New Therapeutic Approaches to and Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rg1 against Neurological Diseases

Neuroprotective effects of macrostemonoside T on glutamate-induced injury in HT22 cells

Glutamate is a critical excitatory neurotransmitter involved in numerous cellular functions. However, excessive glutamate release can lead to neuronal cell death through oxidative stress, which is implicated in the pathogenesis of various neurological disorders. Therefore, strategies aimed at preventing oxidative stress have emerged as promising therapeutic approaches. Macrostemonoside T (MST), a novel steroidal saponin isolated from the traditional Chinese medicine Allii Macrostemon Bulbus, has demonstrated significant antioxidant activity in previous studies. Nevertheless, its neuroprotective effects against oxidative damage and the underlying molecular mechanisms have not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, we established a glutamate-induced cell injury model using mouse hippocampal neurons (HT22) to investigate the neuroprotective effects of MST and explore its potential mechanisms. A variety of techniques, including DCFH-DA staining, JC-1 staining, Hoechst 33,258 staining, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence staining, ELISA, Western blot analysis, and molecular docking, were employed. The results demonstrated that MST treatment significantly improved the survival of HT22 cells exposed to glutamate. Moreover, MST treatment markedly reduced intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde while enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. MST also mitigated mitochondrial dysfunction by inhibiting mitochondrial fission and preserving mitochondrial membrane potential. Additionally, MST reduced excessive autophagy by decreasing autophagy markers and inhibiting the transition from LC3I to LC3II. Furthermore, MST decreased apoptosis rates, lowered pro-apoptotic protein BAX levels, increased the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, and inhibited the release of apoptosis-inducing factors from mitochondria. Molecular docking analysis showed that MST enhanced PKA activity by blocking endogenous inhibition of PKA, which in turn activated the PKA/CREB/BDNF signalling pathway. Subsequent validation using immunofluorescence and Western blotting further confirmed that MST treatment significantly reversed the glutamate-induced reduction of PRKACA, CREB, p-CREB, and BDNF protein levels. In conclusion, MST is a potent neuroprotective agent that ameliorates glutamate-induced neuronal damage by inhibiting oxidative stress, alleviating mitochondrial dysfunction, reducing autophagy and apoptosis, and activating the PKA/CREB/BDNF signaling pathway.

Neuroimmune modulators derived from natural products: Mechanisms and potential therapies

Neuroimmunology is a multidisciplinary field that investigates the interactions between the nervous and immune systems. Neuroimmune interactions persist throughout the entire lifespan, and their dysregulation can lead to the onset and development of multiple diseases. Despite significant progress over the past decades in elucidating the interaction between neuroscience and immunology, the exact mechanism underlying neuroimmune crosstalk has not yet been fully elucidated. In recent years, natural products have emerged as a promising avenue for the therapeutic implications of neuroimmune diseases. Naturally derived anti-neuroimmune disease agents, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins, have been extensively studied for their potential neuroimmune modulatory effects. This comprehensive review delves into the specific molecular mechanisms of bidirectional neuro-immune interactions, with particular emphasis on the role of neuro-immune units. The review synthesizes a substantial body of evidence from in vitro and in vivo experiments as well as clinical studies, highlighting the therapeutic potential of various natural products in intervening in neuroimmune disorders.

Assessment of Pesticide Residues and Dietary Risks in Ginseng from Northeastern China

Several challenges persist in China's ginseng industry. Phoxim, chlorpyrifos, quintozene-unregistered pesticides primarily used as soil insecticides and fungicides-may pose high dietary risks. This study performed a thorough screening of potential pesticides used in Chinese ginseng cultivation, evaluated the long-term dietary risks for the ginseng-consuming group, and used the primary risk factors for ginseng in China and South Korea to compare the two nations' pesticide usage scenarios. From 2020 to 2022, 325 pesticides and related compounds were screened in 15 major ginseng-producing counties and 3 commercial markets in Northeast China, and 39 pesticides and 3 metabolites were identified using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, including allylmorph, pyrimethanil, pyraclostrobin, and other contaminants in Northeast China. Acute and chronic dietary risk assessment was performed using 0.009 kg as the maximum daily intake and 0.005 kg as the average daily intake, with adults as the exposed population. Based on these findings and reliable toxicological data, acute and chronic dietary risk quotients for ginseng were assessed, considering dietary intake and population exposure. The results indicate that ginseng products are generally safe and manageable, with acute and long-term dietary risks remaining within acceptable limits.

Ginsenoside 1 mitigates postoperative cognitive dysfunction by enhancing microglial Aβ clearance through the endo-lysosomal pathway

BACKGROUND

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is a common complication in patients after surgery, especially in the elderly. The incidence of POCD not only impaired learning and memory, but also increased morbidity and mortality in patients. However, the exploration of therapeutic agents is limited. Ginsenoside 1 (Rg1) is one of the main compounds of ginseng, which exhibits bioactive and neuroprotective efficiency. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of Rg1 on POCD.

METHODS

The POCD model was established by performing aseptic laparotomy surgery under anesthesia in 18-month mice. The cognition and anxiety of mice were assessed with MWM, OFT, and NOR tests. An in vitro model was performed on BV2 microglial cells. RNA sequencing, Western blotting, electrophysiology, Golgi staining, engulfment, and immunofluorescence analysis were performed.

RESULTS

Our results showed that Rg1 effectively alleviated the cognitive dysfuncion and anxiety of POCD mice. Transcriptomic sequencing data in microglia indicated that Rg1 mainly affects endosomes and lysosomes. By upregulating Rab7 and TFEB expression, Rg1 promoted microglial engulfment of Aβ through the endo-lysosomal pathway. Additionally, Rg1 reduced inflammatory levels, increased synaptic plasticity, and mitigated neuronal damage caused by Aβ. Moreover, the effects of Rg1 on TFEB depended on MEK/ERK signaling, while activation of MEK reversed Rg1's protective effects.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, our study demonstrates that Rg1 can effectively ameliorate cognitive and synaptic deficit by enhancing microglial Aβ clearance through the endo-lysosomal pathway in aged POCD mice, which provides a potential strategy for the prevention of POCD.

Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Plant Extracts on Cognitive Function and Quality of Life in Stroke Patients

In recent years, numerous researchers have focused on plant extracts derived from traditional medicines to treat stroke, as these extracts may improve patients' cognitive function and quality of life. This study aims to evaluate the effects of nine distinct plant extracts (Ginkgo biloba extract, Ginsenosides, Berberine, St. John's Wort extract, Resveratrol, Gastrodin, Crocus sativus L., Moringa oleifera Seed extract, and Panax Notoginseng Saponins) on cognitive function and quality of life in stroke patients. This study seeks to conduct a network meta-analysis to assess the impact of these plant extracts on cognitive function and quality of life in stroke patients. Researchers systematically searched the Embase, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases from database inception through October 2024 searched for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) exclusively(no language restrictions). The selected studies were evaluated for methodological quality via the Cochrane bias risk assessment tool, and data analysis software was used to analyze the data accordingly. The primary outcome measures included the following assessment scales: National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS), Modified Rankin Scale (mRS), Activities of Daily Living Scale (ADLs), Barthel Index (BI), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MOCA), and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Treatment effects were ranked based on probability values derived from the surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA). Moreover, cluster analysis was applied to evaluate the effects of plant extracts on six scales that reflect cognitive function and quality of life in patients. After screening, 48 eligible randomized controlled trials were included, covering 6599 stroke patients and evaluating nine different plant extract treatments. Specifically, results from 33 trials were included in the NIHSS score, 10 in the mRS score, 11 in the ADL score, 11 in the BI score, nine in the MMSE score, and eight in the MOCA score. Findings indicate that St. John's Wort extract (SUCRA 71.2%) was the most effective in reducing NIHSS scores, Berberine (SUCRA 84.1%) was most effective in reducing mRS scores, and St. John's Wort extract (SUCRA 99.1%) showed the highest efficacy in enhancing ADL scores. Ginsenosides were the most effective in improving Barthel Index (SUCRA 74.7%), MMSE (SUCRA 93%), and MOCA (SUCRA 79.7%) scores. The NMA indicates that, compared to placebo, St. John's Wort extract, Berberine, and Ginsenosides can enhance cognitive function and improve quality of life in stroke patients. This study provides valuable insights into using plant extracts for stroke treatment, potentially guiding clinical practice, but there are some unavoidable limitations to our study, including heterogeneity, differences in extraction methods of plant extracts, and lack of consideration of social support systems and dose effects. Future longer follow-up, larger samples, and more methodologically rigorous randomized controlled trials are recommended to clearly establish the effects of different dosages on cognitive function and quality of life in stroke patients.

Ginsenosides Rg1, Rb1 and rare ginsenosides: Promising candidate agents for Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease and network pharmacology analysis

Ginseng has been commonly used as a traditional Chinese medicine in Asian countries for thousands of years. Ginsenosides are the main pharmacologically active ingredients isolated from ginseng and have neuroprotective effects in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). To summarise and investigate the protective roles of ginsenosides and their underlying mechanisms in PD and AD, we used ''Ginsenoside", ''Parkinson's disease", ''Alzheimer's disease", ''anti-inflammatory", ''antioxidant", and ''apoptosis" as keywords to search and extract relevant literature information from scientific databases such as Elsevier, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases. In particular, we used network pharmacology to identify the potential targets of ginsenosides Rg1 and Rb1 in PD and AD. By analysing the existing research advances and network pharmacology results, we found that the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides, primarily mediated through anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis and anti-oxidative stress, etc, may be associated with the PI3K/Akt, BDNF/TrkB, MAPKs, NF-κB, Nrf2 and Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathways. This review systematically summarises the different roles and mechanisms of ginsenosides Rg1, Rb1, and rare ginsenosides in PD and AD and provides new strategies for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Network pharmacology provides a new research paradigm for the treatment of PD and AD using Rg1 and Rb1.

The spectrum-efficacy correlation of Kai-Xin-San for cognition of Aβ42 transgenic Drosophila and verification of its active ingredients

Introduction

This study aims to establish the fingerprint spectra of Kai-Xin-San (KXS) and investigate its spectrum-effect relationship in treating Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Methods

Initially, the fingerprints of 15 batches of KXS were established and analyzed using HPLC, with the method's precision, stability, and repeatability thoroughly evaluated. Subsequently, the effects of the 15 batches of KXS were assessed in an olfactory escape memory experiment, utilizing Aβ42 transgenic drosophila as a model. Finally, the spectrum-effect relationship between the KXS fingerprint and memory improvement was analyzed, with the active ingredients subjected to validation testing.

Results

The results identified seventeen common peaks in the fingerprint, and eight active components were determined: polygalaxanthone III, 3-6-disinapoylsucrose, ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rb1, β-asarone, α-asarone, dehydrotumulosic acid, and dehydropachymic acid. Treatment with KXS (1%, for 4 days) significantly enhanced the performance index of Aβ42 flies in the olfactory experiment. Both spectrum-effect analysis and validation tests indicated that polygalaxanthone III, ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rb1, β-asarone, and α-asarone were positively correlated with the performance index and improved the performance index in the olfactory experiment. The HPLC fingerprint method for KXS demonstrated excellent precision, accuracy, and reproducibility, making it suitable for quality evaluation and control of KXS. Polygalaxanthone III, ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rb1, β-asarone, and α-asarone are identified as potential active ingredients of KXS for anti-AD effects.

Discussion

These findings provide an experimental basis for developing new drugs based on KXS and its active ingredient combinations.

Study on the anti-Parkinson's disease activity mechanism and preparation of panaxadiol

BACKGROUND

Traditional Chinese medicine offers unique and valuable resources for the exploration of novel approaches to disease treatment. Panaxadiol, an active compound derived from the transformation of ginsenosides. It has a variety of pharmacological activities. However, there is a lack of research regarding its effects on Parkinson's disease (PD).

PURPOSE AND STUDY DESIGN

This study investigates the activity and mechanism of panaxadiol in the treatment of PD both in vivo and in vitro. In addition, a new method has been developed to extract panaxadiol.

RESULTS

The results showed that in vitro, panaxadiol can reduce the viability and cytotoxicity of BV2 cells induced by LPS, and inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory factors through the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway. In vivo, panaxadiol can improve motor and intestinal dysfunction in PD mice and repair the loss of DA neurons. Further studies have shown that panaxadiol treatment alleviates damage to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), inhibits neuroinflammation in the substantia nigra (SN), and further reduces damage to DA neurons. Subsequently, it was found that panaxadiol alleviated peripheral inflammation and significantly restored the intestinal microbial community. Further mechanistic studies found that panaxadiol treatment inhibited the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway and its downstream pro-inflammatory products in the SN. In addition, Additionally, the response surface method was employed to identify the optimal conditions for extracting panaxadiol using a deep eutectic solvent (NADES).

CONCLUSION

In summary, this study has found for the first time that panaxadiol can effectively improve the symptoms of PD by regulating neuroinflammation, repairing the BBB, and gut microbiota. Meanwhile, adopting a green extraction process significantly increases the content of panaxadiol, providing a new direction for the development of PD candidate drugs.

