Baicalin Alleviates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Liver Inflammation in Chicken by Suppressing TLR4-Mediated NF-κB Pathway

Baicalin enhances respiratory mucosal immunity by modulating antiviral protein expression and T-cell homeostasis during H9N2 infection

Introduction

The H9N2 avian influenza virus, although not highly pathogenic, still poses ongoing risks to poultry health and food security due to its ability to resist vaccines and its potential to spread to humans.

Methods

This study investigated the effects of baicalin, a flavonoid derived from Scutellaria baicalensis, on respiratory mucosal immunity during H9N2 infection. In vitro experiments were conducted using MLE-12 alveolar epithelial cells, and in vivo evaluations were performed in a mouse model of H9N2 infection.

Results

Baicalin treatment enhanced the expression of antiviral proteins Mx1 and PKR in a dose- and time-dependent manner, helping to counteract the virus's suppression of these defense proteins. In addition to strengthening this epithelial barrier, baicalin has both antiviral and immune-regulating effects: it directly blocks viral replication and helps restore the CD4+/CD8+ T cell ratio in H9N2-infected mice. Most importantly, baicalin reduces lung damage and spleen shrinkage while keeping the immune system balanced. These results show that baicalin enhances mucosal antiviral defenses by simultaneously regulating innate antiviral pathways (Mx1 and PKR) and restoring adaptive immune balance (CD4+/CD8+ T-cell ratio).

Discussion

These dual protective effects highlight baicalin's potential as a natural therapeutic strategy for improving mucosal immunity against vaccine-resistant influenza viruses such as H9N2, contributing valuable insights into plant-derived immunomodulatory approaches against emerging zoonotic viral threats.

Hepatoprotective Effect of Kaempferol-A Review

Liver diseases, including chronic inflammation and related metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), fibrosis and cirrhosis remain a growing global health burden. Currently, available pharmacotherapy for liver dysfunction has limited efficacy. Kaempferol, a naturally occurring flavonoid, has demonstrated significant hepatoprotective effects in preclinical models. This substance activates the SIRT1/AMPK signalling pathway, improves mitochondrial function, inhibits proinflammatory cytokine production via TLR4/NF-κB suppression and attenuates hepatic stellate cell activation by modulating the TGF-β/Smad pathway. In addition, kaempferol regulates the composition of the gut microbiota, thus improving bile acid metabolism and alleviating steatosis and fibrosis. This review presents an integrated analysis of recent in vitro and in vivo studies on the mode of action and utility of kaempferol in liver disease and hepatoprotection.

Baicalin ameliorates neuroinflammation by targeting TLR4/MD2 complex on microglia via PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway

This study aims to elucidate the target and mechanism of baicalin, a clinically utilized drug, in the treatment of neuroinflammatory diseases. Neuroinflammation, characterized by the activation of glial cells and the release of various pro-inflammatory cytokines, plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including spinal cord injury (SCI). The remission of such diseases is significantly dependent on the improvement of inflammatory microenvironment. Toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation protein 2 (TLR4/MD2) complex plays an important role in pathogen recognition and innate immune activation. baicalin, a natural flavonoid, is renowned for its potent anti-inflammatory property. In this study, we discovered that baicalin significantly reduced the activation of glial cells and the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines at the lesion site of SCI mice, thereby mitigating demyelination and neuronal damage. By directly occupying the active pocket of TLR4/MD2 complex on microglia, baicalin inhibited PI3K/AKT/NF-κB pathway, thereby exerting its anti-inflammatory effect. These findings were corroborated in mice induced by lipopolysaccharide, a TLR4 agonist. Furthermore, baicalin indirectly altered phenotype of astrocytes by reducing secretion of TNF-α, IL-1α, and C1q levels from microglia. Our work demonstrated that baicalin effectively alleviated neuroinflammation by directly targeting microglia and indirectly modulating astrocytes phenotype. As a natural flavonoid, baicalin holds significant potential as a therapeutic candidate for diseases characterized by neuroinflammation.

Protective effects of baicalin against deoxynivalenol-induced oxidative and inflammatory damage in chicken-derived hepatic 3D cell cultures

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a trichothecene mycotoxin often contaminating grains used in poultry feed production and causing several adverse effects in farm animals. Therefore, it is important to investigate compounds that can be potential candidates to mitigate these effects, such as baicalin. The effects of DON and baicalin were investigated in chicken-derived 3D hepatic cell cultures, and cell viability, LDH activity, oxidative parameters (NRF-2, 8-OHdG) and inflammatory parameters (IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ) were monitored for 24 and 48 h. Our results suggest that DON reduced cellular metabolic activity but did not prove to be cytotoxic, and baicalin was able to attenuate this adverse effect. The change in extracellular LDH activity suggests that after 48 h the cells have already started to respond to the adverse effects of the toxin and protective mechanisms were induced. Based on the measured oxidative parameters, baicalin showed antioxidant activity, but after longer exposure, our results indicate a prooxidant effect. Baicalin also had an anti-inflammatory effect based on the amount of IL-6 and IL-8, while DON exerted a dose-and time-dependent pleiotropic activity. These results suggest that DON may have an impact on cellular inflammation and oxidative homeostasis, and that baicalin could be able to alleviate these adverse effects.

Chicken surfactant protein A1 activates macrophages phagocytosis and attenuates LPS-induced inflammatory response through the TLR4-mediated NF-кB pathway

Chicken surfactant protein A1 (cSP-A1) is a soluble C-type lectin found primarily in chicken lungs. Its function and other potential bioactivities are unclear. This study aimed to express, purify, and identify recombinant cSP-A1 (RcSP-A1), investigate its effects on chicken macrophage HD11 cells, and evaluate its ability to regulate the LPS-induced inflammatory response. The results showed that RcSP-A1 was produced in HEK 293F cells and could be purified using a Ni2+ affinity column. The RcSP-A1 purified concentration was 7.5 µg/mL. Functional examinations showed that RcSP-A1 could aggregate all tested bacterial strains and led to a macrophage phagocytosis rate significantly higher than in the control (p < 0.01). Subsequently, HD11 cells, preincubated with various RcSP-A1 concentrations (12.5, 25, and 50 μg/mL) and 5 mM CaCl2 for 2 h, were stimulated by LPS (1 μg/mL) for 24 h. The results showed that RcSP-A1 significantly attenuated the stimulating effects of LPS on the transcription and protein expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) and inhibited nitric oxide production. Mechanism studies demonstrated that RcSP-A1 exerted an anti-inflammatory effect on LPS-stimulated cells by down-regulating the expression of TLR4, MyD88, and p65, up-regulating the expression of IкB-α, and inhibiting the activation of the NF-кB signaling pathway. These findings suggested that RcSP-A1 promoted bacterial aggregation and phagocytosis and inhibited the LPS-induced inflammatory response in HD11 cells through the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, displaying an important role in innate immune defense.

Alleviating doxorubicin-induced reproductive toxicity: protective and androgenic effects of drone larvae on sperm morphology and hormonal balance

Male infertility and compromised sperm quality are common side effects of Doxorubicin (DOX), a widely used chemotherapy drug. Its detrimental impact on male reproductive cells underscores the urgent need for effective protective measures. Lyophilized drone larvae (DL) from apitherapy have emerged as a potential solution due to their reported protective properties. By exploring DL's therapeutic potential, this research seeks to address the pressing need for strategies to protect male reproductive health during cancer treatment. The study aims to evaluate the protective effects of lyophilized DL from apitherapy against DOX-induced testicular damage in adult Sprague-Dawley rats. DOX negatively impacts male reproductive cells, leading to infertility and compromised sperm quality. Investigating DL's protective properties is crucial for understanding its therapeutic potential in mitigating such adverse effects. Forty rats were divided into four groups: control, DOX-treated, DL-treated, and DOX + DL-treated. Histopathological assessments, biochemical analyses (TAS, TOS, CAT, SOD, GPX), inflammatory marker measurements (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), and comet assays for DNA damage were conducted on testicular tissue and blood samples. DOX induced histopathological alterations in the testis and epididymis, which DL mitigated. DL increased TAS levels, counteracted DOX-induced decreases in glutathione peroxidase (GPx), total protein, albumin, and increases in total cholesterol. DL also mitigated the rise in Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) levels caused by DOX, while increasing testosterone levels and lowering Luteinizing Hormone (LH) levels. Inflammatory markers remained unaffected. Tail moment measurements indicated a protective effect against DOX-induced DNA damage in erythrocytes with DL. DL protected sperm morphology, count, and Johnsen's score from DOX-induced reductions, suggesting its potential in mitigating cancer treatment side effects on male reproductive health. The findings suggest that DL, as an apitherapy product, holds significant promise in mitigating DOX's adverse effects on male reproductive systems. However, further investigations into its mechanisms and clinical applications in cancer therapy are warranted, emphasizing the need for continued research to fully understand DL's therapeutic benefits.

TRPV1: A novel target for the therapy of diabetes and diabetic complications

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by abnormally elevated blood glucose levels. Type II diabetes accounts for approximately 90% of all cases. Several drugs are available for hyperglycemia treatment. However, the current therapies for managing high blood glucose do not prevent or reverse the disease progression, which may result in complications and adverse effects, including diabetic neuropathy, retinopathy, and nephropathy. Hence, developing safer and more effective methods for lowering blood glucose levels is imperative. Transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) is a significant member of the transient receptor potential family. It is present in numerous body tissues and organs and performs vital physiological functions.

