Glutamate Scavenging as a Neuroreparative Strategy in Ischemic Stroke

Biased agonism in peptide-GPCRs: A structural perspective

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are dynamic membrane receptors that transduce extracellular signals to the cell interior by forming a ligand-receptor-effector (ternary) complex that functions via allosterism. Peptides constitute an important class of ligands that interact with their cognate GPCRs (peptide-GPCRs) to form the ternary complex. "Biased agonism", a therapeutically relevant phenomenon exhibited by GPCRs owing to their allosteric nature, has also been observed in peptide-GPCRs, leading to the development of selective therapeutics with fewer side effects. In this review, we have focused on the structural basis of signalling bias at peptide-GPCRs of classes A and B, and reviewed the therapeutic relevance of bias at peptide-GPCRs, with the hope of contributing to the discovery of novel biased peptide drugs.

Targeting the Ischemic Core: A Therapeutic Microdialytic Approach to Prevent Neuronal Death and Restore Functional Behaviors

Ischemic stroke leads to cerebral ionic imbalance, increases acidosis, oxidative stress and release of glutamate and inflammatory mediators. Removing solute or stimulants from the ischemic core may block cell-damaging events and confer neuroprotection. In this study, we developed a minimally invasive therapeutic microdialysis (tMD) method, choosing to include serum albumin in the buffer because it is a multifunctional protein with osmotic properties. Aiming at the ischemic core, continuous perfusion of buffer supplemented with osmotic agents removes mediators of inflammation/cell damage/death from the lesion. This tMD treatment significantly removed the glutamate and zinc ions from the core, thereby reducing infarct volumes and affording high-grade neurobehavioral protection against ischemic stroke. The tMD treatment effectively protected neurons and reduced microglial activation. Furthermore, this tMD approach extended the therapeutic window to protect beyond 6 h after stroke onset. These findings support the potential clinical feasibility of applying tMD to patients with ischemic stroke, potentially without adverse effects.

The Chicken Embryo: An Alternative Animal Model in Development, Disease and Pharmacological Treatment

To examine various medications and substances, in vivo models such as rats and mice are routinely used. However, it is utterly desirable to reduce extensive amounts of animals for these experimental models, which are costly and time-consuming. Animals are frequently put through a variety of procedures that could cause them pain, distress, or even harm; therefore, it is important to think about the ethical ramifications of using them in research. Thus, by following the three R's of animal research: reduction, replacement, and refinement, living animals used in studies should be minimized. The embryo of Gallus gallus, the domestic chicken, is a great model to research many different diseases and conditions. Its efficient blood supply from the chorioallantoic membrane gives us a unique possibility to administer chemicals or cells to the embryo in a noninvasive manner. In this review, we evaluate some advantages and disadvantages of using the developing chicken as an alternative in vivo model for development, disease, and pharmacological treatment. We focus on the top two leading causes of death: neurological disorders and cancer. We present a number of studies that describe the use of the chicken embryo in neuroscience and neurodevelopment research, in cancer research, and pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic studies. These studies show that the chicken embryo is an inexpensive, readily available, self-sufficient model with a short incubation period, high accessibility, and ideal for drug screening, making it an appealing model that can provide insightful biological and pharmacological information.

Enoxaparin Protects C6 Glioma Cells from Glutamate-Induced Cytotoxicity by Reducing Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis

Recent studies suggest enoxaparin may protect the central nervous system (CNS) from damage. However, its specific effects on glial cells and the underlying mechanisms involving cell death and oxidative stress require further investigation. Therefore, this research investigated enoxaparin's potential to safeguard C6 glioma cells against glutamate-induced cytotoxicity, specifically focusing on its influence on oxidative stress and apoptotic mechanisms. To investigate the neuroprotective effects of enoxaparin against glutamate-induced cytotoxicity in C6 cells, four groups were established: a control group, a group exposed to 10 mM glutamate, a group treated with enoxaparin at concentrations ranging from 25 to 200 µM, and a group receiving both 10 mM glutamate and enoxaparin at concentrations ranging from 25 to 200 µM. Cell viability was measured using an XTT assay. To evaluate the effects of enoxaparin on oxidative stress, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured using ELISA, along with total antioxidant status (TAS) and total oxidant status (TOS). Apoptosis was evaluated using flow cytometry, and caspase-3 activity, a key marker of apoptosis, was assessed using caspase-3 immunofluorescence staining. Enoxaparin at 50, 100, and 200 µM markedly increased cell viability in the enoxaparin + glutamate group. Enoxaparin treatment in the enoxaparin + glutamate group also significantly elevated levels of SOD and TAS, while concurrently decreasing MDA and TOS levels. These changes indicate a reduction in oxidative stress. Enoxaparin treatment further resulted in a significant decline in cleaved caspase-3 levels, a marker of apoptosis. Enoxaparin pre-treatment reduced cell death according to flow cytometry analysis. This study suggests enoxaparin's potential to shield C6 glioma cells from glutamate-induced cell death by mitigating both oxidative stress and apoptotic pathways. More research is needed to confirm this effect.

Blood Biomarkers in Ischemic Stroke Diagnostics and Treatment-Future Perspectives

Stroke is a leading cause of disability and the second most common cause of death worldwide, with its incidence increasing due to an aging population. Early diagnosis is crucial for timely medical intervention. Biomarkers serve as objective indicators to predict outcomes, monitor treatment responses, and assess prognosis. This review examines the evolving landscape of stroke biomarkers, highlighting their potential clinical applications and the challenges hindering their widespread use. Blood biomarkers are readily accessible and provide insight into the pathophysiological processes underlying stroke. This review focuses on neuronal and glial biomarkers, as well as those associated with inflammation, thrombosis, excitotoxicity, and neuroprotection. Also, it focuses on genetic biomarkers. The timing of biomarker measurement is particularly critical in the early stages of stroke, when rapid decision-making is essential, and it requires systematic investigation. Although numerous molecules have been proposed as stroke biomarkers in recent years, none have yet been integrated into routine clinical practice. Stroke biomarkers hold great promise for enhancing diagnosis, risk stratification, and personalized treatment strategies. However, well-designed studies and rigorous validation are necessary to bridge the gap between research findings and clinical implementation. Integrating biomarkers with existing diagnostic tools could revolutionize stroke management and improve patient outcomes. Continued research into blood biomarkers and their clinical utility remains imperative for advancing stroke care.

Glutamate/GABA/glutamine ratios in intact and ischemia reperfusion challenged rat brain subregions, the effect of ischemic preconditioning

The proper function of the brain is entirely dependent on intact neurotransmission, where glutamate (Glu) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the two most present neurotransmitters. Maintenance of these neurotransmitters pools is strictly relying on the de novo synthesis of glutamine in astrocytes. Cerebral ischemic events disrupt the balance in uptake and re-synthesis, altering Glu, GABA, and glutamine (Gln) levels. We focused on the determining of the ratios of glutamate, GABA and glutamine in the brain of rats in the intact state, the early changes and temporal development of changes towards the recovery after disruption of balance by global cerebral ischemia. Animals underwent 15 min of global cerebral ischemia, and changes in Glu/GABA/Gln ratios in the hippocampus, cortex, and cerebellum were assessed at 3 h, 24 h, and 72 h post-reperfusion using high-resolution NMR. Ischemic preconditioning was also used to induce tolerance. In an intact rat brain, glutamate level was about twice that of glutamine in all substructures, about sevenfold compared to GABA in the hippocampus and cortex, and almost eightfold compared to GABA in the cerebellum. There were three to four times as much glutamine compared to GABA. After severe cerebral ischemia, Glu/Gln as well as GABA/Gln ratios extensively dropped in early reperfusion (3 h) and gradually increased in 72 h reperfusion time, however, only the Glu/Gln ratio recovered to the level of controls. Glu/GABA ratio remained in all three reperfusion times over the level of control animals. We observed a decrease in glutathione NMR peak in brain tissue homogenates after ischemia. The obtained data suggest the accelerated accumulation of intraparenchymal glutamate after ischemia, which was even more pronounced in the preconditioned animals three days after an ischemic event. The postischemic GABA level restoration did not achieve the level before ischemia in 72 h reperfusion, which could be one of the limiting factors in the complete postischemic GABA transmission recovery. Presented data may be of advantage not only when comparing glutamate and GABA homeostasis and neurotransmission, but also for glutamine reserve display as neurotransmitter precursor and ammonia transfer buffer in glutamate/GABA/glutamine cycle within the intact brain substructures as well after ischemic insult in rats.