A focus on c-Jun-N-terminal kinase signaling in sepsis-associated multiple organ dysfunction: Mechanisms and therapeutic strategies

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition characterized by a widespread inflammatory response to infection, inevitably leading to multiple organ dysfunctions. Extensive research, both in vivo and in vitro, has revealed key factors contributing to sepsis, such as apoptosis, inflammation, cytokine release, oxidative stress, and systemic stress. The changes observed during sepsis-induced conditions are mainly attributed to altered signal transduction pathways, which play a critical role in cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. C-Jun N-terminal kinases, JNKs, and serine/threonine protein kinases in the mitogen-activated super family have gained considerable interest for their contribution to cellular events under sepsis conditions. JNK1 and JNK2 are present in various tissues like the lungs, liver, and intestine, while JNK3 is found in neurons. The JNK pathway plays a crucial role in the signal transduction of cytokines related to sepsis development, notably TNF-α and IL-1β. Activated JNK leads to apoptosis, causing tissue damage and organ dysfunction. Further, JNK activation is significant in several inflammatory conditions. Pharmacologically inhibiting JNK has been shown to prevent sepsis-associated damage across multiple organs, including the lungs, liver, intestines, heart, and kidneys. Multiple signaling pathways have been implicated in sepsis, including JNK/c-Myc, Mst1-JNK, MKK4-JNK, JNK-dependent autophagy, and Sirt1/FoxO3a. The review examines the role of JNK signaling in the development of sepsis-induced multiple-organ dysfunction through specific mechanisms. It also discusses different therapeutic approaches to target JNK. This review emphasizes the potential of JNKs as targets for the development of therapeutic agents for sepsis and the associated specific organ damage.

Ginsenoside Rg1 regulates astrocytes to promote angiogenesis in spinal cord injury via the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey) is a common traditional Chinese medicine used for anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis, anti-oxidative stress, and neuroprotection. Ginsenosides Rg1, the main active components isolated from ginseng, may be a feasible therapy for spinal cord injury (SCI).

AIMS OF THE STUDY

SCI causes endothelial cell death and blood vessel rupture, ultimately resulting in long-term neurological impairment. As a result, encouraging spinal angiogenesis may be a feasible therapy for SCI. This investigation aimed to validate the capacity of ginsenoside Rg1 in stimulating angiogenesis within the spinal cord.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats with SCI were injected intraperitoneally with ginsenoside Rg1. The effectiveness of ginsenoside Rg1 was assessed using the motor function score and the motor-evoked potential (MEP). Immunofluorescence techniques were applied to identify the spinal cord's angiogenesis. Angiogenic factors were examined through Western Blot (WB) and Immunohistochemistry. Oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) was employed to establish the hypoxia-ischemia model in vitro, and astrocytes (As) were given ginsenoside Rg1 and co-cultured with spinal cord microvascular endothelial cells (SCMECs). Immunofluorescence, wound healing test, and tube formation assay were used to identify the co-cultured SCMECs' activity. Finally, network pharmacology analysis and siRNA transfection were applied to verify the mechanism of ginsenoside Rg1 promoting angiogenesis.

RESULTS

The rats with SCI treated with ginsenoside Rg1 indicated more significant functional recovery, more pronounced angiogenesis, and higher levels of angiogenic factor expression. In vitro, the co-culture system with ginsenoside Rg1 intervention improved SCMECs' capacity for proliferating, migrating, and forming tubes, possibly by promoting the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in As via the janus kinase 2 (JAK2)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenoside Rg1 can regulate As to promote angiogenesis, which may help to understand the mechanism of promoting SCI recovery.

Ginsenoside Rg1 promotes non-rapid eye movement sleep via inhibition of orexin neurons of the lateral hypothalamus and corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons of the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus

OBJECTIVE

This study investigates the sleep-modulating effects of ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1, C42H72O14), a key bioactive component of ginseng, and elucidates its underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

C57BL/6J mice were intraperitoneally administered doses of Rg1 ranging from 12.5 to 100 mg/kg. Sleep parameters were assessed to determine the average duration of each sleep stage by monitoring the electrical activity of the brain and muscles. Further, orexin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons in the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVH) were ablated using viral vector surgery and electrode embedding. The excitability of LHorexin and PVHCRH neurons was evaluated through the measurement of cellular Finkel-Biskis-Jinkins murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog (c-Fos) expression.

RESULTS

Rg1 (12.5-100 mg/kg) augmented the duration of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep phases, while reducing the duration of wakefulness, in a dose dependent manner. The reduced latency from wakefulness to NREM sleep indicates an accelerated sleep initiation time. We found that these sleep-promoting effects were weakened in the LHorexin and PVHCRH neuron ablation groups, and disappeared in the orexin and CRH double-ablation group. Decreased c-Fos protein expression in the LH and PVH confirmed that Rg1 promoted NREM sleep by inhibiting orexin and CRH neurons.

CONCLUSION

Rg1 increases the duration of NREM sleep, underscoring the essential roles of LHorexin and PVHCRH neurons in facilitating the sleep-promoting effects of Rg1. Please cite this article as: Wang YY, Wu Y, Yu KW, Xie HY, Gui Y, Chen CR, Wang NH. Ginsenoside Rg1 promotes non-rapid eye movement sleep via inhibition of orexin neurons of the lateral hypothalamus and corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons of the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus. J Integr Med. 2024; 22(6): 721-730.

Ginsenoside Rg1 treats chronic heart failure by downregulating ERK1/2 protein phosphorylation

In this study, we investigated the potential therapeutic mechanism of ginsenoside Rg1 (GRg1) in chronic heart failure (CHF), focusing on its regulation of ERK1/2 protein phosphorylation. H9c2 cardiomyocytes and SD rats were divided into the control group, CHF (ADR) group, and CHF+ginsenoside Rg1 group using an isolated cardiomyocyte model and an in vivo CHF rat model induced by adriamycin (ADR). Cell viability, proliferation, apoptosis, and the expression of relevant proteins were measured to assess the effects of GRg1. The results showed that treatment with GRg1 increased cell activity and proliferation, while significantly reducing levels of inflammatory and apoptotic factors compared to the CHF (ADR) group. Moreover, the CHF+ginsenoside Rg1 group exhibited higher levels of Bcl-2 mRNA and protein expression, as well as lower levels of Caspase3 and Bax mRNA and protein expression, compared to the CHF (ADR) group. Notably, the CHF+ginsenoside Rg1 group displayed decreased serum NT-proBNP levels and heart weight/body weight (HW/BW) index. Furthermore, the electrocardiogram of rats in the CHF+ginsenoside Rg1 group resembled that of rats in the control group. Overall, our findings suggested that GRg1 alleviated CHF by inhibiting ERK1/2 protein phosphorylation, thereby inhibiting apoptosis, enhancing cell activity and proliferation, and reducing cardiac inflammatory responses.

CKLF1 in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases

Chemokine like factor 1 (CKLF1) is a novel atypical chemokine, playing a crucial role in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases (CCVDs) demonstrated by a growing body of works. In cardiovascular diseases including atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction, meanwhile in cerebrovascular diseases such as ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke, the expression levels of CKLF1 change markedly, which triggers downstream signaling pathways by binding with its functional receptors, and then exerts multiple effects to participate in the occurrence and development of these CCVDs. The functional roles of CKLF1 are dynamic and CKLF1 may act as a double-edged sword. The CCVDs-promoting role is related to recruiting inflammatory cells, enhancing the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells, while the CCVDs-suppressing role may correlate with migration of nerve cells and promotion of hematopoietic stem cell proliferation which contributes to disease recovery. Based on this, the paper intends to review expression shifts, potential roles, and molecular mechanisms of CKLF1 in CCVDs, and the current status of CKLF1 targeted therapeutic strategies is also included. We hope this review may provide a valuable reference for using CKLF1 as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for CCVDs or developing novel treatments.

