develop a disease modifying intervention for Alzheimer's disease (AD) through targeting amyloid β (Aβ) have so far been unsuccessful. There is, therefore, a need for novel therapeutics against alternative targets coupled with approaches which may be suitable for early and sustained use likely required for AD prevention. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that flavonoids can act within processes and pathways relevant to AD, such as Aβ and tau pathology, increases in BDNF, inflammation, oxidative stress and neurogenesis. However, the therapeutic development of flavonoids has been hindered by an ongoing lack of clear mechanistic data that fully takes into consideration metabolism and bioavailability of flavonoids in vivo. With a focus on studies that incorporate these considerations into their experimental design, this review will evaluate the evidence for developing specific flavonoids as therapeutics for AD. Given the current lack of success of anti-Aβ targeting therapeutics, particular attention will be given to flavonoid-mediated regulation of tau phosphorylation and aggregation, where there is a comparable lack of study. Reflecting on this evidence, the obstacles that prevent therapeutic development of flavonoids will be examined. Finally, the significance of recent advances in flavonoid metabolomics, modifications and influence of the microbiome on the therapeutic capacity of flavonoids in AD are explored. By highlighting the potential of flavonoids to target multiple aspects of AD pathology, as well as considering the hurdles, this review aims to promote the efficient and effective identification of flavonoid-based approaches that have potential as therapeutic interventions for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katriona L. Hole
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, UK
| | - Robert J. Williams
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, UK
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24
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Xu XJ, Yang MS, Zhang B, Niu F, Dong JQ, Liu BY. Glucose metabolism: A link between traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease. Chin J Traumatol 2021; 24:5-10. [PMID: 33358332 PMCID: PMC7878452 DOI: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2020.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a growing public health problem, is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide, although its prevention measures and clinical cares are substantially improved. Increasing evidence shows that TBI may increase the risk of mood disorders and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the complex relationship between TBI and AD remains elusive. Metabolic dysfunction has been the common pathology in both TBI and AD. On the one hand, TBI perturbs the glucose metabolism of the brain, and causes energy crisis and subsequent hyperglycolysis. On the other hand, glucose deprivation promotes amyloidogenesis via β-site APP cleaving enzyme-1 dependent mechanism, and triggers tau pathology and synaptic function. Recent findings suggest that TBI might facilitate Alzheimer's pathogenesis by altering metabolism, which provides clues to metabolic link between TBI and AD. In this review, we will explore how TBI-induced metabolic changes contribute to the development of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Jian Xu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Central Nervous System Injury, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Meng-Shi Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Central Nervous System Injury and Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute and Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Central Nervous System Injury and Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute and Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Fei Niu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Central Nervous System Injury, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Jin-Qian Dong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Central Nervous System Injury and Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute and Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Bai-Yun Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Central Nervous System Injury, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China,Beijing Key Laboratory of Central Nervous System Injury and Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute and Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China,Nerve Injury and Repair Center of Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, 100070, China,China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, 100070, China,Corresponding author. Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tian Tan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China.