Antibodies against neuronal surface antigens in acute stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Antibodies against neuronal surface antigens (NSA-Abs), particularly against the NMDA receptor (NMDAR-Ab), have been reported in acute stroke patients (ASP). However, their role in stroke is far from being understood.

Methods

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate: 1) the frequency of NSA-Abs in patients with acute stroke compared to controls; 2) the de novo appearance of NSA-Abs after stroke; and 3) their effects on the clinical outcome.

Results

We included nine studies in the qualitative analysis and seven in the quantitative analysis. Analyses were restricted to NMDAR-Abs due to the lack of data about other NSA-Abs. Considering only studies that adopted a cell-based assay, IgA-IgM NMDAR-Abs isotypes (but not the IgG) were found more frequently in patients with acute stroke (OR 2.69, 95% CI 2.00-3.62, I2 = 4%). There was no de novo NMDAR-Abs formation after stroke. There was no statistical difference in mean discharge/day-7 NIHSS (SMD 0.21, 95% CI -1.10-1.52, I2 = 84%) and 3-12-month mRS (SMD 0.38, 95% CI -0.56-1.32, I2 = 78%) between patients with stroke with and without NMDAR-Abs seropositivity.

Conclusions

Serum IgA/IgM NMDAR-Abs are more frequent in patients with stroke than controls. Due to several methodological issues, these findings should be interpreted cautiously. Additional, methodologically robust studies are needed to clarify the prevalence and significance of NMDAR-Abs in patients with stroke.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42022241278#:~:text=https%3A//www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php%3FID%3DCRD42022241278, identifier CRD42022241278.

Drug screening for ischemic stroke using larvae and adult zebrafish model: a review

Ischemic stroke (IS) is the most recorded case of stroke that is caused by decreased blood flow to the brain. Nowadays, therapeutical agents for IS are limited and they have not shown maximum clinical results. Therefore, the exploration of new candidates for IS treatment continues to be done. Zebrafish as one of the animal models has its advantages and currently is being developed to be incorporated into the drug discovery pipeline of IS. This review explores the latest applications of the zebrafish model in screening potential therapeutic agents for IS. Key factors related to the experimental design such as developmental stage and strain, routes of drug administration, induction methods, and experimental parameters are also elaborated. Finally, this review offers future recommendations for the use of zebrafish in the pre-clinical study of IS. This review is beneficial as a reference for establishing drug screening protocols using the zebrafish IS model.

Low serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels are associated with poor outcomes in acute ischemic stroke patients regardless of age

Studies have indicated that reduced serum ALT levels are commonly linked to aging and are known to predict poor outcomes in many clinical conditions as potential frailty indicators. There are close connections between the brain and peripheral organs, particularly the liver. In patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS), the interactive effects may change ALT levels, which in turn influence stroke outcomes. Whether ALT has potential neuroprotective effects or is an indicator of frailty in AIS patients remains unknown. This retrospective analysis examined 572 AIS patients in Beijing Luhe Hospital between August 2020 and June 2021. Patient demographics and laboratory results were assembled. The National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) was used to analyze stroke severity. Modified Rankin Score (mRS) determined stroke outcome 3 months after AIS, with mRS≤2 indicating a favorable outcome. Based on serum ALT measurements, patients were classified into three tertiles (T1-T3). Binary logistic regression analysis evaluated the correlation between ALT tertiles and AIS outcomes. Of the patients, 66 exhibited unfavorable outcomes. The median ALT level in this group was 13 (IQR: 11-18.25), which was lower than in the favorable outcomes cohort (16; IQR: 11-22). A decline in ALT corresponded with a higher incidence of poor outcomes at 3 months (T1, 15.5 %; T2, 11.4 %; T3, 7.0 %; p = 0.03). The lowest ALT tertile (T1) was independently linked to an adverse 3-month outcome (OR 2.50 95 %CI 1.24-5.07, p = 0.038) compared to the highest tertile. ALT levels demonstrated no correlation with age (T1, 62.59 ± 12.64; T2, 64.01 ± 11.47; T3, 65.12 ± 11.27; p > 0.05). Regardless of age, lower serum ALT levels are independently associated with poorer outcomes in AIS patients. This finding suggests the potential pivotal part of the liver in AIS outcomes, highlighting the need to consider both neurological and liver functions post-stroke.