Ginsenoside Rg1 Regulates Immune Microenvironment and Neurological Recovery After Spinal Cord Injury Through MYCBP2 Delivery via Neuronal Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a severe neurological condition that frequently leads to significant sensory, motor, and autonomic dysfunction. This study sought to delineate the potential mechanistic underpinnings of extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from ginsenoside Rg1-pretreated neuronal cells (Rg1-EVs) in ameliorating SCI. These results demonstrated that treatment with Rg1-EVs substantially improved motor function in spinal cord-injured mice. Rg1-EVs enhance microglial polarization toward the M2 phenotype and repressed oxidative stress, thereby altering immune responses and decreasing inflammatory cytokine secretion. Moreover, Rg1-EVs substantially diminish reactive oxygen species accumulation and enhanced neural tissue repair by regulating mitochondrial function. Proteomic profiling highlighted a significant enrichment of MYCBP2 in Rg1-EVs, and functional assays confirmed that MYCBP2 knockdown counteracted the beneficial effects of Rg1-EVs in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, MYCBP2 is implicated in the ubiquitination and degradation of S100A9, thereby promoting microglial M2-phenotype polarization and reducing oxidative stress. Overall, these findings substantiated the pivotal role of Rg1-EVs in neuronal protection and functional recovery following SCI through MYCBP2-mediated ubiquitination of S100A9. This research offers novel mechanistic insights into therapeutic strategies against SCI and supports the clinical potential of Rg1-EVs.

Human disease-related long noncoding RNAs: Impact of ginsenosides

Ginsenosides in ginseng are known for their potential health benefits, including antioxidant properties and their potential to exhibit anticancer effects. Besides a various range of coding genes, ginsenosides impose their efficacy by targeting noncoding RNAs. Long noncoding RNA ( lncRNA) has gained significant attention from both basic and clinical oncology fields due to its involvement in various cancer cell activities such as proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and autophagy. These events can be achieved either by lncRNA alone or in association with microRNAs or proteins. This review aims to summarize the diverse activities of lncRNAs that are regulated by ginsenosides, focusing on their role in regulating target genes through signaling pathways in human diseases. We highlight the results of studies on the expression profiles of lncRNAs induced by ginsenosides in efforts to inhibit cancer cell proliferation. Finally, we discuss the potential and challenges of utilizing lncRNAs as diagnostic markers for disease treatment.

Guhan Yangsheng Jing mitigates hippocampal neuronal pyroptotic injury and manifies learning and memory capabilities in sleep deprived mice via the NLRP3/Caspase1/GSDMD signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Guhan Yangsheng Jing (GHYSJ) is a traditional Chinese patent medicine, that has the function of nourishing the kidney and replenishing the essence, invigorating the brain and calming the mind. It is often used to treat dizziness, memory loss, sleep disorders, fatigue, and weakness, etc. However, its mechanism for improving sleep has not yet been determined.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to explore the effects of GHYSJ on Sleep Deprivation (SD)-induced hippocampal neuronal pyroptotic injury, learning and cognitive abilities, and sleep quality in mice.

METHODS

In this study, a PCPA-induced SD mouse model was established. We assessed the influence of GHYSJ on sleep quality and mood by using the pentobarbital-induced sleep test (PIST) and sucrose preference test (SPT). The pharmacological effects of GHYSJ on learning and memory impairment were evaluated by the Morris Water Maze (MWM) and Open Field Test (OFT). Pathological changes in the hippocampal tissue of the SD rats were observed via HE staining and Nissl staining. The severity of neuronal damage was evaluated by detecting the expression of the neuronal marker Microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2), via immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. Furthermore, the levels of neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), 5-hydroxy tryptamine (5-HT), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and Glutamic acid (Glu) in hippocampal tissues, as well as the expression of inflammatory factors Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and Interleukin-18 (IL-18) in serum, were determined by ELISA. The expressions of mRNA and protein NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3), Gasdermin D (GSDMD), Cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase1 (Caspase1), High mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB1) and Apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing CARD (ASC) related to the cellular ferroptosis pathway were tested and analyzed by RT-PCR and WB respectively.

RESULTS

PCPA significantly diminishes the sleep span of experimental animals by expediting the expenditure of 5-HT, consequently establishing an essentially direct SD model. The intervention of GHYSJ displays remarkable efficacy in mitigating insomnia symptoms, encompassing difficulties in initiating sleep and insufficient sleep duration. Likewise, it ameliorates memory function impairments induced by sleep deprivation, along with symptoms such as fatigue and depletion of vitality. GHYSJ exerts a protective influence on hippocampal neurons facilitated by inhibiting the down regulation of MAP2 and maintaining the equilibrium of neurotransmitters (5-HTP, 5-HT, GABA, and Glu). It diminishes the expression of intracellular pyroptosis-associated inflammatory factors (IL-1β and IL-18) and curbs the activation of the NLRP3/Caspase1/GSDMD pyroptosis-related signaling pathways, thereby alleviating the damage caused by hippocampal neuronal pyroptosis.

Targeting novel regulated cell death：Ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and autophagy in sepsis-associated encephalopathy

Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE), a common neurological complication of sepsis, is a heterogenous complex clinical syndrome caused by the dysfunctional response of a host to infection. This dysfunctional response leads to excess mortality and morbidity worldwide. Despite clinical relevance with high incidence, there is a lack of understanding for its both its acute/chronic pathogenesis and therapeutic management. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind SAE may provide tools to better enhance therapeutic efficacy. Mounting evidence indicates that some types of non-apoptotic regulated cell death (RCD), such as ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and autophagy, contribute to SAE. Targeting these types of RCD may provide meaningful targets for future treatments against SAE. This review summarizes the core mechanism by which non-apoptotic RCD leads to the pathogenesis of SAE. We focus on the emerging types of therapeutic compounds that can inhibit RCD and delineate their beneficial pharmacological effects against SAE. Within this review we suggest that pharmacological inhibition of non-apoptotic RCD may serve as a potential therapeutic strategy against SAE.