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25
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Wong E, Frost GR, Li YM. γ-Secretase Modulatory Proteins: The Guiding Hand Behind the Running Scissors. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:614690. [PMID: 33343338 PMCID: PMC7738330 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.614690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Described as the "proteasome of the membrane" or the "scissors in the membrane," γ-secretase has notoriously complicated biology, and even after decades of research, the full extent of its regulatory mechanism remains unclear. γ-Secretase is an intramembrane aspartyl protease complex composed of four obligatory subunits: Nicastrin (NCT), Presenilin (PS), Presenilin Enhancer-2 (Pen-2), and Anterior pharynx-defective-1 (Aph-1). γ-Secretase cleaves numerous type 1 transmembrane substrates, with no apparent homology, and plays major roles in broad biological pathways such as development, neurogenesis, and cancer. Notch and the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and are undoubtedly the best-studied γ-secretase substrates because of their role in cancer and Alzheimer's disease (AD) and therefore became the focus of increasing studies as an attractive therapeutic target. The regulation of γ-secretase is intricate and involves the function of multiple cellular entities. Recently, γ-secretase modulatory proteins (GSMPs), which are non-essential subunits and yet modulate γ-secretase activity and specificity, have emerged as an important component in guiding γ-secretase. GSMPs are responsive to cellular and environmental changes and therefore, provide another layer of regulation of γ-secretase. This type of enzymatic regulation allows for a rapid and fine-tuning of γ-secretase activity when appropriate signals appear enabling a temporal level of regulation. In this review article, we discuss the latest developments on GSMPs and implications on the development of effective therapeutics for γ-secretase-associated diseases such as AD and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eitan Wong
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| | | | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
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26
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Hur JY, Frost GR, Wu X, Crump C, Pan SJ, Wong E, Barros M, Li T, Nie P, Zhai Y, Wang JC, Tcw J, Guo L, McKenzie A, Ming C, Zhou X, Wang M, Sagi Y, Renton AE, Esposito BT, Kim Y, Sadleir KR, Trinh I, Rissman RA, Vassar R, Zhang B, Johnson DS, Masliah E, Greengard P, Goate A, Li YM. The innate immunity protein IFITM3 modulates γ-secretase in Alzheimer's disease. Nature 2020; 586:735-740. [PMID: 32879487 PMCID: PMC7919141 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2681-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Innate immunity is associated with Alzheimer's disease1, but the influence of immune activation on the production of amyloid-β is unknown2,3. Here we identify interferon-induced transmembrane protein 3 (IFITM3) as a γ-secretase modulatory protein, and establish a mechanism by which inflammation affects the generation of amyloid-β. Inflammatory cytokines induce the expression of IFITM3 in neurons and astrocytes, which binds to γ-secretase and upregulates its activity, thereby increasing the production of amyloid-β. The expression of IFITM3 is increased with ageing and in mouse models that express familial Alzheimer's disease genes. Furthermore, knockout of IFITM3 reduces γ-secretase activity and the formation of amyloid plaques in a transgenic mouse model (5xFAD) of early amyloid deposition. IFITM3 protein is upregulated in tissue samples from a subset of patients with late-onset Alzheimer's disease that exhibit higher γ-secretase activity. The amount of IFITM3 in the γ-secretase complex has a strong and positive correlation with γ-secretase activity in samples from patients with late-onset Alzheimer's disease. These findings reveal a mechanism in which γ-secretase is modulated by neuroinflammation via IFITM3 and the risk of Alzheimer's disease is thereby increased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Yeun Hur
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Georgia R Frost
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Program of Neurosciences, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Xianzhong Wu
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Christina Crump
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Program of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Si Jia Pan
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Eitan Wong
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marilia Barros
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Thomas Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Program of Neurosciences, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Pengju Nie
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Program of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yujia Zhai
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jen Chyong Wang
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Julia Tcw
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lei Guo
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Andrew McKenzie
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Chen Ming
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Xianxiao Zhou
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Minghui Wang
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yotam Sagi
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alan E Renton
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Bianca T Esposito
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yong Kim
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Ivy Trinh
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Robert A Rissman
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Robert Vassar
- Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Eliezer Masliah
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Paul Greengard
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alison Goate
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
- Program of Neurosciences, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA.
- Program of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA.