Excitotoxic Storms of Ischemic Stroke: A Non-neuronal Perspective

Numerous neurological disorders share a fatal pathologic process known as glutamate excitotoxicity. Among which, ischemic stroke is the major cause of mortality and disability worldwide. For a long time, the main idea of developing anti-excitotoxic neuroprotective agents was to block glutamate receptors. Despite this, there has been little successful clinical translation to date. After decades of "neuron-centered" views, a growing number of studies have recently revealed the importance of non-neuronal cells. Glial cells, cerebral microvascular endothelial cells, blood cells, and so forth are extensively engaged in glutamate synthesis, release, reuptake, and metabolism. They also express functional glutamate receptors and can listen and respond for fast synaptic transmission. This broadens the thoughts of developing excitotoxicity antagonists. In this review, the critical contribution of non-neuronal cells in glutamate excitotoxicity during ischemic stroke will be emphasized in detail, and the latest research progress as well as corresponding therapeutic strategies will be updated at length, aiming to reconceptualize glutamate excitotoxicity in a non-neuronal perspective.

Astrocyte TrkB promotes brain injury and edema formation in ischemic stroke

Following ischemic stroke astrocytes undergo rapid molecular and functional changes that may accentuate tissue damage. In this study we identified the neurotrophin receptor TrkB in astrocytes as a key promoter of acute CNS injury in ischemic stroke. In fact, TrkB protein was strongly upregulated in astrocytes after human and experimental stroke, and transgenic mice lacking astrocyte TrkB displayed significantly smaller lesion volume, lower brain atrophy and better motor performance than control animals after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Neuropathological studies evidenced that edema directly correlated with astrogliosis and was limited in transgenic mice. Importantly, adaptive levels of the water channel AQP4 was astrocyte TrkB-dependent as AQP4 upregulation after stroke did not occur in mice lacking astrocyte TrkB. In vitro experiments with wild-type and/or TrkB-deficient astrocytes highlighted TrkB-dependent upregulation of AQP4 via activation of HIF1-alpha under hypoxia. Collectively, our observations indicate that TrkB signaling in astrocytes contributes to the development of edema and worsens cerebral ischemia.

The Dopamine Transporter Is a New Target for Ischemic Stroke

AIMS

Dopamine transporter (DAT) can regulate DA homeostasis and has been implicated in many nervous system diseases. Whether DAT is involved in the protection against ischemic stroke is unclear.

METHODS

In vivo microdialysis measurements of DA were recorded in the ischemic penumbral area of mice with middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). DAT coding gene, Slc6a3 mutation, and DAT overexpression animals were performed MCAO. Madopar (compound formulation of levodopa) and nomifensine (DA reuptake inhibitor) were administered in MCAO animals. Brain slices were prepared in Slc6a3 mutation or wild-type (WT) animals with MCAO to record miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) and miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs). The effects of DA and its dopamine-1 receptor (D1R) antagonists (SCH-23390) on mEPSCs, mIPSCs, and neurons protection were recorded.

RESULTS

MCAO caused a prominent increase in DA. Slc6a3 mutation significantly attenuated the ischemic injury, whereas DAT overexpression aggravated this injury. Both nomifensine and madopar protected against brain injury. Slc6a3 mutation and DA restored the disturbance of mEPSCs and mIPSC, and protected against neuron death, which was abolished by SCH-23390.