PURPOSE

This review aimed to develop new targeted TRPV1 hypoglycemic drugs by systematically summarizing the mechanism of action of the TRPV1-based signaling pathway in preventing and treating diabetes and its complications.

METHODS

Literature searches were performed in the PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Medline, and Scopus databases for 10 years from 2013 to 2023. The search terms included "diabetes," "TRPV1," "diabetic complications," and "capsaicin."

RESULTS

TRPV1 is an essential potential target for treating diabetes mellitus and its complications. It reduces hepatic glucose production and food intake and promotes thermogenesis, metabolism, and insulin secretion. Activation of TRPV1 ameliorates diabetic nephropathy, retinopathy, myocardial infarction, vascular endothelial dysfunction, gastroparesis, and bladder dysfunction. Suppression of TRPV1 improves diabetes-related osteoporosis. However, the therapeutic effects of activating or suppressing TRPV1 may vary when treating diabetic neuropathy and periodontitis.

CONCLUSION

This review demonstrates that TRPV1 is a potential therapeutic target for diabetes and its complications. Additionally, it provides a theoretical basis for developing new hypoglycemic drugs that target TRPV1.

The Effect of Pomegranate Peel Extract on the Oxidative and Inflammatory Status in the Spleens of Rats with Metabolic Syndrome

Polyphenols have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and maintain the immune system in balance; therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the effect of polyphenols present in pomegranate peel extract on the spleens of rats with metabolic syndrome. The study objects were adult male Zucker Diabetic Fatty (ZDF-Leprfa/Crl, fa/fa) rats. The rats were divided into a control group (MetS) consisting of rats with metabolic syndrome and four study groups consisting of rats with metabolic syndrome (MetS + 100 mg and MetS + 200 mg) or healthy animals (H + 100 mg and H + 200 mg) receiving polyphenol extract at a dose of 100 mg or 200 mg/kg, respectively. Concentrations of IL-6, NF-κB, NFATc1, Cyt-C, TNFα, MMP-2, ROS/RNS, and MDA were measured; the activities of GPX, SOD, CAT, MMP-2, and MMP-9 were assessed; and the expression of the BAX and BCL-2 genes was evaluated in homogenized spleens. In conclusion, pomegranate extract may lead to an increase in catalase and glutathione peroxidase activity. Additionally, it may have a reducing effect on the ROS/RNS level, leading to a reduction in the activity of SOD in the MetS groups with PPE administration. Moreover, the BCL-2 gene showed lower expression in the MetS + 100 mg group compared to the H + 100 mg group, indicating that the balance between pro- and antiapoptotic factors of the BCL-2 family may be disrupted by the metabolic syndrome promoting the proapoptotic pathway.

Baicalin enhances antioxidant, inflammatory defense, and microbial diversity of yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) infected with Aeromonas hydrophila

Introduction

The aim of this research was to clarify the mechanism through which baicalin exerts its inhibitory effects on Aeromonas hydrophila infection.

Methods

The antibacterial efficacy of baicalin was assessed by determining its minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against A. hydrophila. Various parameters, including the growth curve, cell wall integrity, biofilm formation, AKP content, and morphological alterations of A. hydrophila, were analyzed. In vivo experiments involved the administration of A. hydrophila 4 h postintraperitoneal injection of varying doses of baicalin to induce infection, with subsequent monitoring of mortality rates. After a 3 d period, liver, spleen, and intestinal tissues were harvested to evaluate organ indices, antioxidant and immune parameters, as well as intestinal microbial composition.

Results

The findings indicated that baicalin treatment resulted in the disruption of the cell wall of A. hydrophila, leading to the loss of its normal structural integrity. Furthermore, baicalin significantly inhibited biofilm formation and facilitated the release of intracellular proteins (P < 0.05). In vivo, baicalin enhanced the survival rates of yellow catfish infected with A. hydrophila. Compared to the control group, the liver index of yellow catfish was elevated, while the spleen and intestinal indices were reduced in the baicalin-treated group (P < 0.05). Additionally, baicalin at an appropriate dosage was found to increase levels of SOD, GSH, CAT, ACP, and AKP in yellow catfish (P < 0.05), while simultaneously decreasing MDA accumulation and the mRNA expression of inflammatory markers such as Keap1, IL1, IFN-γ, and TNF-α, (P < 0.05). Moreover, baicalin significantly enhanced the operational taxonomic unit (OTU) count in A. hydrophila-infected yellow catfish (P < 0.05), restoring the abundance of Barnesiellaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Plesiomonas, and UBA1819 (P < 0.05).

Discussion

In summary, baicalin demonstrates the potential to improve the survival rate of yellow catfish subjected to A. hydrophila infection, augment antioxidant and immune responses, mitigate inflammation, and enhance intestinal microbial diversity.

Chicken gasdermins mediate pyroptosis after the cleavage by caspases

Gasdermin (GSDM) proteins are executioners of pyroptosis in many species. Gasdermin proteins can be cleaved at their linker region between the amino domain (NT) and carboxyl domain (CT) by enzymes. The released GSDM-NTs bind cell membrane and form pores, thereby leading to the release of cellular components and lytic cell death. GSDM-mediated pyroptosis is considered to play important role in immune responses. However, little is known about the GSDM proteins and GSDM-mediated pyroptosis in birds. In the current study, genes encoding chicken gasdermin A (chGSDMA) and chGSDME were cloned. The cleavage of chGSDMA and chGSDME by chicken caspase-1 (chCASP1), chCASP3 and chCASP7 and the cleavage sites were determined. The chGSDMA-NT obtained form chCASP1-mediated cleavage and chGSDME-NT obtained from chCASP3/chCASP7-mediated cleavage could bind and damage cell membrane and lead to cell death of HEK293 cells. chGSDMA-NT also strongly localized to and formed puncta in nucleus. Besides, both chGSDMA-NT and chGSDME-NT showed growth inhibition and bactericidal activity to bacteria. In chickens challenged with Pasteurella multocida and Salmonella typhimurium, the expression of chGSDMA and chGSDME was upregulated and the activation of chCASP3 and the cleavage of chGSDME were observed. The work provides essential information for expanding our knowledge on pyroptosis in birds.

Polystyrene microplastics disturb maternal glucose homeostasis and induce adverse pregnancy outcomes

Pregnant women are a special group that is sensitive to adverse external stimuli, causing metabolic abnormalities and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Microplastics (MPs), an environmental pollutant widely used in various fields, can induce a variety of toxic responses in mammals. Recent studies verified an association between MPs and metabolic disorders. Our research built a gestational mouse model in which polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) of 1 μm size were consumed at concentrations of 0.1, 1, and 10 mg/L during pregnancy. Results indicated that PS-MPs induced placental malfunction and fetal growth retardation. Significant glucose disorders, decreased liver function, hepatic inflammation, and oxidative stress were also observed after PS-MPs exposure. The hepatic SIRT1/IRS1/PI3K pathway was inhibited in the 10 mg/L PS-MPs exposure group. Our study found that PS-MPs activated inflammatory response and oxidative stress by increasing hepatic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that inhibited the hepatic SIRT1/IRS1/PI3K pathway, ultimately leading to insulin resistance, glucose metabolism disorders, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. This study provides a basis for preventing environment-related gestational diabetes and concomitant adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Baicalin reduces inflammation to inhibit lung cancer via targeting SOCS1/NF-κB/STAT3 axis

Inflammation affects several aspects of lung cancer progression including cell proliferation, metastasis, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and drug resistance. Baicalin, an active component of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, exhibits anticancer activity in various cancers. However, the effects of baicalin on lung cancer and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. This study is to explore the effect and mechanism of baicalin on lung cancer cell A549 and urethane-induced mouse lung cancer. A cell viability assay, colony formation assay, wound healing assay, acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) staining assay, Western blot assay, urethane-induced mouse lung cancer model, hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and ELISA assay were performed to investigate the effects of baicalin on lung cancer in vitro and in vivo. Network pharmacology analysis, molecular docking, gene silencing assays, and LPS-induced inflammation model were utilized to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying the effect of baicalin on lung cancer. Baicalin showed significant anti-proliferative, anti-migratory, anti-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic effects in vitro; it also inhibited the progression of urethane-induced mouse lung cancer in vivo. Mechanistically, suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) was the key determinant for baicalin-induced inhibition of lung cancer. Baicalin increased SOCS1 expression to inactivate the NF-κB/STAT3 pathway to inhibit lung cancer in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, baicalin reduces inflammation to inhibit lung cancer via targeting SOCS1/NF-κB/STAT3 axis, providing a prospective compound and novel target for lung cancer treatment.