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27
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Mekala S, Nelson G, Li YM. Recent developments of small molecule γ-secretase modulators for Alzheimer's disease. RSC Med Chem 2020; 11:1003-1022. [PMID: 33479693 PMCID: PMC7513388 DOI: 10.1039/d0md00196a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of progressive neurodegenerative disorder, marked by memory loss and a decline in cognitive function. The major hallmarks of AD are the presence of intracellular neurofibrillary tau tangles (NFTs) composed of hyperphosphorylated tau proteins and extracellular plaques composed of amyloid beta peptides (Aβ). The amyloid (Aβ) cascade hypothesis proposes that the AD pathogenesis is initiated by the accumulation of Aβ peptides in the parenchyma of the brain. An aspartyl intramembranal protease called γ-secretase is responsible for the production of Aβ by the cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Clinical studies of γ-secretase inhibitors (GSIs) for AD failed due to the lack of substrate specificity. Therefore, γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) have been developed as potential disease modifying agents to modulate the γ-secretase cleavage activity towards the production of toxic Aβ42 peptides. Following the first-generation 'nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug' (NSAID) based GSMs, second-generation GSMs (carboxylic acid based NSAID derivatives and non-NSAID derived heterocyclic analogues), as well as natural product-based GSMs, have been developed. In this review, we focus on the recent developments of small molecule-based GSMs that show potential improvements in terms of drug-like properties as well as their current status in human clinical trials and the future perspectives of GSM research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shekar Mekala
- Chemical Biology Program , Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center , 1275 York Avenue , New York , New York 10065 , USA . ;
| | - Grady Nelson
- Chemical Biology Program , Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center , 1275 York Avenue , New York , New York 10065 , USA . ;
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program , Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center , 1275 York Avenue , New York , New York 10065 , USA . ;
- Pharmacology Graduate Program , Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University , New York , New York 10021 , USA
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28
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Angira D, Chikhale R, Mehta K, Bryce RA, Thiruvenkatam V. Tracing the GSAP-APP C-99 Interaction Site in the β-Amyloid Pathway Leading to Alzheimer's Disease. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:3868-3879. [PMID: 31299145 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Gamma secretase activating protein (GSAP) present in β-amyloid pathway orchestrates the formation of β-amyloid plaques by γ-secretase activation and is an emerging therapeutic target for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. It forms a ternary complex with γ-secretase and APP C-99. However, there are limited reports for the interaction of APP C-99 with GSAP. Here, we report the characterization of purified maltose binding protein (MBP) tagged human GSAP and its interaction with synthetic APP C-99 peptide fragments (712IATVIVITLVMLKKQ727 (712IQ727), 719TLVMLKKKQYTSIHHGVVEVDAAVT743 (719TT743) 734GVVEVDAAVTPEERHLSKMQQNGY757 (734GY757), and 746ERHLSKMQQNGYENPTYKFFEQMQN770 (746EN770)). The results emphasize the selective interaction of peptide (719TT743) with MBP-GSAP with a dissociation constant of 0.136 μM. Further, computational modeling of the GSAP-719TT743 complex finds an optimal bound pose of 719TT743 within an extended groove on the surface of GSAP. The preliminary results highlight the interaction between the two major proteins in the plausible ternary complex: APP C-99-GSAP-γ-secretase. It paves a futuristic path to investigate the GSAP-APP C-99 binding in detail and accentuates the role of GSAP in the β-amyloid pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deekshi Angira
- Discipline of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Simkheda, Palaj, Gandhinagar-382355, Gujarat, India
| | - Rupesh Chikhale
- Division of Pharmacy and Optometry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Kapilkumar Mehta
- Discipline of Biological Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar,
Simkheda, Palaj, Gandhinagar-382355, Gujarat, India
| | - Richard A. Bryce
- Division of Pharmacy and Optometry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Vijay Thiruvenkatam
- Discipline of Biological Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar,
Simkheda, Palaj, Gandhinagar-382355, Gujarat, India
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29
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Li YS, Yang ZH, Zhang Y, Yang J, Shang DD, Zhang SY, Wu J, Ji Y, Zhao L, Shi CH, Xu YM. Two Novel Mutations and a de novo Mutation in PSEN1 in Early-onset Alzheimer's Disease. Aging Dis 2019; 10:908-914. [PMID: 31440394 PMCID: PMC6675531 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2018.1109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Presenilin 1 (PSEN1), presenilin 2 (PSEN2), and amyloid precursor protein (APP) mutations are responsible for autosomal dominant early-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD-EOAD). To analyze the phenotypes and genotypes of EOAD patients, we performed comprehensive clinical assessments as well as mutation screening of PSEN1, PSEN2, and exons 16 and 17 of APP by Sanger sequencing in the three Chinese EOAD families. We identified two novel mutations of PSEN1 (Y256N and H214R) in samples from these families, and a de novo mutation of PSEN1 (G206V) in a patient with very early-onset sporadic Alzheimer's disease. A combination of bioinformatics tools based on evolutionary, structural and computational methods predicted that the mutations were all deleterious. These findings suggest that PSEN1 Y256N, H214R, and G206V need to be considered as potential causative mutations in EOAD patients. Further functional studies are needed to evaluate the roles of these mutations in the pathogenesis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Sheng Li
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Zhi-Hua Yang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Yao Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Dan-Dan Shang