CONCLUSION

DAT inhibition might be explored as a strategy for ischemic stroke prevention. DA and D1R involve in the restoration of synaptic dysfunction and neuron protection.

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy reveals biomarkers of stroke recovery in a mouse model of obesity-associated type 2 diabetes

Obesity and Type 2 diabetes (T2D) are known to exacerbate cerebral injury caused by stroke. Metabolomics can provide signatures of metabolic disease, and now we explored whether the analysis of plasma metabolites carries biomarkers of how obesity and T2D impact post-stroke recovery. Male mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 10 months leading to development of obesity with T2D or a standard diet (non-diabetic mice). Then, mice were subjected to either transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) or sham surgery and allowed to recover on standard diet for 2 months before serum samples were collected. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of serum samples was used to investigate metabolite signals and metabolic pathways that were associated with tMCAO recovery in either T2D or non-diabetic mice. Overall, after post-stroke recovery there were different serum metabolite profiles in T2D and non-diabetic mice. In non-diabetic mice, which show full neurological recovery after stroke, we observed a reduction of isovalerate, and an increase of kynurenate, uridine monophosphate, gluconate and N6-acetyllysine in tMCAO relative to sham mice. In contrast, in mice with T2D, which show impaired stroke recovery, there was a reduction of N,N-dimethylglycine, succinate and proline, and an increase of 2-oxocaproate in serum of tMCAO versus sham mice. Given the inability of T2D mice to recover from stroke, in contrast with non-diabetic mice, we propose that these specific metabolite changes following tMCAO might be used as biomarkers of neurophysiological recovery after stroke in T2D.

New Perspectives in Neuroprotection for Ischemic Stroke

The constant failure of new neuroprotective therapies for ischemic stroke has partially halted the search for new therapies in recent years, mainly because of the high investment risk required to develop a new treatment for a complex pathology, such as stroke, with a narrow intervention window and associated comorbidities. However, owing to recent progress in understanding the stroke pathophysiology, improvement in patient care in stroke units, development of new imaging techniques, search for new biomarkers for early diagnosis, and increasingly widespread use of mechanical recanalization therapies, new opportunities have opened for the study of neuroprotection. This review summarizes the main protective agents currently in use, some of which are already in the clinical evaluation phase. It also includes an analysis of how recanalization therapies, new imaging techniques, and biomarkers have improved their efficacy.

Neuroprotective Effects of Noncanonical PAR1 Agonists on Cultured Neurons in Excitotoxicity

Serine proteases regulate cell functions through G protein-coupled protease-activated receptors (PARs). Cleavage of one peptide bond of the receptor amino terminus results in the formation of a new N-terminus ("tethered ligand") that can specifically interact with the second extracellular loop of the PAR receptor and activate it. Activation of PAR1 by thrombin (canonical agonist) and activated protein C (APC, noncanonical agonist) was described as a biased agonism. Here, we have supposed that synthetic peptide analogs to the PAR1 tethered ligand liberated by APC could have neuroprotective effects like APC. To verify this hypothesis, a model of the ischemic brain impairment based on glutamate (Glu) excitotoxicity in primary neuronal cultures of neonatal rats has been used. It was shown that the nanopeptide NPNDKYEPF-NH2 (AP9) effectively reduced the neuronal death induced by Glu. The influence of AP9 on cell survival was comparable to that of APC. Both APC and AP9 reduced the dysregulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis in cultured neurons induced by excitotoxic Glu (100 µM) or NMDA (200 µM) concentrations. PAR1 agonist synthetic peptides might be noncanonical PAR1 agonists and a basis for novel neuroprotective drugs for disorders related to Glu excitotoxicity such as brain ischemia, trauma and some neurodegenerative diseases.