Ginsenosides for the treatment of insulin resistance and diabetes: Therapeutic perspectives and mechanistic insights

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a systemic disorder of energy metabolism characterized by a sustained elevation of blood glucose in conjunction with impaired insulin action in multiple peripheral tissues (i.e., insulin resistance). Although extensive research has been conducted to identify therapeutic targets for the treatment of DM, its global prevalence and associated mortailty rates are still increasing, possibly because of challenges related to long-term adherence, limited efficacy, and undesirable side effects of currently available medications, implying an urgent need to develop effective and safe pharmacotherapies for DM. Phytochemicals have recently drawn attention as novel pharmacotherapies for DM based on their clinical relevance, therapeutic efficacy, and safety. Ginsenosides, pharmacologically active ingredients primarily found in ginseng, have long been used as adjuvants to traditional medications in Asian countries and have been reported to exert promising therapeutic efficacy in various metabolic diseases, including hyperglycemia and diabetes. This review summarizes the current pharmacological effects of ginsenosides and their mechanistic insights for the treatment of insulin resistance and DM, providing comprehensive perspectives for the development of novel strategies to treat DM and related metabolic complications.

Current and further outlook on the protective potential of Antrodia camphorata against neurological disorders

Prevalent neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and stroke are increasingly becoming a global burden as society ages. It is well-known that degeneration and loss of neurons are the fundamental underlying processes, but there are still no effective therapies for these neurological diseases. In recent years, plenty of studies have focused on the pharmacology and feasibility of natural products as new strategies for the development of drugs that target neurological disorders. Antrodia camphorata has become one of the most promising candidates, and the crude extracts and some active metabolites of it have been reported to play various pharmacological activities to alleviate neurological symptoms at cellular and molecular levels. This review highlights the current evidence of Antrodia camphorata against neurological disorders, including safety evaluation, metabolism, blood-brain barrier penetration, neuroprotective activities, and the potential on regulating the gut-microbiome-brain axis. Furthermore, potential strategies to resolve problematic issues identified in previous studies are also discussed. We aim to provide an overview for the ongoing development and utilization of Antrodia camphorata in cerebral neuropathology.

Spiral cone fiber SPR sensor for detecting ginsenoside Rg1

The conical fiber SPR sensor is easy to manufacture and has been used in biochemical detection research, but it has the problem of structural fragility. This article proposes a spiral cone fiber SPR sensor, which introduces a spiral structure on the 76µm fiber coarse cone, achieving good coupling of the core mode into the cladding mode, and improving the physical strength and practicality of the cone-shaped fiber SPR sensor. By modifying the target protein on the surface of the sensor gold film, specific detection of ginsenoside Rg1, an active ingredient of traditional Chinese medicine ginseng, was achieved. The detection sensitivity was 0.138 nm/(µm/ml) and the detection limit was 0.22µm/ml. The proposed spiral cone fiber SPR sensor provides a new scheme for the specific detection of active ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine, which is structurally stable and physically strong.

Ginsenoside Rg1 relieves rat intervertebral disc degeneration and inhibits IL-1β-induced nucleus pulposus cell apoptosis and inflammation via NF-κB signaling pathway

The study aimed to investigate the effect of ginsenoside Rg1 on intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD) in rats and IL-1β-induced nucleus pulposus (NP) cells, and explore its underlying mechanism. Forty IVDD rat models were divided into the IVDD group, low-dose (L-Rg1) group (intraperitoneal injection of 20 mg/kg/d ginsenoside Rg1), medium-dose (M-Rg1) group (intraperitoneal injection of 40 mg/kg/d ginsenoside Rg1), and high-dose (H-Rg1) group (intraperitoneal injection of 80 mg/kg/d ginsenoside Rg1). The pathological change was observed by HE and safranin O-fast green staining. The expression of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, MMP3, aggrecan, and collagen II was detected. The expression of NF-κB p65 in IVD tissues was detected. Rat NP cells were induced by IL-1β to simulate IVDD environment and divided into the control group, IL-1β group, and 20, 50, and 100 µmol/L Rg1 groups. The cell proliferation activity, the apoptosis, and the expression of IL-6, TNF-α, MMP3, aggrecan, collagen II, and NF-κB pathway-related protein were detected. In IVDD rats, ginsenoside Rg1 improved the pathology of IVD tissues; suppressed the expression of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, aggrecan, and collagen II; and inhibited the expression of p-p65/p65 and nuclear translocation of p65, to alleviate the IVDD progression. In the IL-1β-induced NP cells, ginsenoside Rg1 also improved the cell proliferation and inhibited the apoptosis and the expression of IL-6, TNF-α, aggrecan, collagen II, p-p65/p65, and IκK in a dose-dependent manner. Ginsenoside Rg1 alleviated IVDD in rats and inhibited apoptosis, inflammatory response, and ECM degradation in IL-1β-induced NP cells. And Rg1 may exert its effect via inhibiting the activation of NF-κB signaling pathway.

Chemical derivatization strategies for enhancing the HPLC analytical performance of natural active triterpenoids

Triterpenoids widely exist in nature, displaying a variety of pharmacological activities. Determining triterpenoids in different matrices, especially in biological samples holds great significance. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) has become the predominant method for triterpenoids analysis due to its exceptional analytical performance. However, due to the structural similarities among botanical samples, achieving effective separation of each triterpenoid proves challenging, necessitating significant improvements in analytical methods. Additionally, triterpenoids are characterized by a lack of ultraviolet (UV) absorption groups and chromophores, along with low ionization efficiency in mass spectrometry. Consequently, routine HPLC analysis suffers from poor sensitivity. Chemical derivatization emerges as an indispensable technique in HPLC analysis to enhance its performance. Considering the structural characteristics of triterpenoids, various derivatization reagents such as acid chlorides, rhodamines, isocyanates, sulfonic esters, and amines have been employed for the derivatization analysis of triterpenoids. This review comprehensively summarized the research progress made in derivatization strategies for HPLC detection of triterpenoids. Moreover, the limitations and challenges encountered in previous studies are discussed, and future research directions are proposed to develop more effective derivatization methods.

Ginsenoside RK3 promotes neurogenesis in Alzheimer's disease through activation of the CREB/BDNF pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In the ancient book "Shen Nong's Herbal Classic," Panax ginseng CA Mey was believed to have multiple benefits, including calming nerves, improving cognitive function, and promoting longevity. Ginsenosides are the main active ingredients of ginseng. Ginsenoside RK3 (RK3), a rare ginsenoside extracted from ginseng, displays strong pharmacological potential. However, its effect on neurogenesis remains insufficiently investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to investigate whether RK3 improves learning and memory by promoting neurogenesis, and to explore the mechanism of RK3 action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The therapeutic effect of RK3 on learning and memory was determined by the Morris water maze (MWM) and novel object recognition test (NORT). The pathogenesis and protective effect of RK3 on primary neurons and animal models were detected by immunofluorescence and western blotting. Protein expression of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB)/brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling pathway was detected by western blotting.