Immuno-modulatory role of baicalin in atherosclerosis prevention and treatment: current scenario and future directions

Atherosclerosis (AS) is recognized as a chronic inflammatory condition characterized by the accumulation of lipids and inflammatory cells within the damaged walls of arterial vessels. It is a significant independent risk factor for ischemic cardiovascular disease, ischemic stroke, and peripheral arterial disease. Despite the availability of current treatments such as statins, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors, and lifestyle modifications for prevention, AS remains a leading cause of morbidity and economic burden worldwide. Thus, there is a pressing need for the development of new supplementary and alternative therapies or medications. Huangqin (Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. [SBG]), a traditional Chinese medicine, exerts a significant immunomodulatory effect in AS prevention and treatment, with baicalin being identified as one of the primary active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine. Baicalin offers a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, including the regulation of immune balance, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and improvement of lipid metabolism dysregulation. Consequently, it exerts beneficial effects in both AS onset and progression. This review provides an overview of the immunomodulatory properties and mechanisms by which baicalin aids in AS prevention and treatment, highlighting its potential as a clinical translational therapy.

Probiotic cocktails accelerate baicalin metabolism in the ileum to modulate intestinal health in broiler chickens

BACKGROUND

Baicalin and probiotic cocktails are promising feed additives with broad application prospects. While probiotic cocktails are known to enhance intestinal health, the potential synergistic impact of combining baicalin with probiotic cocktails on the gut health of broiler chickens remains largely unexplored. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the influence of the combined administration of baicalin and probiotic cocktails on the composition of ileal and cecal microbiota in broiler chickens to elucidate the underlying mechanisms responsible for the health-promoting effects.

RESULTS

A total of 320 1-day-old male Arbor Acres broilers were divided into 4 groups, each with 8 replicates of 10 chicks per replicate. Over a period of 42 d, the birds were fed a basal diet or the same diet supplemented with 37.5 g/t baicalin (BC), 1,000 g/t probiotic cocktails (PC), or a combination of both BC (37.5 g/t) and PC (1,000 g/t). The results demonstrated that BC + PC exhibited positive synergistic effects, enhancing intestinal morphology, immune function, and barrier function. This was evidenced by increased VH/CD ratio, sIgA levels, and upregulated expression of occludin and claudin-1 (P < 0.05). 16S rRNA analysis indicated that PC potentiated the effects of BC, particularly in the ileum, where BC + PC significantly increased the α-diversity of the ileal microbiota, altered its β-diversity, and increased the relative abundance of Flavonifractor (P < 0.05), a flavonoid-metabolizing bacterium. Furthermore, Flavonifractor positively correlated with chicken ileum crypt depth (P < 0.05). While BC + PC had a limited effect on cecal microbiota structure, the PC group had a very similar microbial composition to BC + PC, suggesting that the effect of PC at the distal end of the gut overshadowed those of BC.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated the synergistic enhancement of gut health regulation in broiler chickens by combining baicalin and probiotic cocktails. Probiotic cocktails enhanced the effects of baicalin and accelerated its metabolism in the ileum, thereby influencing the ileal microbiota structure. This study elucidates the interaction mechanism between probiotic cocktails and plant extract additives within the host microbiota. These findings provide compelling evidence for the future development of feed additive combinations.

Baicalin Protects Broilers against Avian Coronavirus Infection via Regulating Respiratory Tract Microbiota and Amino Acid Metabolism

An increasing amount of evidence indicates that Baicalin (Bai, a natural glycosyloxyflavone compound) exhibits an antiviral effect against avian viruses. However, it remains unclear if the antiviral effect of Bai against infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is exerted indirectly by modulating respiratory tract microbiota and/or their metabolites. In this study, we investigated the protection efficacy of Bai in protecting cell cultures and broilers from IBV infection and assessed modulation of respiratory tract microbiota and metabolites during infection. Bai was administered orally to broilers by being mixed in with drinking water for seven days. Ultimately, broilers were challenged with live IBV. The results showed that Bai treatment reduced respiratory tract symptoms, improved weight gain, slowed histopathological damage, reduced virus loads and decreased pro-inflammation cytokines production. Western blot analysis demonstrated that Bai treatment significantly inhibited Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7), myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) expression both in cell culture and cells of the trachea. Bai treatment reversed respiratory tract microbiota dysbiosis, as shown by 16S rDNA sequencing in the group of broilers inoculated with IBV. Indeed, we observed a decrease in Proteobacteria abundance and an increase in Firmicutes abundance. Metabolomics results suggest that the pentose phosphate pathway, amino acid and nicotinamide metabolism are linked to the protection conferred by Bai against IBV infection. In conclusion, these results indicated that further assessment of anti-IBV strategies based on Bai would likely result in the development of antiviral molecule(s) which can be administered by being mixed with feed or water.

Recent Advances in Biologically Active Ingredients from Natural Drugs for Sepsis Treatment

Sepsis refers to the dysregulated host response to infection; its incidence and mortality rates are high. It is a worldwide medical problem but there is no specific drug for it. In recent years, clinical and experimental studies have found that many monomer components of traditional Chinese medicine have certain effects on the treatment of sepsis. This paper reviews the advances in research on the active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine involved in the treatment of sepsis in recent years according to their chemical structure; it could provide ideas and references for further research and development in Chinese materia medica for the treatment of sepsis.

D-Galactosamine Causes Liver Injury Synergistically with Lipopolysaccharide but not Zymosan in Chicks

The pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and zymosan, derived from gram-negative bacteria and fungi, respectively, activate the innate immune system and cause injury to multiple organs, including the liver and intestine, in mammals. In rodents, PAMP-induced injury has been demonstrated to be potentiated by co-administration of D-galactosamine (D-GalN) in rodents. However, whether PAMPs and D-GalN collectively cause organ injury in birds remains unclear. The present study aimed to measure the effects of intraperitoneal injection of D-GalN with LPS or zymosan on parameters related to hepatic injury in chicks (Gallus gallus). Plasma aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities were not affected by intraperitoneal injection of D-GalN alone. Although these activities were not affected by LPS injection alone, they were increased by combining LPS with D-GalN. In contrast, plasma AST, ALT, and LDH activities were not affected by zymosan, both alone and with D-GalN. The expression of mRNAs for interleukin-6 (IL-6) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the liver was significantly increased by the combination of LPS and D-GalN. In contrast, combining zymosan with D-GalN significantly increased iNOS mRNA expression, irrespective of hepatic injury. These results suggest that IL-6 may be the cause and/or result of hepatic injury in chicks. Additionally, chicks are tolerant to the hepatic effects of D-GalN, LPS, or zymosan alone.

Baicalin inhibits apoptosis and enhances chondrocyte proliferation in thiram-induced tibial dyschondroplasia in chickens by regulating Bcl-2/Caspase-9 and Sox-9/Collagen-II expressions

Avian tibial dyschondroplasia (TD) is a skeletal disease affecting fast growing chickens, resulting in non-mineralized avascular cartilage. This metabolic disorder is characterized by lameness and reduced growth performance causing economic losses. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effects of baicalin against TD caused by thiram exposure. A total of two hundred and forty (n = 240) one day-old broiler chickens were uniformly and randomly allocated into three different groups (n = 80) viz. control, TD, and baicalin groups. All chickens received standard feed, however, to induce TD, the TD and baicalin groups received thiram (tetramethylthiuram disulfide) at a rate of 50 mg/kg feed from days 4-7. The thiram induction in TD and baicalin groups resulted in lameness, high mortality, and enlarged growth-plate, poor production performance, reduction in ALP, GSH-Px, SOD, and T-AOC levels, and increased AST and ALT, and MDA levels. Furthermore, histopathological results showed less vascularization, and mRNA and protein expression levels of Sox-9, Col-II, and Bcl-2 showed significant downward trend, while caspase-9 displayed significant up-regulation in TD-affected chickens. After the TD induction, the baicalin group was orally administered with baicalin at a rate of 200 mg/kg from days 8-18. Baicalin administration increased the vascularization, and chondrocytes with intact nuclei, alleviated lameness, decreased GP size, increased productive capacity, and restored the liver antioxidant enzymes and serum biochemical levels. Furthermore, baicalin significantly up-regulated the gene and protein expressions of Sox-9, Col-II, and Bcl-2, and significantly down-regulated the expression of caspase-9 (p < 0.05). Therefore, the obtained results suggest that baicalin could be a possible choice in thiram toxicity alleviation by regulating apoptosis and chondrocyte proliferation in thiram-induced tibial dyschondroplasia.

The Influence of Heat Stress on Chicken Immune System and Mitigation of Negative Impacts by Baicalin and Baicalein

Heat stress (HS) in poultry husbandry is an important stressor and with increasing global temperatures its importance will increase. The negative effects of stress on the quality and quantity of poultry production are described in a range of research studies. However, a lack of attention is devoted to the impacts of HS on individual chicken immune cells and whole lymphoid tissue in birds. Oxidative stress and increased inflammation are accompanying processes of HS, but with deleterious effects on the whole organism. They play a key role in the inflammation and oxidative stress of the chicken immune system. There are a range of strategies that can help mitigate the adverse effects of HS in poultry. Phytochemicals are well studied and some of them report promising results to mitigate oxidative stress and inflammation, a major consequence of HS. Current studies revealed that mitigating these two main impacts of HS will be a key factor in solving the problem of increasing temperatures in poultry production. Improved function of the chicken immune system is another benefit of using phytochemicals in poultry due to the importance of poultry health management in today's post pandemic world. Based on the current literature, baicalin and baicalein have proven to have strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects in mammalian and avian models. Taken together, this review is dedicated to collecting the literature about the known effects of HS on chicken immune cells and lymphoid tissue. The second part of the review is dedicated to the potential use of baicalin and baicalein in poultry to mitigate the negative impacts of HS on poultry production.