Oxaloacetate as a Holy Grail Adjunctive Treatment in Gliomas: A Revisit to Metabolic Pathway

India experiences a significant amount of morbidity and mortality due to gliomas particularly glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), which ranks among the worst cancers. Oxaloacetate (OAA) is a human keto acid that is central to cellular metabolism; it has been recognized by the US FDA for use in GBM patients, triggering a review to revisit the cellular mechanism of its therapeutic action. Various cellular and molecular studies have proposed that instead of fueling the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), gliomas prefer to use glycolysis (the Warburg effect) to fuel macromolecules for the synthesis of nucleotides, fatty acids, and amino acids for the accelerated mitosis. A study found that oxaloacetate (OAA) inhibits human lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) in cancer cells, reversing the Warburg effect. Studies revealed that OAA supplementation reduced Warburg glycolysis, improved neuronal cell bioenergetics, and triggered brain mitochondrial biogenesis, thereby enhancing the efficacy of standard treatment. Similarly, OAA has been found in preclinical investigations to be able to decrease tumor development and survival rates by blocking the conversion of glutamine to alpha-ketoglutarate (alpha-KG) in the TCA cycle and lowering nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) levels. OAA is a safe adjuvant that has the potential to be an effective therapy in gliomas when combined with temozolomide (TMZ) chemotherapy and routine surgery.

Molecular mechanisms of ischemia and glutamate excitotoxicity

Excitotoxicity is classically defined as the neuronal damage caused by the excessive release of glutamate, and subsequent activation of excitatory plasma membrane receptors. In the mammalian brain, this phenomenon is mainly driven by excessive activation of glutamate receptors (GRs). Excitotoxicity is common to several chronic disorders of the Central Nervous System (CNS) and is considered the primary mechanism of neuronal loss of function and cell death in acute CNS diseases (e.g. ischemic stroke). Multiple mechanisms and pathways lead to excitotoxic cell damage including pro-death signaling cascade events downstream of glutamate receptors, calcium (Ca2+) overload, oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, excessive glutamate in the synaptic cleft as well as altered energy metabolism. Here, we review the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms that underlie excitotoxicity, emphasizing the role of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) metabolism. We also discuss novel and promising therapeutic strategies to treat excitotoxicity, highlighting recent clinical trials. Finally, we will shed light on the ongoing search for stroke biomarkers, an exciting and promising field of research, which may improve stroke diagnosis, prognosis and allow better treatment options.

Biomarkers and the outcomes of ischemic stroke

Biomarkers are measurable substances that could be used as objective indicators for disease diagnosis, responses to treatments, and outcomes predictions. In this review, we summarized the data on a number of important biomarkers including glutamate, S100B, glial fibrillary acidic protein, receptor for advanced glycation end-products, intercellular adhesion molecule-1, von willebrand factor, matrix metalloproteinase-9, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-a, activated protein C, copeptin, neuron-specific enolase, tau protein, gamma aminobutyric acid, blood glucose, endothelial progenitor cells, and circulating CD34-positive cells that could be potentially used to indicate the disease burden and/or predict clinical outcome of ischemic stroke. We examined the relationship between specific biomarkers and disease burden and outcomes and discussed the potential mechanisms underlying the relationship. The clinical significance and implications of these biomarkers were also discussed.

An Updated Review of Mitochondrial Transplantation as a Potential Therapeutic Strategy Against Cerebral Ischemia and Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

Regardless of the progress made in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke, it remains a leading cause of adult disability and death. To date, the most effective treatment for ischemic stroke is the timely recanalization of the occluded artery. However, the short time window and reperfusion injury have greatly limited its application and efficacy. Mitochondrial dysfunction and ATP depletion have become regarded as being hallmarks of neuropathophysiology following ischemic stroke. Mitochondrial transplantation is a novel potential therapeutic intervention for ischemic stroke that has sparked widespread concern during the past few years. This review summarizes and discusses the effects of mitochondrial transplantation in in vitro and in vivo ischemic stroke models. In addition, pharmacological interventions promoting mitochondrial transplantation are reviewed and discussed. We also discuss the potential challenges to the clinical application of mitochondrial transplantation in the treatment of ischemic stroke.