- Department of Neurology, Luoyang Central Hospital affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Henan, China
| | - Shu-Yu Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Jun Wu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Yan Ji
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Lu Zhao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Chang-He Shi
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Yu-Ming Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
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30
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Petit D, Hitzenberger M, Lismont S, Zoltowska KM, Ryan NS, Mercken M, Bischoff F, Zacharias M, Chávez-Gutiérrez L. Extracellular interface between APP and Nicastrin regulates Aβ length and response to γ-secretase modulators. EMBO J 2019; 38:e101494. [PMID: 31109937 PMCID: PMC6576158 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2019101494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
γ-Secretase complexes (GSECs) are multimeric membrane proteases involved in a variety of physiological processes and linked to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Presenilin (PSEN, catalytic subunit), Nicastrin (NCT), Presenilin Enhancer 2 (PEN-2), and Anterior Pharynx Defective 1 (APH1) are the essential subunits of GSECs. Mutations in PSEN and the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) cause early-onset AD GSECs successively cut APP to generate amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides of various lengths. AD-causing mutations destabilize GSEC-APP/Aβn interactions and thus enhance the production of longer Aβs, which elicit neurotoxic events underlying pathogenesis. Here, we investigated the molecular strategies that anchor GSEC and APP/Aβn during the sequential proteolysis. Our studies reveal that a direct interaction between NCT ectodomain and APPC99 influences the stability of GSEC-Aβn assemblies and thereby modulates Aβ length. The data suggest a potential link between single-nucleotide variants in NCSTN and AD risk. Furthermore, our work indicates that an extracellular interface between the protease (NCT, PSEN) and the substrate (APP) represents the target for compounds (GSMs) modulating Aβ length. Our findings may guide future rationale-based drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Petit
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Research Institute for Neuroscience and Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Manuel Hitzenberger
- Physics Department, Theoretical Biophysics (T38), Technical University of Munich, München, Germany
| | - Sam Lismont
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Research Institute for Neuroscience and Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katarzyna Marta Zoltowska
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Research Institute for Neuroscience and Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Natalie S Ryan
- Dementia Research Centre, Department of Neurodegenerative Disease UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Marc Mercken
- Janssen Research & Development, Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
- Janssen Research & Development, Neuroscience biology Turnhoutseweg, Beerse, Belgium
| | - François Bischoff
- Janssen Research & Development, Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Martin Zacharias
- Physics Department, Theoretical Biophysics (T38), Technical University of Munich, München, Germany
| | - Lucía Chávez-Gutiérrez
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Research Institute for Neuroscience and Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Jin Y, Sumsuzzman DM, Choi J, Kang H, Lee SR, Hong Y. Molecular and Functional Interaction of the Myokine Irisin with Physical Exercise and Alzheimer's Disease. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23123229. [PMID: 30544500 PMCID: PMC6321132 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23123229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Irisin, a skeletal muscle-secreted myokine, produced in response to physical exercise, has protective functions in both the central and the peripheral nervous systems, including the regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factors. In particular, irisin is capable of protecting hippocampus. Since this area is the region of the brain that is most susceptible to Alzheimer's disease (AD), such beneficial effect may inhibit or delay the emergence of neurodegenerative diseases, including AD. Also, the factors engaged in irisin formation appear to suppress Aβ aggregation, which is the pathological hallmark of AD. This review is based on the hypothesis that irisin produced by physical exercise helps to control AD progression. Herein, we describe the physiology of irisin and its potential role in delaying or preventing AD progression in human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunho Jin
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Graduate School of Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Biohealth Products Research Center (BPRC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Ubiquitous Healthcare & Anti-Aging Research Center (u-HARC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
| | - Dewan Md Sumsuzzman
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Graduate School of Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Biohealth Products Research Center (BPRC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Ubiquitous Healthcare & Anti-Aging Research Center (u-HARC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
| | - Jeonghyun Choi
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Graduate School of Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Biohealth Products Research Center (BPRC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Ubiquitous Healthcare & Anti-Aging Research Center (u-HARC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
| | - Hyunbon Kang
- Biohealth Products Research Center (BPRC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Ubiquitous Healthcare & Anti-Aging Research Center (u-HARC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Department of Physical Therapy, Graduate School of Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
| | - Sang-Rae Lee
- National Primate Research Center (NPRC), Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Ochang 50834, Korea.