The Pharmacological Efficacy of Baicalin in Inflammatory Diseases

Baicalin is one of the most abundant flavonoids found in the dried roots of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (SBG) belonging to the genus Scutellaria. While baicalin is demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects, its low hydrophilicity and lipophilicity limit the bioavailability and pharmacological functions. Therefore, an in-depth study of baicalin's bioavailability and pharmacokinetics contributes to laying the theoretical foundation for applied research in disease treatment. In this view, the physicochemical properties and anti-inflammatory activity of baicalin are summarized in terms of bioavailability, drug interaction, and inflammatory conditions.

Activation of Kupffer cells in NAFLD and NASH: mechanisms and therapeutic interventions

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) are emerging as the leading causes of liver disease worldwide. These conditions can lead to cirrhosis, liver cancer, liver failure, and other related ailments. At present, liver transplantation remains the sole treatment option for end-stage NASH, leading to a rapidly growing socioeconomic burden. Kupffer cells (KCs) are a dominant population of macrophages that reside in the liver, playing a crucial role in innate immunity. Their primary function includes phagocytosing exogenous substances, presenting antigens, and triggering immune responses. Moreover, they interact with other liver cells during the pathogenesis of NAFLD, and this crosstalk may either delay or exacerbate disease progression. Stimulation by endogenous signals triggers the activation of KCs, resulting in the expression of various inflammatory factors and chemokines, such as NLRP3, TNF-α, IL-1B, and IL-6, and contributing to the inflammatory cascade. In the past 5 years, significant advances have been made in understanding the biological properties and immune functions of KCs in NAFLD, including their interactions with tissue molecules, underlying molecular mechanisms, signaling pathways, and relevant therapeutic interventions. Having a comprehensive understanding of these mechanisms and characteristics can have enormous potential in guiding future strategies for the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.

Lipopolysaccharide exacerbates to the migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of esophageal cancer cells by TLR4/NF-κB axis

Previous studies have shown the role of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in promoting tumor progression. Our previous study found that the community richness of LPS-producing bacteria was significantly increased in the fresh stool samples of esophageal cancer (EC) patients, but the relative LPS levels and underlying mechanism in EC progression remain unknown. In this study, an case-control study found that the content of LPS was higher in serum of EC patients. Functional experiments of CCK8 assay and transwell assay showed that LPS contributed to the proliferation, migration, invasion of EC109 cells. Meanwhile, LPS induced EC109 to secrete IL-6 and TGF-β1. Western blot analysis revealed the level of TLR4 and NF-κB increased significantly after LPS treatment. Epithelial marker E-cadherin was significantly down-regulated and interstitial marker N-cadherin and Vimentin were up-regulated after LPS treatment. However, TAK242 (TLR4 inhibitor) or PDTC (NF-κB inhibitor) could eliminate the inflammatory and EMT-promoting effects of LPS. In total, our results suggested that LPS exacerbated to the migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of EC109 cells by TLR4/NF-κB axis. High level LPS may have a critical effect on the occurrence and development of EC.

[Yifei Jianpi recipe improves cigarette smoke-induced inflammatory injury and mucus hypersecretion in human bronchial epithelial cells by inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway]

OBJECTIVE

To explore the mechanism of Yifei Jianpi recipe for improving cigarette smoke- induced inflammatory injury and mucus hypersecretion in cultured human bronchial epithelial cells.

METHODS

Serum samples were collected from 40 SD rats treated with Yifei Jianpi recipe (n=20) or normal saline (n=20) by gavage. Cultured human bronchial epithelial 16HBE cells were stimulated with an aqueous cigarette smoke extract (CSE), followed by treatment with the collected serum at different dilutions. The optimal concentration and treatment time of CSE and the medicated serum for cell treatment were determined with CCK-8 assay. The expressions of TLR4, NF-κB, MUC5AC, MUC7, and muc8 at both the mRNA and protein levels in the treated cells were examined with RT- qPCR and Western blotting, and the effects of TLR4 gene silencing and overexpression on their expressions were assessed. The expressions of TNF-α, IL-1 β, IL-6 and IL-8 in the cells were detected using ELISA.

RESULTS

At the optimal concentration of 20%, treatment with the medicated serum for 24 h significantly lowered the mRNA and protein expressions of TLR4, NF- κB, MUC5AC, MUC7, and MUC8 in CSE- exposed 16HBE cells, and these effects were further enhanced by TLR4 silencing in the cells. In 16HBE cells with TLR4 overexpression, the expressions of TLR4, NF-κB, MUC5AC, MUC7, and MUC8 were significantly increased after CSE exposure and were lowered following treatment with the medicated serum (P < 0.05). The medicated serum also significantly lowered the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8 in CSE-exposed 16HBE cells (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

In the 16HBE cell model of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), treatment with Yifei Jianpi recipe-medicated serum improves inflammation and mucus hypersecretion possibly by reducing MUC secretion and inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

In Vitro Antiviral Effect and Potential Neuroprotection of Salvadora persica L. Stem Bark Extract against Lipopolysaccharides-Induced Neuroinflammation in Mice: LC-ESI-MS/MS Analysis of the Methanol Extract

Neuroinflammation is a serious immunomodulatory complex disorder that causes neurological and somatic ailments. The treatment of brain inflammation with new drugs derived from natural sources is a significant therapeutic goal. Utilizing LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis, the active constituents of Salvadora persica extract (SPE) were identified tentatively as exerting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in natural medicine. Herein, we determined the antiviral potential of SPE against herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) using the plaque assay. HSV-2 is a neurotropic virus that can cause neurological diseases. SPE exhibited promising antiviral potential with a half-maximal cytotoxic concentration (CC50) of 185.960 ± 0.1 µg/mL and a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 8.946 ± 0.02 µg/mL. The in vivo study of the SPE impact against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation was performed using 42 mice divided into seven groups. All groups were administered LPS (0.25 mg/kg) intraperitoneally, except for the normal and SPE groups 1 and 2. Groups 5, 6, and 7 received 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg SPE. It was revealed that SPE inhibited acetylcholinesterase in the brain. It increased superoxide dismutase and catalase while decreasing malondialdehyde, which explains its antioxidative stress activity. SPE downregulated the gene expression of the inducible nitric oxide synthase, as well as the apoptotic markers (caspase-3 and c-Jun). In addition, it decreased the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha). Mice administered SPE (300 mg/kg) with LPS exhibited normal neurons in the cerebral cortices, hippocampus pyramidal layer, and cerebellum, as determined by the histopathological analysis. Therefore, using S. persica to prevent and treat neurodegeneration could be a promising new therapeutic strategy to be explored.

Capsanthin supplementation modulates the immune response in broiler chickens under Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide challenge

Due to the legislation of antibiotic usage, natural substances are required for application in the poultry industry. Because of their potential anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, carotenoids are great sources. Capsanthin, a major carotenoid giving the red color of pepper, is a promising feed additive, as it can reduce chronic inflammation. This study was conducted to determine the effects of capsanthin supplementation at 80 mg kg- 1 in feed on the immune response of broiler chickens under Escherichia coli O55:B5 lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Ross 308 male broilers were divided into treatments: control (basal diet) and feed-supplemented groups. At 42 d of age, chickens were weighed and then challenged with 1 mg LPS per kilogram of body weight intraperitoneally. Four hours after injection, birds were euthanized, and then spleen and blood samples were collected. Capsanthin supplement at 80 mg kg- 1 did not change the growth parameters and the relative spleen weight. LPS immunization resulted in higher splenic interleukin-1β (IL-1β ), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interferon-γ (IFN-γ ) mRNA expressions. Capsanthin addition reached lower gene expression levels of IL-6 and IFN-γ compared to the LPS-injected birds. At plasma level, dietary capsanthin resulted in lower IL-1β and IL-6 levels. These results may indicate the potential anti-inflammatory effect of capsanthin supplementation in broiler chickens.

Bacterial lipopolysaccharide with different administration routes affects intestinal mucosal morphological, immunological, and microbial barrier functions in goslings

The current study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different administration routes of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on intestinal mucosal morphological, immunological, and microbial barrier functions in goslings. First, we compared intestinal villi morphology of goslings under intraperitoneal or oral LPS treatment through hematoxylin and eosin staining. Then, we determined the signatures of the microbiome in the ileum mucosa of goslings subjected to oral LPS treatment at 0, 2, 4, and 8 mg/kg BW by 16S sequencing, and analyzed the changes in intestinal barrier functions and permeability, levels of LPS in the ileum mucosa, plasma, and liver tissue, and the induced inflammatory response of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). As a result, intraperitoneal LPS injection resulted in a thicker intestinal wall in the ileum within a short time, whereas villus height was less affected; in contrast, oral LPS treatment exerted a stronger influence on villus height but not on intestinal wall thickness. We also found that oral LPS treatment affected the structure of the intestinal microbiome, reflected by changes in the clustering of intestinal microbiota. The average abundance of Muribaculaceae showed an increasing trend with increasing LPS levels, and that of the genus Bacteroides decreased, compared with the control group. In addition, oral LPS treatment with 8 mg/kg BW affected the intestinal epithelial morphology, damage the mucosal immune barrier, downregulated the expression of tight junction proteins, increased circulating D-lactate levels, and stimulated the secretion of various inflammatory mediators and activation of the TLR4/MyD88/NFκB pathway. This study presented the injuries of intestinal mucosal barrier function induced by LPS challenges in goslings and provided a scientific model for searching the novel strategies to attenuate the immunological stress and gut injury caused by LPS.