Pathophysiology and Current Drug Treatments for Post-Stroke Depression: A Review

Post-stroke depression (PSD) is a biopsychosocial disorder that affects individuals who have suffered a stroke at any point. PSD has a 20 to 60 percent reported prevalence among stroke survivors. Its effects are usually adverse, can lead to disability, and may increase mortality if not managed or treated early. PSD is linked to several other medical conditions, including anxiety, hyper-locomotor activity, and poor functional recovery. Despite significant awareness of its adverse impacts, understanding the pathogenesis of PSD has proved challenging. The exact pathophysiology of PSD is unknown, yet its complexity has been definitively shown, involving mechanisms such as dysfunction of monoamine, the glutamatergic systems, the gut-brain axis, and neuroinflammation. The current effectiveness of PSD treatment is about 30-40 percent of all cases. In this review, we examined different pathophysiological mechanisms and current pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches for the treatment of PSD.

Isoliquiritigenin Protects Neuronal Cells against Glutamate Excitotoxicity

It is considered that glutamate excitotoxicity may be a major factor in the pathological death of neurons and mediate the development of neurodegenerative diseases in humans. Here, we show that isoliquiritigenin (ILG) at a concentration of 0.5-5 µM protects primary neuroglial cell culture from glutamate-induced death (glutamate 100 µM). ILG (1 µM) prevented a sharp increase in [Ca²⁺]_i and a decrease in mitochondrial potential (ΔΨm). With the background action of ILG (1-5 µM), there was an increase in oxygen consumption rate (OCR) in response to glutamate, as well as in reserve respiration. The neuroprotective effect of ILG (5 µM) was accompanied by an increase in non-mitochondrial respiration. The results show that ILG can protect cortical neurons from death by preventing the development of calcium deregulation and limiting mitochondrial dysfunction caused by a high dose of glutamate. We hypothesize that ILG will be useful in drug development for the prevention or treatment of neurodegenerative diseases accompanied by glutamate excitotoxicity.

Insulin Diminishes Superoxide Increase in Cytosol and Mitochondria of Cultured Cortical Neurons Treated with Toxic Glutamate

Glutamate excitotoxicity is involved in the pathogenesis of many disorders, including stroke, traumatic brain injury, and Alzheimer’s disease, for which central insulin resistance is a comorbid condition. Neurotoxicity of glutamate (Glu) is primarily associated with hyperactivation of the ionotropic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), causing a sustained increase in intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) and synchronous mitochondrial depolarization and an increase in intracellular superoxide anion radical (O₂^–•) production. Recently, we found that insulin protects neurons against excitotoxicity by decreasing the delayed calcium deregulation (DCD). However, the role of insulin in O₂^–• production in excitotoxicity still needs to be clarified. The present study aims to investigate insulin’s effects on glutamate-evoked O₂^–• generation and DCD using the fluorescent indicators dihydroethidium, MitoSOX Red, and Fura-FF in cortical neurons. We found a linear correlation between [Ca²⁺]_i and [O₂^–•] in primary cultures of the rat neuron exposed to Glu, with insulin significantly reducing the production of intracellular and mitochondrial O₂^–• in the primary cultures of the rat neuron. MK 801, an inhibitor of NMDAR-gated Ca²⁺ influx, completely abrogated the glutamate effects in both the presence and absence of insulin. In experiments in sister cultures, insulin diminished neuronal death and O₂ consumption rate (OCR).

Stroke mortality attributable to high red meat intake in China and South Korea: An age-period-cohort and joinpoint analysis

The high intake of red meat is well recognized as a major health concern worldwide. It has been recognized as a risk factor for several non-communicable chronic diseases, including stroke. However, previously published studies have not performed a comprehensive analysis of the long-time trend of stroke mortality attributable to high red meat intake in China and South Korea, two countries with similar dietary patterns and changing trends. Therefore, this study aimed to reveal the influence of age, time period, and birth cohort on long-term trends of stroke mortality attributable to high red meat intake and relative gender differences in China and South Korea. Data were obtained from the Global Burden of Disease 2019 database. The age–period–cohort model was used to estimate the effect of age, time period, and birth cohort. The average and annual percent changes were estimated using the joinpoint regression analysis. Results indicated that the overall attributable age-standardized mortality rates of stroke in China decreased by 1.0% (P < 0.05) for female and 0.1% (P > 0.05) for male individuals, compared with a decrease of 4.9% for female and 3.7% for male individuals in South Korea (both P < 0.05). Age–period–cohort analysis revealed that the attributable stroke mortality decreased along with the time period, and increased along with age. Significant gender differences were observed, male individuals in both countries were at higher risk than their female counterparts, especially in China. Joinpoint analysis suggested that the attributable stroke mortality for both genders in South Korea and female individuals in China showed a decreasing trend, while it is stable for male individuals in China. Although prominent reductions were observed during the past decades, the attributable stroke mortality risk in China and South Korea is still high. Our findings indicate that controlling the intake of red meat may be a cost-effective strategy to reduce stroke mortality risk and the corresponding disease burden, especially for Chinese male individuals.