| | - Yonggeun Hong
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Graduate School of Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Biohealth Products Research Center (BPRC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Ubiquitous Healthcare & Anti-Aging Research Center (u-HARC), Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Department of Physical Therapy, Graduate School of Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Healthcare Medical Science & Engineering, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
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32
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Hara T, Maejima I, Akuzawa T, Hirai R, Kobayashi H, Tsukamoto S, Tsunoda M, Ono A, Yamakoshi S, Oikawa S, Sato K. Rer1-mediated quality control system is required for neural stem cell maintenance during cerebral cortex development. PLoS Genet 2018; 14:e1007647. [PMID: 30260951 PMCID: PMC6159856 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Rer1 is a retrieval receptor for endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention of various ER membrane proteins and unassembled or immature components of membrane protein complexes. However, its physiological functions during mammalian development remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the role of Rer1-mediated quality control system in mammalian development. We show that Rer1 is required for the sufficient cell surface expression and activity of γ-secretase complex, which modulates Notch signaling during mouse cerebral cortex development. When Rer1 was depleted in the mouse cerebral cortex, the number of neural stem cells decreased significantly, and malformation of the cerebral cortex was observed. Rer1 loss reduced γ-secretase activity and downregulated Notch signaling in the developing cerebral cortex. In Rer1-deficient cells, a subpopulation of γ-secretase complexes and components was transported to and degraded in lysosomes, thereby significantly reducing the amount of γ-secretase complex on the cell surface. These results suggest that Rer1 maintains Notch signaling by maintaining sufficient expression of the γ-secretase complex on the cell surface and regulating neural stem cell maintenance during cerebral cortex development. We showed that Rer1 functions as an early-Golgi quality control pathway that maintains γ-secretase activity by maintaining sufficient cell surface expression of γ-secretase complex during cerebral cortex development, thereby modulating Notch signaling.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptor Proteins, Vesicular Transport
- Amyloid Precursor Protein Secretases/metabolism
- Animals
- Behavior, Animal
- CRISPR-Cas Systems/genetics
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cerebral Cortex/growth & development
- Cerebral Cortex/metabolism
- Chromosome Deletion
- Chromosome Disorders/genetics
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 1/genetics
- Disease Models, Animal
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental
- Humans
- Lysosomes/metabolism
- Male
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Neural Stem Cells
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/genetics
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Receptors, Notch/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Taichi Hara
- Laboratory of Molecular Traffic, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
- Laboratory of Cellular Regulation, Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan
| | - Ikuko Maejima
- Laboratory of Molecular Traffic, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Tomoko Akuzawa
- Laboratory of Molecular Traffic, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Rika Hirai
- Laboratory of Molecular Traffic, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Hisae Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Molecular Traffic, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Satoshi Tsukamoto
- Laboratory Animal and Genome Sciences Section, National Institute of Radiological Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Anagawa, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Mika Tsunoda
- Laboratory of Molecular Traffic, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Aguri Ono
- Laboratory of Cellular Regulation, Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan
| | - Shota Yamakoshi
- Laboratory of Cellular Regulation, Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan
| | - Satoshi Oikawa
- Laboratory of Cellular Regulation, Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan
| | - Ken Sato
- Laboratory of Molecular Traffic, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
The fundamental pathology in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is neuronal dysfunction leading to cognitive impairment. The amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), derived from amyloid precursor protein, is one driver of AD, but how it leads to neuronal dysfunction is not established. In this Review, I discuss the complexity of AD and possible cause-and-effect relationships between Aβ and the vascular and hemostatic systems. AD can be considered a multifactorial syndrome with various contributing pathological mechanisms. Therefore, as is routinely done with cancer, it will be important to classify patients with respect to their disease signature so that specific pathologies, including vascular pathways, can be therapeutically targeted.