Effects of dietary Galla Chinensis tannin supplementation on immune function and liver health in broiler chickens challenged with lipopolysaccharide

Herein, Galla Chinensis tannin (GCT) was examined for its influence on preventing lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver damage in broiler chickens. Approximately 486 one-day-old healthy broilers were randomly allocated to 3 treatment groups (control, LPS, and LPS + GCT). The control and LPS groups were fed a basal diet and the LPS+GCT group was fed the basal diet supplemented with 300 mg/kg GCT. LPS was intraperitoneally injected (1 mg/kg body weight BW) in broilers in the LPS and LPS+GCT groups at 17, 19, and 21 days of age. The results manifested that dietary GCT addition attenuated LPS-induced deleterious effects on serum parameters and significantly increased serum immunoglobulin and complement C3 concentrations relative to the control and LPS groups. Dietary supplementation of GCT inhibited LPS-induced increase in broiler hepatic inflammatory cytokines, caspases activities, and TLR4/NF-κB pathway-related gene mRNA expression. Therefore, 300 mg/kg GCT addition to the diet improved the immune function of broilers and inhibit liver inflammation by blocking the TLR4/NF-κB pathway. Our findings provide support for the application of GCT in poultry production.

Acute respiratory distress syndrome enhances tumor metastasis into lungs: Role of BRD4 in the tumor microenvironment

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is associated with severe lung inflammation, edema, hypoxia, and high vascular permeability. The COVID-19-associated pandemic ARDS caused by SARS-CoV-2 has created dire global conditions and has been highly contagious. Chronic inflammatory disease enhances cancer cell proliferation, progression, and invasion. We investigated how acute lung inflammation activates the tumor microenvironment and enhances lung metastasis in LPS induced in vitro and in vivo models. Respiratory illness is mainly caused by cytokine storm, which further influences oxidative and nitrosative stress. The LPS-induced inflammatory cytokines made the conditions suitable for the tumor microenvironment in the lungs. In the present study, we observed that LPS induced the cytokine storm and promoted lung inflammation via BRD4, which further caused the nuclear translocation of p65 NF-κB and STAT3. The transcriptional activation additionally triggers the tumor microenvironment and lung metastasis. Thus, BRD4-regulated p65 and STAT3 transcriptional activity in ARDS enhances lung tumor metastasis. Moreover, LPS-induced ARDS might promote the tumor microenvironment and increase cancer metastasis into the lungs. Collectively, BRD4 plays a vital role in inflammation-mediated tumor metastasis and is found to be a diagnostic and molecular target in inflammation-associated cancers.

Hepatoprotective Effect of Kaempferol: A Review of the Dietary Sources, Bioavailability, Mechanisms of Action, and Safety

The liver is the body's most critical organ that performs vital functions. Hepatic disorders can affect the physiological and biochemical functions of the body. Hepatic disorder is a condition that describes the damage to cells, tissues, structures, and functions of the liver, which can cause fibrosis and ultimately result in cirrhosis. These diseases include hepatitis, ALD, NAFLD, liver fibrosis, liver cirrhosis, hepatic failure, and HCC. Hepatic diseases are caused by cell membrane rupture, immune response, altered drug metabolism, accumulation of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, and cell death. Despite the breakthrough in modern medicine, there is no drug that is effective in stimulating the liver function, offering complete protection, and aiding liver cell regeneration. Furthermore, some drugs can create adverse side effects, and natural medicines are carefully selected as new therapeutic strategies for managing liver disease. Kaempferol is a polyphenol contained in many vegetables, fruits, and herbal remedies. We use it to manage various diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancers. Kaempferol is a potent antioxidant and has anti-inflammatory effects, which therefore possesses hepatoprotective properties. The previous research has studied the hepatoprotective effect of kaempferol in various hepatotoxicity protocols, including acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity, ALD, NAFLD, CCl₄, HCC, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute liver injury. Therefore, this report aims to provide a recent brief overview of the literature concerning the hepatoprotective effect of kaempferol and its possible molecular mechanism of action. It also provides the most recent literature on kaempferol's chemical structure, natural source, bioavailability, and safety.

Oxidized corn oil changes the liver lipid metabolism of broilers by upregulating peroxisome proliferators activate receptor-α

The objective of the following study was to investigate the effects of naturally oxidized corn oil on the antioxidant capacity and lipid metabolism of broilers. A total of 450, 1-day-old Arbor Acres male broilers were randomly divided into 5 treatments with 6 replicate cages and 15 birds/cage. The dietary treatment array consisted of ratios of naturally oxidized corn oil to non-oxidized corn oil from 0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25, and 100:0, respectively. Serum, liver, and abdominal fat samples were taken at 42 d. The results showed that the liver organ index, liver catalase (CAT) activity, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and the serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) content had significant quadratic relationships with the ratio of naturally oxidized corn oil (P < 0.05). Inflammatory infiltrating cells appeared in the liver of the 50% and 75% oxidized corn oil group. The percentage of abdominal fat, and serum free fatty acids (FFA) content increased linearly with the increased proportion of oxidized corn oil (P < 0.05). The mRNA expression of NADH quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO-1), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4), peroxisome proliferators activate receptor-α (PPARα), carnitine acyltransferase (CPT1), and acyl-coenzyme oxidase (ACO) of the liver increased linearly while oxidized corn oil increased in the diet (P < 0.05). Diets containing 100% oxidized corn oil significantly changed the mRNA expression of liver Caveolin compared with other treatment groups (P < 0.05). Taken together, this study demonstrated that naturally oxidized corn oil could change liver lipid metabolism and accelerate lipid deposition of broilers by upregulating PPARα.

Baicalin prevents fibrosis of human trabecular meshwork cells via inhibiting the MyD88/NF-κB pathway

Trabecular meshwork fibrosis contributes to increased aqueous humor outflow resistance, leading to elevated intraocular pressure in primary open-angle glaucoma. Baicalin, an extract from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, has shown anti-fibrotic effects in liver, lung, and kidney diseases. However, its anti-fibrotic effect on human trabecular meshwork (HTM) cells has not yet been clarified. In this study, we investigated its effects on TGF-β2-induced HTM fibrosis as well as the underlying regulatory mechanisms. HTM cells were pretreated with baicalin, TAK-242, and baicalin + TAK-242 for 2 h followed by treatment with or without 5 ng/mL TGF-β2 for 48 h. Cell viability was assayed using cell counting Kit-8 and fibronectin (FN), laminin (LN), and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) were assessed by western blotting, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and immunocytochemistry. Further, the protein and gene expression levels of the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway (TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB p65) were also examined by western blotting and RT-PCR, respectively. Thus, we observed that high doses of baicalin (40 μM) decreased (p < 0.1) HTM cell viability and 20 μM baicalin pretreatment was identified as the optimum pretreatment concentration. TGF-β2 upregulated (p < 0.5) the expression of FN, LN, α-SMA, MyD88, NF-κB p65 proteins and mRNA in HTM cells, and these effects were inhibited by baicalin and TAK-242 (p < 0.5). However, western blot analysis showed that baicalin did not repress TLR4 expression in HTM cells. Therefore, our findings suggested that baicalin could prevent TGF-β2-induced extracellular matrix (FN, LN) deposition and α-SMA expression in HTM cells by inhibiting the MyD88/NF-κB pathway.

Baicalin Mitigates the Neuroinflammation through the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB and MAPK Pathways in LPS-Stimulated BV-2 Microglia

Baicalin (BA) is a major flavone from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi and has showed significant curative effects in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. In the present study, we investigated the effects of BA on antineuroinflammation and related signaling cascade in lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced BV-2 microglial model. The results showed that BA significantly attenuated inflammatory mediators (NO, iNOS, IL-1β, COX-2, and PGE2) and suppressed the expression of miR-155. More crucially, BA could regulate the expression of related proteins in Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation protein 88 (MyD88)/nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway and suppress the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family. In addition, molecular docking analysis indicated that BA binds to the amino acids Lie 63 and Tyr 65 of TLR4 by π-σ and π-π T-shaped interaction. Thus, BA suppressed the LPS-stimulated neuroinflammation in BV-2 microglia by blocking the TLR4-mediated signal transduction through TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB and MAPK pathways and inhibiting the miR-155 expression. Our findings demonstrated that BA could be a valuable therapeutic for the treatment of neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases.