RESULTS

Our results showed that RK3 treatment significantly improved cognitive function in APPswe/PSEN1dE9 (APP/PS1) mice and C57BL/6 (C57) mice. RK3 promotes neurogenesis and synaptogenesis in the mouse hippocampus. In vitro, RK3 prevents Aβ-induced injury in primary cultured neurons and promotes the proliferation of PC12 as well as the expression of synapse-associated proteins. Mechanically, the positve role of RK3 on neurogenesis was combined with the activation of CREB/BDNF pathway. Inhibition of CREB/BDNF pathway attenuated the effect of RK3.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study demonstrated that RK3 promotes learning and cognition in APP/PS1 and C57 mice by promoting neurogenesis and synaptogenesis through the CREB/BDNF signaling pathway. Therefore, RK3 is expected to be further developed into a potential drug candidate for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Human umbilical cord derived mesenchymal stem cells overexpressing HO-1 attenuate neural injury and enhance functional recovery by inhibiting inflammation in stroke mice

AIMS

The current evidence demonstrates that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) hold therapeutic potential for ischemic stroke. However, it remains unclear how changes in the secretion of MSC cytokines following the overexpression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) impact excessive inflammatory activation in a mouse ischemic stroke model. This study investigated this aspect and provided further insights.

METHODS

The middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) mouse model was established, and subsequent injections of MSC, MSCHO-1 , or PBS solutions of equal volume were administered via the mice's tail vein. Histopathological analysis was conducted on Days 3 and 28 post-MCAO to observe morphological changes in brain slices. mRNA expression levels of various factors, including IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, TNF-α, IL-1Ra, IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β, were quantified. The effects of MSCHO-1 treatment on neurons, microglia, and astrocytes were observed using immunofluorescence after transplantation. The polarization direction of macrophages/microglia was also detected using flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The results showed that the expression of anti-inflammatory factors in the MSCHO-1 group increased while that of pro-inflammatory factors decreased. Small animal fluorescence studies and immunofluorescence assays showed that the homing function of MSCsHO-1 was unaffected, leading to a substantial accumulation of MSCsHO-1 in the cerebral ischemic region within 24 h. Neurons were less damaged, activation and proliferation of microglia were reduced, and polarization of microglia to the M2 type increased after MSCHO-1 transplantation. Furthermore, after transplantation of MSCsHO-1 , the mortality of mice decreased, and motor function improved significantly.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicate that MSCs overexpressing HO-1 exhibited significant therapeutic effects against hyper-inflammatory injury after stroke in mice, ultimately promoting recovery after ischemic stroke.

Ginsenoside Rg1 treats ischemic stroke by regulating CKLF1/CCR5 axis-induced neuronal cell pyroptosis

BACKGROUND

Ischemic stroke, a severe and life-threatening neurodegenerative condition, currently relies on thrombolytic therapy with limited therapeutic window and potential risks of hemorrhagic transformation. Thus, there is a crucial need to explore novel therapeutic agents for ischemic stroke. Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1), a potential neuroprotective agent, exhibits anti-ischemic effects attributed to its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties. Nevertheless, the precise underlying mechanism of action remains to be fully elucidated.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to explore whether Rg1 exerts anti-ischemic stroke effects by inhibiting pyroptotic neuronal cell death through modulation of the chemokine like factor 1 (CKLF1)/ C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) axis.

METHODS

In this study, the MCAO model was used as an ischemic stroke model, and experimental tests were performed after 6 hours of ischemia. The anti-ischemic effect of Rg1 was examined by TTC staining, nissl-staining and neurobehavioral tests. In the in vitro experiments, PC12 cells were subjected to stimulation with CKLF1's mimetic peptide C27 to assess the potential of CKLF1 to induce focal neuronal cell death. Additionally, the impact of CKLF1 mimetic peptide C27, antagonistic peptide C19, and CCR5 inhibitor MVC on PC12 cells subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) and subsequently treated with Rg1 was investigated. In vivo, Rg1 treatment was examined by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), ELISA, immunohistochemistry (IHC), immunofluorescence (IF), western blot (WB), and co-immunoprecipitate (Co-IP) assays to perspective whether Rg1 treatment reduces CKLF1/CCR5 axis-induced pyroptotic neuronal cell death. In addition, to further explore the biological significance of CKLF1 in ischemic stroke, CKLF1-/- rats were used as the observation subjects in this study.

RESULTS

The in vitro results suggested that CKLF1 was able to induce neuronal cells to undergo pyroptosis. In vivo pharmacodynamic results showed that Rg1 treatment was able to significantly improve symptoms in ischemic stroke rats. In addition, Rg1 treatment was able to inhibit the interaction between CKLF1 and CCR5 after ischemic stroke and inhibited CKLF1/CCR5 axis-induced pyroptosis. The results of related experiments in CKLF1-/- rats showed that Rg1 lost its therapeutic effect after CKLF1 knockdown.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome is initiated by the CKLF1/CCR5 axis, facilitated through the activation of the NF-κB pathway, ultimately resulting in the pyroptosis of neuronal cells. Conversely, Rg1 demonstrates the capability to mitigate neuronal cell damage following CKLF1-induced effects by suppressing the expression of CKLF1. Thus, CKLF1 represents a crucial target for Rg1 in the context of cerebral ischemia treatment, and it also holds promise as a potential target for drug screening in the management of ischemic stroke.

Increasing minor ginsenosides contents and enhancing neuroprotective effects of total ginsenosides fermented by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum

Minor ginsenosides have been proven to have higher pharmacological activity than the major ginsenosides. The transformation of major ginsenosides to minor ginsenosides by lactic acid bacteria was considered to be a promising method. Therefore, this study focuses on utilizing glycosidase-producing Lactiplantibacillus plantarum GLP40 to transform total ginsenosides (TG) and increase the content of minor ginsenosides, as well as investigate the neuroprotective effects of fermented total ginsenosides (FTG). After 21d fermentation, the transformation products were purified using D101 macroporous resin column chromatography, and identified by HPLC and LC-MS analyses. The neuroprotective effect of FTG was evaluated using MPTP-induced neural injury mice model. Lact. plantarum GLP40 fermentation increased the contents of minor ginsenosides in TG, such as Rg3, Rh2, CK, and Rk3. FTG showed stronger alleviation of 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine Hydrochloride (MPTP) induced memory loss and dyskinesia in mice, and inhibited tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) depletion and ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1) production than TG. Further, FTG significantly increased serum IL-10 levels and inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines compared to TG. Moreover, FTG treatment activated the anti-apoptotic PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and inhibited the expression of the inflammatory NF-κB/COX-2/iNOS pathway. In conclusion, Lact. plantarum GLP40 fermentation enhances the neuroprotective effects of total ginsenosides by increasing minor ginsenosides. FTG protected MPTP induced neural injury in mice by regulating inflammation and cell apoptosis signaling pathways.