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34
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Frost GR, Li YM. The role of astrocytes in amyloid production and Alzheimer's disease. Open Biol 2017; 7:170228. [PMID: 29237809 PMCID: PMC5746550 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.170228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 244] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is marked by the presence of extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and gliosis, activated glial cells, in the brain. It is thought that Aβ plaques trigger NFT formation, neuronal cell death, neuroinflammation and gliosis and, ultimately, cognitive impairment. There are increased numbers of reactive astrocytes in AD, which surround amyloid plaques and secrete proinflammatory factors and can phagocytize and break down Aβ. It was thought that neuronal cells were the major source of Aβ. However, mounting evidence suggests that astrocytes may play an additional role in AD by secreting significant quantities of Aβ and contributing to overall amyloid burden in the brain. Astrocytes are the most numerous cell type in the brain, and therefore even minor quantities of amyloid secretion from individual astrocytes could prove to be substantial when taken across the whole brain. Reactive astrocytes have increased levels of the three necessary components for Aβ production: amyloid precursor protein, β-secretase (BACE1) and γ-secretase. The identification of environmental factors, such as neuroinflammation, that promote astrocytic Aβ production, could redefine how we think about developing therapeutics for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia R Frost
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Programs of Neurosciences, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Programs of Neurosciences, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
- Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
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35
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Decourt B, Lahiri DK, Sabbagh MN. Targeting Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha for Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Alzheimer Res 2017; 14:412-425. [PMID: 27697064 DOI: 10.2174/1567205013666160930110551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 09/10/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects an estimated 44 million individuals worldwide, yet no therapeutic intervention is available to stop the progression of the dementia. Neuropathological hallmarks of AD are extracellular deposits of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides assembled in plaques, intraneuronal accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau protein forming tangles, and chronic inflammation. A pivotal molecule in inflammation is the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α. Several lines of evidence using genetic and pharmacological manipulations indicate that TNF-α signaling exacerbates both Aβ and tau pathologies in vivo. Interestingly, preventive and intervention anti-inflammatory strategies demonstrated a reduction in brain pathology and an amelioration of cognitive function in rodent models of AD. Phase I and IIa clinical trials suggest that TNF-α inhibitors might slow down cognitive decline and improve daily activities in AD patients. In the present review, we summarize the evidence pointing towards a beneficial role of anti-TNF-α therapies to prevent or slow the progression of AD. We also present possible physical and pharmacological interventions to modulate TNF-α signaling in AD subjects along with their limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Decourt
- Banner Sun Health Research Institute, 10515 W. Santa Fe Dr., Sun City AZ 85351, United States
| | - Debomoy K Lahiri
- Institute of Psychiatry Research, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Marwan N Sabbagh
- Alzheimer's and Memory Disorders Division, Barrow Neurological Institute, 240 West Thomas, Ste 301, Phoenix, AZ 85013, United States
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36
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Sogorb-Esteve A, García-Ayllón MS, Llansola M, Felipo V, Blennow K, Sáez-Valero J. Inhibition of γ-Secretase Leads to an Increase in Presenilin-1. Mol Neurobiol 2017; 55:5047-5058. [PMID: 28815510 PMCID: PMC5948247 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0705-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