Antrodia cinnamomea polysaccharide improves liver antioxidant, anti-inflammatory capacity, and cecal flora structure of slow-growing broiler breeds challenged with lipopolysaccharide

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) induces liver inflammatory response by activating the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Antrodia cinnamomea polysaccharide (ACP) is a medicinal mushroom that can protect from intoxication, liver injury, and inflammation. Nevertheless, the effect of ACP on the liver antioxidant, anti-inflammatory capacity and cecal flora structure of LPS-challenged broilers remains unclear. The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effects of ACP on the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory capacities of the liver, and cecal microbiota in slow-growing broilers stimulated by LPS. A total of 750 slow-growing broilers (9-day-old) were assigned to five treatments with 6 replicates of 25 chicks per replicate: a control diet, the chicks were fed a control diet and challenged with LPS. Dietary treatments 3 to 5 were the control diet supplemented with 100, 200, 400 mg/kg ACP challenged with LPS, respectively. The groups of 100 mg/kg ACP supplementation significantly increased liver index, pancreas index, and bursa of Fabricius index (P < 0.05). The GSH-Px content of LPS-challenged broilers was lower than that of the control group (P < 0.001), but the content of MDA increased (P < 0.001). Feeding with 100 mg/kg ACP resulted in increased the activity of T-AOC, GSH-Px, and T-SOD, and decreased MDA content (P < 0.05). The activity of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 of the LPS group increased, but these indicators were decreased with supplemental 100 mg/kg ACP (P < 0.05). Dietary application of ACP up to 100 mg/kg down-regulated (P < 0.05) the expression of TLR4/NF-κB pathway in the liver induced by LPS. The results of 16S rRNA demonstrated that feeding with 100 mg/kg ACP can change the diversity and composition of the gut microbiota, and restrained the decline of beneficial cecal microbiota (typically Lactobacillus, Faecalibacterium, and Christensenellaceae R-7 group) in the challenged LPS group (P < 0.05). Conclusively, feeding a diet with 100 mg/kg ACP may have beneficial effects on liver damage and the bacterial microbiota diversity and composition in the ceca of LPS-stressed slow-growing broiler breeds, probably because of its combined favorable effects on antioxidants and cytokines contents, and restoration the decline of beneficial cecal microbiota.

Demystifying phytoconstituent-derived nanomedicines in their immunoregulatory and therapeutic roles in inflammatory diseases

In the past decades, phytoconstituents have appeared as critical mediators for immune regulations among various diseases, both in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. These bioactive molecules, showing a broad range of biological functions, would hold tremendous promise for developing new therapeutics. The discovery of phytoconstituents' capability of functionally regulating immune cells and associating cytokines, suppressing systemic inflammation, and remodeling immunity have rapidly promoted the idea of their employment as anti-inflammatory agents. In this review, we discuss various roles of phyto-derived medicines in the field of inflammatory diseases, including chronic inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and acute inflammatory disease such as COVID-19. Nevertheless, traditional phyto-derived medicines often concurred with their clinical administration limitations, such as their lack of cell specificity, inefficient cytoplasmic delivery, and rapid clearance by the immune system. As alternatives, phyto-derived nano-approaches may provide significant benefits. Both unmodified and engineered nanocarriers present the potential to serve as phytoconstituent delivery systems to improve therapeutic physio-chemical properties and pharmacokinetic profiles. Thus, the development of phytoconstituents' nano-delivery designs, their new and perspective approaches for therapeutical applications are elaborated herein.

Seaweed-Derived Polysaccharides Attenuate Heat Stress-Induced Splenic Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Response via Regulating Nrf2 and NF-κB Signaling Pathways

With global warming, heat stress (HS) has become a worldwide concern in both humans and animals. The ameliorative effect of seaweed (Enteromorpha prolifera) derived polysaccharides (SDP) on HS-induced oxidative stress and the inflammatory response of an immune organ (spleen) was evaluated using an animal model (Gallus gallus domesticus). In total, 144 animals were used in this 4-week trial and randomly assigned to the following three groups: thermoneutral zone, HS, and HS group supplemented with 1000 mg/kg SDP. Dietary SDP improved the antioxidant capacity and reduced the malondialdehyde (MDA) of the spleen when exposed to HS, regulated via enhancing nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) signaling. Furthermore, the inclusion of SDP reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and alleviated HS-induced splenic inflammatory response by suppressing the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 signaling. These findings suggest that the SDP from E. prolifera can be used as a functional food and/or feed supplement to attenuate HS-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses of the immune organs. Moreover, the results could contribute to the development of high-value marine products from seaweed for potential use in humans and animals, owing to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

The Effects of Bacterial Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on Turkey Poults: Assessment of Biochemical Parameters and Histopathological Changes

A lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a large molecule and an outer membrane glycolipid found in Gram-negative bacteria, including Escherichia coli (E. coli). These molecules (LPS) target acute inflammatory responses and significant physiological changes. Importantly, E. coli is considered one of the most important bacterial causes of avian colibacillosis that affect domestic turkey industry. However, little information is available about the potential influence of LPS on the biochemical parameters and histopathological changes in turkey poults. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the influence of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecules on serum biomarkers and histopathological changes in turkey poults. The birds were randomly divided into five groups, as follows: group I did not receive any inoculation; group II was inoculated with sterile saline; and groups III, IV, and V were inoculated intraperitoneally with LPS at 0.01, 0.1, and 1 mg/kg of body weight (BW), respectively. The biochemical parameters and the histopathology of different organs were examined in all birds one day post-inoculation. Our results revealed hypolipidemia, hypoglycemia, a significant decrease in uric acid, and a significant increase in serum activities of aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and creatine kinase (CK), as well as cardiac troponin T concentrations in treated groups. Moreover, there was a significant increase in α1-, β-, and γ-globulin concentrations and a decrease in albumin and α2-globulin concentrations in group V. However, a significant increase in α2- and γ-globulin levels and a decrease in albumin levels were detected in groups III and IV. In addition, significant decreases in the albumin/globulin ratio were recorded in all LPS-treated groups. Hepatocellular and cardiac muscle necrosis, slight renal changes, and massive pulmonary inflammatory reactions were recorded. This study provides valuable information about serum biomarkers, protein fractions, and histopathological changes in turkey poults treated with LPS for further investigations of pathophysiological mechanisms in avian medicine along with biomedical research.

Standardized fraction of Xylocarpus moluccensis inhibits inflammation by modulating MAPK-NFκB and ROS-HIF1α-PKM2 activation

OBJECTIVE

Present study investigates the effect of Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lamk.) M. Roem fruit fraction (CDR) on endotoxemia and explores the underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of CDR (1-100 µg/ml) was assessed on cytokines, MAPKs, ROS, and metabolic reprogramming in LPS-induced cells (J774.2 and THP-1) by the conventional methodology of ELISA, PCR, and Western blotting. The effect of CDR (1-50 mg/kg, p.o.) was also evaluated in the mice model of endotoxemia and sepsis.

RESULTS

CDR prevents LPS-induced cytokine production from murine and human whole blood and cell lines. CDR suppressed total cellular and mitochondrial superoxide generation and preserved mitochondrial function in LPS-stimulated phagocytes. Additionally, CDR abrogated LPS-induced MAPK's phosphorylation and IκBα degradation in J774.2 cells. Moreover, CDR suppressed LPS-induced glycolytic flux as indicated from PKM2, HK-2, PDK-2, and HIF-1α expression in J774.2 cells. In vivo, CDR pre-treatment inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokines release, metabolic reprogramming from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis in both LPS-induced endotoxemia and cecal slurry-induced sepsis mice model.

CONCLUSION

Present study demonstrates the protective effect of CDR on LPS-induced inflammation and sepsis and identifies MAPK-NFκB and ROS-HIF1α-PKM2 as the putative target axis.

Toll-Like Receptors Signaling Pathway of Quercetin Regulating Avian Beta-Defensin in the Ileum of Broilers

The purpose of the experiment was to investigate the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway of quercetin regulating avian beta-defensin (AvBD) in the ileum of Arbor Acre (AA) broilers. Four hundred and eighty one-day-old Arbor Acre broilers with similar body weight, half male and female, were randomly allotted to four treatments; the control treatment and three dietary treatments were fed with the basal diets supplemented with 0, 0.02%, 0.04, and 0.06% quercetin, respectively. The results showed that dietary quercetin supplementation did not significantly influence growth performance (p > 0.05), but significantly decreased the mortality rate of broilers by 85.74%, 85.74, and 71.28%, respectively (p < 0.05, F = 9.06). Compared with control, dietary supplementation with 0.04 and 0.06% quercetin significantly upregulated mRNA expression of total AvBD (p < 0.05), and there were no significant differences in the mRNA expression of AvBD1, AvBD2, and AvBD14 in three quercetin supplementation groups in the ileum of AA broilers (p > 0.05). Dietary supplementation with 0.02 and 0.06% quercetin significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of total Toll-like receptors (p < 0.05). Dietary quercetin supplementation significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of TLR1A, TLR1B, and TLR2A (p < 0.05); however, there were no significant differences in the mRNA expression of TLR2B, TLR5, and TLR15 (p > 0.05). Dietary quercetin supplementation significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88 (MyD88) and TIR domain-containing adaptor protein/MyD88-adaptor-like (TIRAP/MAL) (p < 0.05), 0.02% quercetin significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of tank-binding kinase1 (TBK1), IκB kinase complex-α (IKKα), IKKβ, IKKε, nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), NF-κB inhibitor-alpha (IκBα), IκBα, IκBβ, TNF-receptor-associated factor 3 (TRAF3), and interferons regulatory factor 7 (IRF7) (p < 0.05), 0.04% quercetin significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of IKKβ, IKKε, NF-κB, IκBα, IκBβ, TRAF3, and TRAF6 (p < 0.05), and 0.06% quercetin significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of TBK1 and IKKα (p < 0.05). 0.02% quercetin significantly decreased the relative abundance of Escherichia, Staphylococcus (p < 0.05), and Salmonella (p < 0.01), 0.04% quercetin significantly decreased the relative abundance of Staphylococcus (p < 0.05), Escherichia, and Salmonella (p < 0.01), and 0.06% quercetin significantly decreased the relative abundance of Salmonella (p < 0.05) and Staphylococcus (p < 0.01) in the ileum of AA broilers. These findings suggested that dietary quercetin supplementation regulated the mRNA expression of AvBD, TLR, and the TLR signaling pathways and NF-κB signalling pathways, thereby maintaining the microecological balance of the intestinal tract and decreasing the mortality of broilers, and the optimum addition amount of quercetin is 0.04% under the test conditions.