Venous stroke–a stroke subtype that should not be ignored

Based on the etiology, stroke can be classified into ischemic or hemorrhagic subtypes, which ranks second among the leading causes of death. Stroke is caused not only by arterial thrombosis but also by cerebral venous thrombosis. Arterial stroke is currently the main subtype of stroke, and research on this type has gradually improved. Venous thrombosis, the particular type, accounts for 0.5–1% of all strokes. Due to the lack of a full understanding of venous thrombosis, as well as its diverse clinical manifestations and neuroimaging features, there are often delays in admission for it, and it is easy to misdiagnose. The purpose of this study was to review the pathophysiology mechanisms and clinical features of arterial and venous thrombosis and to provide guidance for further research on the pathophysiological mechanism, clinical diagnosis, and treatment of venous thrombosis. This review summarizes the pathophysiological mechanisms, etiology, epidemiology, symptomatology, diagnosis, and treatment heterogeneity of venous thrombosis and compares it with arterial stroke. The aim is to provide a reference for a comprehensive understanding of venous thrombosis and a scientific understanding of various pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical features related to venous thrombosis, which will contribute to understanding the pathogenesis of intravenous stroke and provide insight into diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

A Review of Neuroprotective Effects and Mechanisms of Ginsenosides From Panax Ginseng in Treating Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke has been considered one of the leading causes of mortality and disability worldwide, associated with a series of complex pathophysiological processes. However, effective therapeutic methods for ischemic stroke are still limited. Panax ginseng, a valuable traditional Chinese medicine, has been long used in eastern countries for various diseases. Ginsenosides, the main active ingredient of Panax ginseng, has demonstrated neuroprotective effects on ischemic stroke injury during the last decade. In this article, we summarized the pathophysiology of ischemic stroke and reviewed the literature on ginsenosides studies in preclinical and clinical ischemic stroke. Available findings showed that both major ginsenosides and minor ginsenosides (such as Rg3, Rg5, and Rh2) has a potential neuroprotective effect, mainly through attenuating the excitotoxicity, Ca²⁺ overload, mitochondria dysfunction, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, anti-inflammation, anti-oxidative, anti-apoptosis, anti-pyroptosis, anti-autophagy, improving angiogenesis, and neurogenesis. Therefore, this review brings a current understanding of the mechanisms of ginsenosides in the treatment of ischemic stroke. Further studies, especially in clinical trials, will be important to confirm the clinical value of ginseng and ginsenosides.

Polyphenols for the Treatment of Ischemic Stroke: New Applications and Insights

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Currently, the main therapeutic strategy involves the use of intravenous thrombolysis to restore cerebral blood flow to prevent the transition of the penumbra to the infarct core. However, due to various limitations and complications, including the narrow time window in which this approach is effective, less than 10% of patients benefit from such therapy. Thus, there is an urgent need for alternative therapeutic strategies, with neuroprotection against the ischemic cascade response after IS being one of the most promising options. In the past few decades, polyphenolic compounds have shown great potential in animal models of IS because of their high biocompatibility and ability to target multiple ischemic cascade signaling pathways, although low bioavailability is an issue that limits the applications of several polyphenols. Here, we review the pathophysiological changes following cerebral ischemia and summarize the research progress regarding the applications of polyphenolic compounds in the treatment of IS over the past 5 years. Furthermore, we discuss several potential strategies for improving the bioavailability of polyphenolic compounds as well as some essential issues that remain to be addressed for the translation of the related therapies to the clinic.