Active ingredients of Chinese medicine with immunomodulatory properties: NF-κB pathway and Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease with a complex pathogenesis and no cure. Persistent neuroinflammation plays an important role in the development of PD, and activation of microglia and astrocytes within the central nervous system leads to an inflammatory response and production of pro-inflammatory factors, and activation of NF-κB is key to neuroglial activation in chronic inflammation in PD and a hallmark of the onset of neuroinflammatory disease. Therefore, inhibiting NF-κB activation to prevent further loss of dopaminergic nerves is a more effective means of treating PD. It has been found that an increasing number of active ingredients in Chinese medicines, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids, phenols and phenylpropanoids, have anti-inflammatory properties that can regulate neuroglia cell activation and ameliorate neuroinflammation through the NF-κB pathway, and increase dopamine release or protect dopaminergic neurons for neuroprotection to improve behavioural dysfunction in PD. The active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine are expected to be good candidates for the treatment of PD, as they provide holistic regulation through multi-targeting and multi-level effects, and are safe, inexpensive and readily available. Therefore, this paper summarises that the active ingredients of some relevant Chinese medicines ameliorate the symptoms of PD and delay the development of PD by inhibiting glial cell-mediated neuroinflammation through the NF-κB pathway, which may provide new ideas for exploring the molecular mechanism of PD pathogenesis and developing new anti-PD drugs.

In-silico Investigation of Ginseng Phytoconstituents as Novel Therapeutics Against MAO-A

BACKGROUND

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a herb of medicinal and nutritional importance. Ginseng has been used since ancient times for the treatment of numerous ailments as it has many therapeutic properties. Several phytoconstituents are present in Panax ginseng that possess a variety of beneficial pharmacological properties.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the potential of phytoconstituents of Panax ginseng in the treatment of depression, a molecular modeling technique was utilized targeting monoamine oxidase-A (MAO-A).

METHODS

A total of sixty-one phytoconstituents of ginseng were drawn with the help of ChemBioDraw Ultra 12.0 software and PDBs for MAO-A enzyme were retrieved from the RCSB PDB database. The prepared ligands were screened for MAO-A properties using the software Molegro Virtual Docker (MVD 2010.4.1.0). All the prepared ligands were evaluated for drug-likeliness properties using Swiss ADME.

RESULTS

Among the docking studies of 60 Ginseng phytochemicals including one standard, 15 phytoconstituents with the highest dock score and better binding interactions were selected further for absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) studies. Stachyose (-227.287, 17 interactions), Raffinose (-222.157, 14 interactions), and Ginsenoside Rg1 (-216.593, 10 interactions) were found to possess better interactions as compared to Clorgyline taken as a standard drug.

CONCLUSION

Stachyose was found to be the most potent inhibitor of MAO-A enzyme under investigation and can be a potential lead molecule for the development of newer phytochemical-based treatment of depression.

The mitochondria in schizophrenia with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: From pathogenesis to therapeutic promise of targeted natural drugs

Schizophrenia is a complex multi-factor neurological disorder that caused an array of severe indelible consequences to the individuals and society. Additionally, anti-schizophrenic drugs are unsuitable for treating negative symptoms and have more significant side effects and drug resistance. For better treatment and prevention, we consider exploring the pathogenesis of schizophrenia from other perspectives. A growing body of evidence of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) suggested that the occurrence and progression of schizophrenia are related to mitochondrial dysfunction. So combing through the literature of 22q11DS published from 2000 to 2023, this paper reviews the mechanism of schizophrenia based on mitochondrial dysfunction, and it focuses on the natural drugs targeting mitochondria to enhance mitochondrial function, which are potential to improve the current treatment of schizophrenia.

Host miR-129-5p reverses effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on morphine reward possibly mediated by changes in B. vulgatus and serotonin metabolism in hippocampus

Morphine addiction is closely associated with dysbiosis of the gut microbiota. miRNAs play a crucial role in regulating intestinal bacterial growth and are involved in the development of disease. Ginsenoside Rg1 exhibits an anti-addiction effect and significantly improves intestinal microbiota disorders. In pseudo-germfree mice, supplementation with Bacteroides vulgatus (B. vulgatus) synergistically enhanced Rg1 to alleviate morphine addiction. However, it is currently unknown the relationship between fecal miRNAs in morphine-exposed mice and their potential modulation of gut microbiome, as well as their role in mediating the resistance of ginsenoside Rg1 to drug addiction. Here, we studied the fecal miRNA abundance in mice treated with morphine to explore the different miRNAs expressed, their association with B. vulgatus and their role in the amelioration of morphine reward by ginsenoside Rg1. Our results indicated ginsenoside Rg1 attenuated the significant increase in miR-129-5p expression observed in the feces of morphine-treated mice. The miR-129-5p, specifically, inhibited the growth of B. vulgatus by modulating the transcript of the site-tag BVU_RS11835 and increased the levels of 5-hydroxytryptophan and indole-3-carboxaldehyde in vitro. Subsequently, we noticed that oral administration of synthetic miR-129-5p increased 5-HT levels in the hippocampus and inhibited the reversal effect of ginsenoside Rg1 both on the relative abundance of B. vulgatus in the feces and CPP effect induced by morphine exposure. In short, Ginsenoside Rg1 might play an indirect role in remodeling the B. vulgatus against morphine reward by suppressing miR-129-5p expression. These results highlight the role of miR-129-5p and B. vulgatus in morphine reward and the anti-morphine addiction of ginsenoside Rg1.

Phytochemicals Target Multiple Metabolic Pathways in Cancer

Cancer metabolic reprogramming is a complex process that provides malignant cells with selective advantages to grow and propagate in the hostile environment created by the immune surveillance of the human organism. This process underpins cancer proliferation, invasion, antioxidant defense, and resistance to anticancer immunity and therapeutics. Perhaps not surprisingly, metabolic rewiring is considered to be one of the "Hallmarks of cancer". Notably, this process often comprises various complementary and overlapping pathways. Today, it is well known that highly selective inhibition of only one of the pathways in a tumor cell often leads to a limited response and, subsequently, to the emergence of resistance. Therefore, to increase the overall effectiveness of antitumor drugs, it is advisable to use multitarget agents that can simultaneously suppress several key processes in the tumor cell. This review is focused on a group of plant-derived natural compounds that simultaneously target different pathways of cancer-associated metabolism, including aerobic glycolysis, respiration, glutaminolysis, one-carbon metabolism, de novo lipogenesis, and β-oxidation of fatty acids. We discuss only those compounds that display inhibitory activity against several metabolic pathways as well as a number of important signaling pathways in cancer. Information about their pharmacokinetics in animals and humans is also presented. Taken together, a number of known plant-derived compounds may target multiple metabolic and signaling pathways in various malignancies, something that bears great potential for the further improvement of antineoplastic therapy.