Hepatoprotective effect of Baicalin against thioacetamide-induced cirrhosis in rats: Targeting NOX4/NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathways

Aim Liver cirrhosis is the result of a vicious cycle of both chronic oxidative stress and inflammation. NADPH oxidase-4 (NOX4) and its companion, NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, are emerging as therapeutic targets of liver fibrosis.

MAIN METHODS

Baicalin (BA), a natural flavone, has been investigated for its therapeutic potential against cirrhosis induced by thioacetamide (TAA) (200 mg/kg, twice/week) for 12 weeks in Sprague-Dawley rats. Two doses of BA were administered (25 and 75 mg/kg/day, orally, a week after TAA was stopped and continued for 4 weeks).

KEY FINDINGS

BA was able to reduce fibrosis visualized by Masson trichrome and immunohistochemical staining of the hepatic α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and transforming growth factor-β1. Moreover, BA was able to ameliorate inflammation by reducing hepatic NLRP3 inflammasome subunits, NLRP3 and caspase-1, both parts of the complex responsible for the activation of different interleukins (IL), measured as IL-1β. In addition, BA was able to reduce hepatic nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)-driven inflammation through IL-6. BA targeted inflammation through its anti-oxidant ability evidenced by the enhancement of the hepatic superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reduced glutathione (GSH) activity and level, respectively, and the reduction of both hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NOx) contents. Treatment with BA significantly decreased TAA-induced elevation in hepatic NOX4, a key enzyme for reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, as well as, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS).

SIGNIFICANCE

therefore, the study could conclude, the anti-fibrotic effect of BA through TGF- β1/NOX4/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway, exerting both anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects.

Baicalin Alleviates LPS-Induced Oxidative Stress via NF-κB and Nrf2–HO1 Signaling Pathways in IPEC-J2 Cells

Baicalin is a natural plant extract with anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities. However, the molecular mechanism of baicalin on oxidative stress in IPEC-J2 cells exposed to LPS remains to be unclear. In this study, LPS stimulation significantly increased Toll-like receptor 4, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukins (IL-6 and IL-1β) expression in IPEC-J2 cells, and it activated the nuclear factor (NF-κB) expression. While, baicalin exerted anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway. LPS stimulation significantly increased the levels of the oxidative stress marker MDA, inhibited the anti-oxidant enzymes catalase and superoxide dismutase, which were all reversed by baicalin pre-treatment. It was found that baicalin treatment activated the nuclear import of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) protein, and significantly increased the mRNA and protein expression of its downstream anti-oxidant factors such as heme oxygenase-1 and quinone oxidoreductase-1, which suggested that baicalin exerted anti-oxidant effects by activating the Nrf2-HO1 signaling pathway. Thus, pretreatment with baicalin inhibited LPS - induced oxidative stress and protected the normal physiological function of IPEC-J2 cells via NF-κB and Nrf2–HO1 signaling pathways.

Dietary L-citrulline influences body temperature and inflammatory responses during nitric oxide synthase inhibition and endotoxin challenge in chickens

Recent studies have revealed the role of L-citrulline (L-CIT) in thermoregulation, but very little is known about the mechanisms involved. In this study, nitric oxide synthase inhibition and endotoxin-induced fever were used to investigate the effects of L-CIT on body temperature and inflammatory responses. In experiment 1, NW-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 150 mg/kg BW), was i. p. injected into chicks fed with basal (CON) or L-CIT diets for 14 days. In experiment 2, Lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 2 mg/kg BW) was i. p. injected following 21d feeding with CON or L-CIT diets. In experiment 3, chickens were injected with either L-NAME, LPS, or L-NAME + LPS following 26 days feeding with CON or L-CIT diets. The rectal (RT), ear (ET), and core body temperature (CBT) of chickens were examined. Results showed that L-NAME effectively decreased the RT, ET, CBT, and plasma NO concentration. In contrast, LPS increased NO levels and initiated hyperthermia by increasing RT, ET, CBT, and PGE2 levels. L-CIT diet reduced the mean CBT in experiment 1 and diminished the NO level, PGE2 level, and mean RT in experiment 3. Co-administration of L-CIT + LPS upregulated IL-6 expression, whereas, LPS injection alone induced IL-10, IL-1β, and TLR4 gene expressions. Therefore, this study reveals that L-CIT-induced hypothermia was related to NO inhibition and a decrease in PGE2 concentration. Conversely, LPS induced hyperthermia was associated with an increase in both NO and PGE2 concentrations.

An overview of pharmacological activities of baicalin and its aglycone baicalein: New insights into molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways

The flavonoids, baicalin, and its aglycone baicalein possess multi-fold therapeutic properties and are mainly found in the roots of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz and Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. These flavonoids have been reported to possess various pharmacological properties, including antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, anticonvulsant, anti-oxidant, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects. The pharmacological properties of baicalin and baicalein are due to their abilities to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) and interaction with various signaling molecules associated with apoptosis, inflammation, autophagy, cell cycle, mitochondrial dynamics, and cytoprotection. In this review, we summarized the molecular mechanisms underlying the chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic applications of baicalin and baicalein in the treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases. In addition, the preventive effects of baicalin and baicalein on mitochondrial dynamics and functions were highlighted with a particular emphasis on their anti-oxidative and cytoprotective properties. The current review highlights could be useful for future prospective studies to further improve the pharmacological applications of baicalein and baicalin. These studies should define the threshold for optimal drug exposure, dose optimization and focus on therapeutic drug monitoring, objective disease markers, and baicalin/baicalein drug levels.

Establishment and Mechanism Study of a Primary Ovarian Insufficiency Mouse Model Using Lipopolysaccharide

This study is aimed at establishing a lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) mouse model and investigating the underlying mechanism. C57BL/6N female mice were intraperitoneally injected with low-dose LPS (0.5 mg/kg) once daily for 14 days, high-dose LPS (2.5 mg/kg) twice weekly for 2 weeks, or cyclophosphamide (CTX; 150 mg/kg) once weekly for 2 weeks. Ovarian function was assessed by measuring the length of estrous cycle, the number of primordial follicles, and the levels of serum hormones. Expression and production of interleukin 1β (IL-1β) were determined to evaluate ovarian inflammation. Histopathological examination was performed to examine ovarian fibrosis. TUNEL assay was carried out to evaluate granulosa cell apoptosis. Western blotting was performed to measure the levels of inflammation-, fibrosis-, and apoptosis-related proteins in the mouse ovaries. Like CTX, both low- and high-dose LPS significantly impaired ovarian functions in mice, as evidenced by extended lengths of estrous cycles, reduced counts of primordial follicles, and alterations in the levels of serum hormones. Also, LPS promoted granulosa cell apoptosis and ovarian fibrosis in mice. However, LPS but not CTX promoted IL-1β expression and production in mice. Moreover, LPS but not CTX enhanced TLR, p-p65, p65, and MyD88 expression in mouse ovaries, suggesting that LPS differs from CTX in triggering ovarian inflammation. In general, continuous low-dose LPS stimulation was less potent than high-dose LPS to affect the ovarian functions. In conclusion, LPS may induce ovarian inflammation, fibrosis, and granulosa cell apoptosis and can be used to establish a POI model in mice.

Transcriptome Sequencing Explores the Mechanism of Baicalin on Bone Cancer Pain

Introduction

Bone cancer pain is characterized by persistent pain, usually requiring drugs to relieve pain. Baicalin, a flavonoid compound extracted from Scutellaria baicalensis, which has antioxidant and analgesic effects. But, the effect of baicalin on bone cancer pain is unclear. Thus, this study aimed to explore the mechanism of baicalin on SD rats with bone cancer pain.

Materials and Methods

The MADB-106 breast cancer cells-induced bone pain model was constructed and carried out baicalin treatment. The therapeutic effect of baicalin on bone cancer pain model was observed by hematoxylin-eosin staining and immunofluorescence staining. We also performed transcriptome sequencing analysis of baicalin in the treatment of bone metastases. Also, RT-qPCR and ELISA were used to detect the expression levels of inflammation factors.