γ-Secretase inhibitors (GSIs) are potential therapeutic agents for Alzheimer’s disease (AD); however, trials have proven disappointing. We addressed the possibility that γ-secretase inhibition can provoke a rebound effect, elevating the levels of the catalytic γ-secretase subunit, presenilin-1 (PS1). Acute treatment of SH-SY5Y cells with the GSI LY-374973 (N-[N-(3,5-difluorophenacetyl)-l-alanyl]-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester, DAPT) augments PS1, in parallel with increases in other γ-secretase subunits nicastrin, presenilin enhancer 2, and anterior pharynx-defective 1, yet with no increase in messenger RNA expression. Over-expression of the C-terminal fragment (CTF) of APP, C99, also triggered an increase in PS1. Similar increases in PS1 were evident in primary neurons treated repeatedly (4 days) with DAPT or with the GSI BMS-708163 (avagacestat). Likewise, rats examined after 21 days administered with avagacestat (40 mg/kg/day) had more brain PS1. Sustained γ-secretase inhibition did not exert a long-term effect on PS1 activity, evident through the decrease in CTFs of APP and ApoER2. Prolonged avagacestat treatment of rats produced a subtle impairment in anxiety-like behavior. The rebound increase in PS1 in response to GSIs must be taken into consideration for future drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aitana Sogorb-Esteve
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Av. Ramón y Cajal s/n, 03550, Sant Joan d'Alacant, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Sant Joan d'Alacant, Spain
| | - María-Salud García-Ayllón
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Av. Ramón y Cajal s/n, 03550, Sant Joan d'Alacant, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Sant Joan d'Alacant, Spain. .,Unidad de Investigación, Hospital General Universitario de Elche, FISABIO, 03203, Elche, Spain.
| | - Marta Llansola
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Fundación Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Vicente Felipo
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Fundación Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Kaj Blennow
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden.,Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Mölndal Campus, Sweden
| | - Javier Sáez-Valero
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Av. Ramón y Cajal s/n, 03550, Sant Joan d'Alacant, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Sant Joan d'Alacant, Spain.
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37
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Salminen A, Kauppinen A, Kaarniranta K. Hypoxia/ischemia activate processing of Amyloid Precursor Protein: impact of vascular dysfunction in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 2017; 140:536-549. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Antero Salminen
- Department of Neurology; Institute of Clinical Medicine; University of Eastern Finland; Kuopio Finland
| | - Anu Kauppinen
- School of Pharmacy; Faculty of Health Sciences; University of Eastern Finland; Kuopio Finland
| | - Kai Kaarniranta
- Department of Ophthalmology; Institute of Clinical Medicine; University of Eastern Finland; Kuopio Finland
- Department of Ophthalmology; Kuopio University Hospital; Kuopio Finland
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38
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Gertsik N, Am Ende CW, Geoghegan KF, Nguyen C, Mukherjee P, Mente S, Seneviratne U, Johnson DS, Li YM. Mapping the Binding Site of BMS-708163 on γ-Secretase with Cleavable Photoprobes. Cell Chem Biol 2017; 24:3-8. [PMID: 28065657 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2016.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
γ-Secretase, a four-subunit transmembrane aspartic proteinase, is a highly valued drug target in Alzheimer's disease and cancer. Despite significant progress in structural studies, the respective molecular mechanisms and binding modes of γ-secretase inhibitors (GSIs) and modulators (GSMs) remain uncertain. Here, we developed biotinylated cleavable-linker photoprobes based on the BMS-708163 GSI to study its interaction with γ-secretase. Comparison of four cleavable linkers indicated that the hydrazine-labile N-1-(4,4-dimethyl-2,6-dioxocyclohexylidene)ethyl (Dde) linker was cleaved most efficiently to release photolabeled and affinity-captured presenilin-1 (PS1), the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase. Peptide mapping showed that the BMS-708163-based probe photoinserted at L282 of PS1. This insertion site was consistent with the results of molecular dynamics simulations of the γ-secretase complex with inhibitor. Taken together, this work reveals the binding site of a GSI and offers insights into the mechanism of action of this class of inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalya Gertsik
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Christopher W Am Ende
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | - Kieran F Geoghegan
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Structural and Molecular Sciences, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | - Chuong Nguyen
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Structural and Molecular Sciences, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | - Paramita Mukherjee
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | - Scot Mente
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Uthpala Seneviratne
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Douglas S Johnson
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA; Xiangya International Academy of Translational Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China.