Enhancing the inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis in H22 hepatoma cells through biotransformation of notoginsenoside R1 by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum S165 into 20(S/R)-notoginsenoside R2

Notoginsenoside R2 is a crucial active saponin in Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen, but its natural content is relatively low. In this study, we investigated the biotransformation of notoginsenoside R1 to 20(S/R)-notoginsenoside R2 using Lactiplantibacillus plantarum S165, compared the inhibitory effects on cancer cell proliferation and conducted a mechanistic study. Notoginsenoside R1 was transformed using Lactiplantibacillus plantarum S165 at 37 °C for 21 days. The fermentation products were identified using a combination of HPLC, UPLC-MS/MS, and 13C-NMR methods. The inhibition effects of 20(S/R)-notoginsenoside R2 on H22 hepatoma cells were assessed by CCK-8 and TUNEL assays, and the underlying mechanism was investigated by Western blotting. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum S165 could effectively transform notoginsenoside R1 to 20(S/R)-notoginsenoside R2 with a conversion yield of 82.85%. Our results showed that 20(S/R)-notoginsenoside R2 inhibited H22 hepatoma cells proliferation and promoted apoptosis. The apoptosis of H22 hepatoma cells was promoted by 20(S/R)-notoginsenoside R2 through the blockade of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. The biotransformation method used in this study resulted in the production of 20(S)-notoginsenoside R2 and 20(R)-notoginsenoside R2 from notoginsenoside R1, and the anti-tumor activity of the transformed substance markedly improved.

Ginsenoside Rh4 Alleviates Amyloid β Plaque and Tau Hyperphosphorylation by Regulating Neuroinflammation and the Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β Signaling Pathway

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a primary neurodegenerative disease. It can be caused by aging and brain trauma and severely affects the abilities of cognition and memory of patients. Therefore, it seriously threatens the mental and physical health of humans worldwide. As a traditional Chinese medicine, ginsenosides have been proven to have a variety of pharmacological activities. Ginsenoside Rh4 (Rh4) is one of the rare ginsenosides with higher pharmacological activity than ordinary ginsenosides, but its effect on alleviating AD and its molecular mechanism have not been studied. Here, we investigated the anti-AD effects of Rh4 and its potential mechanisms using an AD mouse model induced by a combination of AlCl3·6H2O and d-galactose. The results showed that Rh4 could significantly improve the ability of cognizance and reduce neuronal damage in mice. Concurrently, Rh4 attenuates amyloid β accumulation, increases the density of dendritic spines, and logically inhibits synaptic structural damage as a result of neuronal excessive apoptosis and autophagy. Rh4 can not only inhibit the inflammatory response caused by the overactivation of microglia and astrocytes, reduce the levels of pro-inflammatory factors, increase the level of antioxidant enzymes in serum, and significantly improve the activity of antioxidant enzyme SOD1 in the hippocampus but also inhibit the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein in the hippocampus of mice by regulating the Wnt2b/GSK-3β/SMAD4 signaling pathway. Together, this study provides a theoretical basis for Rh4 in the treatment of AD and reveals that Rh4 is a potential drug for the treatment of AD.

Potential Role of Natural Antioxidants in Countering Reperfusion Injury in Acute Myocardial Infarction and Ischemic Stroke

Stroke and acute myocardial infarction are leading causes of mortality worldwide. The latter accounts for approximately 9 million deaths annually. In turn, ischemic stroke is a significant contributor to adult physical disability globally. While reperfusion is crucial for tissue recovery, it can paradoxically exacerbate damage through oxidative stress (OS), inflammation, and cell death. Therefore, it is imperative to explore diverse approaches aimed at minimizing ischemia/reperfusion injury to enhance clinical outcomes. OS primarily arises from an excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or decreased endogenous antioxidant potential. Natural antioxidant compounds can counteract the injury mechanisms linked to ROS. While promising preclinical results, based on monotherapies, account for protective effects against tissue injury by ROS, translating these models into human applications has yielded controversial evidence. However, since the wide spectrum of antioxidants having diverse chemical characteristics offers varied biological actions on cell signaling pathways, multitherapy has emerged as a valuable therapeutic resource. Moreover, the combination of antioxidants in multitherapy holds significant potential for synergistic effects. This study was designed with the aim of providing an updated overview of natural antioxidants suitable for preventing myocardial and cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injuries.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of ginsenoside Rg1 for hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic reviews and meta-analyses of animal studies

Background: According to existing laboratory data, ginsenoside Rg1 may help cure diabetes and its complications by reducing oxidative stress (OS) and managing inflammation. However, this conclusion lacks reliability and is unclear. As a result, the purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenoside Rg1 in the treatment of diabetes and its complications. Methods: We searched for relevant studies published through December 2022, including electronic bibliographic databases such as PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, CNKI, and Wanfang. The SYstematic Review Center for Laboratory Animal Experimentation Risk of Bias (SYRCLE RoB) tool was used to conduct a meta-analysis to assess the methodological quality of animal research. The meta-analysis was conducted using RevMan5.4 software, following the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. This study is registered in the International Systems Review Prospective Registry (PROSPERO) as CRD42023386830. Results: Eighteen eligible studies involving 401 animals were included. Ginsenoside Rg1 was significantly correlated with blood glucose (BG), insulin levels, body weight, superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels. In addition, according to subgroup analysis, the hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects of ginsenoside Rg1 in type 2 diabetic animals were not affected by experimental species, modeling, experimental drug dosage, or course of treatment. Conclusion: This meta-analysis presents a summary of the hypoglycemic effects of ginsenoside Rg1, which are achieved through anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms. These findings provide evidence-based support for the medical efficacy of ginsenoside Rg1. Specifically, ginsenoside Rg1 reduced MDA levels and restored SOD activity to exert its antioxidant activity. It had a positive effect on the reduction of IL-6 and TNF-α levels. However, the inclusion of studies with low methodological quality and the presence of publication bias may undermine the validity of the results. Further investigation with a more rigorous experimental design and comprehensive studies is necessary to fully understand the specific glycemic mechanisms of ginsenosides. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/, identifier https://CRD42023386830.

[Ginsenosides affect the system of Toll-like receptors in the brain of rats under conditions of long-term alcohol withdrawal]

Long-term alcohol consumption causes the development of neuroinflammation in various brain structures. One of the mechanisms involved in this process is the increased activity of TLR-signaling intracellular pathways. Studies confirm the ability of ginseng extract or its individual ginsenosides to reduce the increased activity of TLR-signaling pathways. The aim of our study was to study the effect of the amount of ginsenosides obtained from the extract of the Panax japonicus cell line on the state of the TLR-signaling system in the nucleus accumbens and hippocampus of the rat brain in a model of long-term alcohol consumption during alcohol withdrawal. The results of the study showed that ginsenosides were able to make changes in the TLR signaling system, which has been altered by long-term alcohol consumption. A significant effect of ginsenosides on the level of TLR3 and TLR4 mRNA in the nucleus accumbens was found, while in the hippocampus, ginsenosides significantly affected the level of TLR7 mRNA. The effect of ginsenosides on the level of mRNA of transcription factors and cytokines involved in TLR-signaling was evaluated. Thus, results of our study confirm that ginsenosides are able to influence the state of TLR-signaling pathways, but this effect is multidirectional in relation to different brain structures. In the future, it seems interesting to evaluate the role of individual ginsenosides in relation to genes of TLR-signaling, as well as the effect of ginsenosides on other brain structures.