Results

After baicalin treatment, osteoclast activation was inhibited and the number of bone trabeculae was increased. Baicalin inhibited the protein expression level of inflammatory factors (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and PGE2) in the bone metastases group. Based on the transcriptome sequencing of the bone metastases group and the baicalin treatment group, baicalin inhibited the expression of ALPP, DUSP1, CYR61, ALPPL2, SPP1 and TLR4. RT-qPCR was also used to validate the expression levels of these cytokine genes.

Conclusion

Baicalin had a certain inhibitory effect on the SD rat model of bone metastasis cancer. These insights can guide future research on the molecular mechanism of bone cancer pain and provide a theoretical basis for baicalin in the treatment of bone pain caused by breast cancer in the future.

The Potential Application of Chinese Medicine in Liver Diseases: A New Opportunity

Liver diseases have been a common challenge for people all over the world, which threatens the quality of life and safety of hundreds of millions of patients. China is a major country with liver diseases. Metabolic associated fatty liver disease, hepatitis B virus and alcoholic liver disease are the three most common liver diseases in our country, and the number of patients with liver cancer is increasing. Therefore, finding effective drugs to treat liver disease has become an urgent task. Chinese medicine (CM) has the advantages of low cost, high safety, and various biological activities, which is an important factor for the prevention and treatment of liver diseases. This review systematically summarizes the potential of CM in the treatment of liver diseases, showing that CM can alleviate liver diseases by regulating lipid metabolism, bile acid metabolism, immune function, and gut microbiota, as well as exerting anti-liver injury, anti-oxidation, and anti-hepatitis virus effects. Among them, Keap1/Nrf2, TGF-β/SMADS, p38 MAPK, NF-κB/IκBα, NF-κB-NLRP3, PI3K/Akt, TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB and IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathways are mainly involved. In conclusion, CM is very likely to be a potential candidate for liver disease treatment based on modern phytochemistry, pharmacology, and genomeproteomics, which needs more clinical trials to further clarify its importance in the treatment of liver diseases.

Baicalin alleviates Mycoplasma gallisepticum-induced oxidative stress and inflammation via modulating NLRP3 inflammasome-autophagy pathway

Baicalin is a well-known flavonoid compound, possess therapeutic potential against inflammatory diseases. Previous studies reported that Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) induced inflammatory response and immune dysregulation inside the host body. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of baicalin against MG-infected chicken-like macrophages (HD11 cells) are still illusive. Oxidant status and total reactive oxygen species (ROS) were detected by ELISA assays and flow cytometry respectively. Mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ_M) was evaluated by immunofluorescence microscopy. Transmission electron microscopy was used for ultrastructural analysis. The hallmarks of inflammation and autophagy were determined by western blotting. Oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were significantly enhanced in the MG-infected HD11 cells. MG infection caused disruption in the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ_M) compared to the control conditions. Meanwhile, baicalin treatment reduced MG-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress and alleviated the disruption in ΔΨ_M. The activities of inflammatory markers were significantly enhanced in the MG-infected HD11 cells. Increased protein expressions of TLR-2-NF-κB pathway, NLRP3-inflammasome and autophagy-related proteins were detected in the MG-infected HD11 cells. Besides, baicalin treatment significantly reduced the protein expressions of TLR-2-NF-κB pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome. While, the autophagy-related proteins were significantly enhanced with baicalin treatment in a dose-dependent manner in the MG-infected HD11 cells. The results showed that baicalin prevented HD11 cells from MG-induced oxidative stress and inflammation via the opposite modulation of TLR-2-NF-κB-mediated NLRP3-inflammasome pathway and autophagy, and baicalin could be a promising candidate for the prevention of inflammatory effects caused by MG-infection in macrophages.

Baicalin improves podocyte injury in rats with diabetic nephropathy by inhibiting PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway

Objective

To investigate the effect of baicalin on diabetic nephropathy (DN) rats and podocytes and its mechanism.

Methods

The rat models with DN were established by high-fat and high-sugar diet and intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. The fasting blood glucose (FBG) and weight of rats in each group were measured at 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks. Their biochemical indicators, expression of inflammatory, and antioxidant factors were measured using an automatic biochemical analyzer together with ELISA. Hematoxylin-eosin staining and periodic acid-schiff staining were used to observe the morphological changes in the kidneys of rats in each group. Finally, the expressions of related molecules and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway proteins in renal tissues and podocytes were examined by qRT-PCR and Western blot.

Results

Compared with the DN group, the FBG and weight, serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, total cholesterol, triacylglycerol, microalbumin, and albumin/creatinine ratio were all significantly decreased in the Baicalin treatment groups in a concentration-dependent manner. The levels of inflammatory factors in kidney tissue and podocytes were decreased. In addition, the activities of lactate dehydrogenase and malondialdehyde in tissue were decreased, while the superoxide dismutase was increased. The pathological sections showed that glomerular atrophy and glomerular basement membrane thickening caused by hyperglycemia were improved in the Baicalin treatment groups. Meanwhile, baicalin inhibited the downregulation of Nephrin and Podocin expressions and upregulation of Desmin expression caused by DN, and inhibited the expressions of p-PI3K, p-Akt, and p-mTOR proteins.

Conclusion

Baicalin slows down podocyte injury caused by DN by inhibiting the activity of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Baicalin protects against zearalenone-induced chicks liver and kidney injury by inhibiting expression of oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokines and caspase signaling pathway

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a secondary metabolite produced by fungi such as Fusarium and Fusarium flavum, which is classified as a mycotoxin. Crops and feed in a humid surrounding are widely polluted by ZEA, which further endangering the healthful aquaculture of poultry and even human health. Up to now, prevention and cure of mycotoxicosis is still a crucial subject of poultry husbandry. Baicalin (BAI) is a flavonoid refined from dried roots of Scutellaria baicalensis possessing the function of hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-atherosclerotic efficacies.etc. But whether Baicalin also has a protective effect against ZEA intoxication is unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish a model of ZEA-induced toxic injury in chicks, and then to investigate the way in which Baicalin plays a protective role in the mechanism of ZEA-induced liver and kidney injury in chicks. The results exhibit that Baicalin could not only significantly decrease aspartate aminotransferase (AST) , alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and creatinine (Cre) levels in serum, but also ameliorate ZEA-induced pathologic changes of liver and kidney. Baicalin could also significantly regulate ZEA-induced the changes of catalase (CAT) , malondialdehyde (MDA) , total sulfhydryl group , except for glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px) , and inhibit the mRNA levels of inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) , interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) with caspase-3 and caspase-11 in the caspase signaling pathway , meanwhile inhibit the cell apoptosis in immunohistochemistry. In summary, we successfully established a model of ZEA-induced liver injury in chicks, and confirm that Baicalin can reduce ZEA-induced liver and kidney injury in chicks. The mechanism of these effects is via inhibiting inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis, which also indicates the potential applicability of Baicalin for the prevention and treatment of ZEA-induced toxicity in chicks.

Two Sides to Every Question: Attempts to Activate Chicken Innate Immunity in 2D and 3D Hepatic Cell Cultures

The liver with resident tissue macrophages is the site of vivid innate immunity, activated also by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) leaking through the intestinal barrier. As gut-derived inflammatory diseases are of outstanding importance in broiler chickens, the present study aimed to establish a proper hepatic inflammatory model by comparing the action of different PAMPs from poultry pathogens on chicken 2D and 3D primary hepatocyte—non-parenchymal cell co-cultures, the latter newly developed with a magnetic bioprinting method. The cultures were challenged by the bacterial endotoxins lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escherichia coli, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) from Staphylococcus aureus and by enterotoxin (ETxB) from Escherichia coli, Salmonella Typhimurium derived flagellin, phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) as a model proinflammatory agent and polyinosinic polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) for mimicking viral RNA exposure. Cellular metabolic activity was assessed with the CCK-8 test, membrane damage was monitored with the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage assay and interleukin-6 and -8 (Il-6 and -8) concentrations were measured in cell culture medium with a chicken specific ELISA. Both LPS and LTA increased the metabolic activity of the 3D cultures, concomitantly decreasing the LDH leakage, while in 2D cultures ETxB stimulated, PMA and poly I:C depressed the metabolic activity. Based on the moderately increased extracellular LDH activity, LTA seemed to diminish cell membrane integrity in 2D and poly I:C in both cell culture models. The applied endotoxins remarkably reduced the IL-8 release of 3D cultured cells, suggesting the effective metabolic adaptation and the presumably initiated anti-inflammatory mechanisms of the 3D spheroids. Notwithstanding that the IL-6 and IL-8 production of 2D cells was mostly not influenced by the endotoxins used, only the higher LTA dose was capable to evoke an IL-8 surge. Flagellin, PMA and poly I:C exerted proinflammatory action in certain concentrations in both 2D and 3D cultures, reflected by the increased cellular IL-6 release. Based on these data, LTA, flagellin, PMA and poly I:C can be considered as potent candidates to induce inflammation in chicken primary hepatic cell cultures, while LPS failed to trigger proinflammatory cytokine production, suggesting the relatively high tolerance of avian liver cells to certain bacterial endotoxins. These results substantiate that the established 3D co-cultures seemed to be proper tools for testing potential proinflammatory molecules; however, the remarkable differences between 2D and 3D models should be addressed and further studied.