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39
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Leal NS, Schreiner B, Pinho CM, Filadi R, Wiehager B, Karlström H, Pizzo P, Ankarcrona M. Mitofusin-2 knockdown increases ER-mitochondria contact and decreases amyloid β-peptide production. J Cell Mol Med 2016; 20:1686-95. [PMID: 27203684 PMCID: PMC4988279 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are physically and biochemically in contact with other organelles including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Such contacts are formed between mitochondria‐associated ER membranes (MAM), specialized subregions of ER, and the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM). We have previously shown increased expression of MAM‐associated proteins and enhanced ER to mitochondria Ca2+ transfer from ER to mitochondria in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amyloid β‐peptide (Aβ)‐related neuronal models. Here, we report that siRNA knockdown of mitofusin‐2 (Mfn2), a protein that is involved in the tethering of ER and mitochondria, leads to increased contact between the two organelles. Cells depleted in Mfn2 showed increased Ca2+ transfer from ER to mitchondria and longer stretches of ER forming contacts with OMM. Interestingly, increased contact resulted in decreased concentrations of intra‐ and extracellular Aβ40 and Aβ42. Analysis of γ‐secretase protein expression, maturation and activity revealed that the low Aβ concentrations were a result of impaired γ‐secretase complex function. Amyloid‐β precursor protein (APP), β‐site APP‐cleaving enzyme 1 and neprilysin expression as well as neprilysin activity were not affected by Mfn2 siRNA treatment. In summary, our data shows that modulation of ER–mitochondria contact affects γ‐secretase activity and Aβ generation. Increased ER–mitochondria contact results in lower γ‐secretase activity suggesting a new mechanism by which Aβ generation can be controlled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno Santos Leal
- Center for Alzheimer Research, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bernadette Schreiner
- Center for Alzheimer Research, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Catarina Moreira Pinho
- Center for Alzheimer Research, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Riccardo Filadi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Birgitta Wiehager
- Center for Alzheimer Research, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Helena Karlström
- Center for Alzheimer Research, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Paola Pizzo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Maria Ankarcrona
- Center for Alzheimer Research, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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40
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Gertsik N, Chau DM, Li YM. γ-Secretase Inhibitors and Modulators Induce Distinct Conformational Changes in the Active Sites of γ-Secretase and Signal Peptide Peptidase. ACS Chem Biol 2015; 10:1925-31. [PMID: 26030233 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.5b00321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
γ-Secretase inhibitors (GSIs) and modulators (GSMs) are at the frontline of cancer and Alzheimer's disease research, respectively. While both are therapeutically promising, not much is known about their interactions with proteins other than γ-secretase. Signal peptide peptidase (SPP), like γ-secretase, is a multispan transmembrane aspartyl protease that catalyzes regulated intramembrane proteolysis. We used active site-directed photophore walking probes to study the effects of different GSIs and GSMs on the active sites of γ-secretase and SPP and found that nontransition state GSIs inhibit labeling of γ-secretase by activity-based probes but enhance labeling of SPP. The opposite is true of GSMs, which have little effect on the labeling of γ-secretase but diminish labeling of SPP. These results demonstrate that GSIs and GSMs are altering the structure of not only γ-secretase but also SPP, leading to potential changes in enzyme activity and specificity that may impact the clinical outcomes of these molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalya Gertsik
- Molecular
Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, United States
| | - De-Ming Chau
- Molecular
Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, United States
- Clinical
Genetics Unit Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Molecular
Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, United States
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41
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Blass B. Fused Morphlinopyrimidines and Methods of Use Thereof. ACS Med Chem Lett 2015; 6:836-7. [PMID: 26288679 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.5b00259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Blass
- Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
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