From Gene to Protein-How Bacterial Virulence Factors Manipulate Host Gene Expression During Infection

Immune checkpoint blockade in experimental bacterial infections

Immune checkpoint inhibitors designed to reinvigorate immune responses suppressed by cancer cells have revolutionized cancer therapy. Similarities in immune dysregulation between cancer and infectious diseases have prompted investigations into the role of immune checkpoints in infectious diseases, including the therapeutic potential of immune checkpoint blockade and drug repurposing. While most research has centered around viral infections, data for bacterial infections are emerging. This systematic review reports on the in vivo effect of immune checkpoint blockade on bacterial burden and selected immune responses in preclinical studies of bacterial infection, aiming to assess if there could be a rationale for using immunotherapy for bacterial infections. Of the 42 analyzed studies, immune checkpoint blockade reduced the bacterial burden in 60% of studies, had no effect in 28% and increased the bacterial burden in 12%. Findings suggest that the effect of immune checkpoint blockade on bacterial burden is context-dependent and in part relates to the pathogen. Further preclinical research is required to understand how the therapeutic effect of immune checkpoint blockade is mediated in different bacterial infections, and if immune checkpoint blockade can be used as an adjuvant to conventional infection management strategies.

The Legionella pneumophila effector PieF modulates mRNA stability through association with eukaryotic CCR4-NOT

The eukaryotic CCR4-NOT deadenylase complex is a highly conserved regulator of mRNA metabolism that influences the expression of the complete transcriptome, representing a prime target for a generalist bacterial pathogen. We show that a translocated bacterial effector protein, PieF (Lpg1972) of Legionella pneumophila, directly interacts with the CNOT7/8 nuclease module of CCR4-NOT, with a dissociation constant in the low nanomolar range. PieF is a robust in vitro inhibitor of the DEDD-type nuclease, CNOT7, acting in a stoichiometric, dose-dependent manner. Heterologous expression of PieF phenocopies knockout of the CNOT7 ortholog (POP2) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, resulting in 6-azauracil sensitivity. In mammalian cells, expression of PieF leads to a variety of quantifiable phenotypes: PieF silences gene expression and reduces mRNA steady-state levels when artificially tethered to a reporter transcript, and its overexpression results in the nuclear exclusion of CNOT7. PieF expression also disrupts the association between CNOT6/6L EEP-type nucleases and CNOT7. Adding to the complexities of PieF activity in vivo, we identified a separate domain of PieF responsible for binding to eukaryotic kinases. Unlike what we observe for CNOT6/6L, we show that these interactions can occur concomitantly with PieF's binding to CNOT7. Collectively, this work reveals a new, highly conserved target of L. pneumophila effectors and suggests a mechanism by which the pathogen may be modulating host mRNA stability and expression during infection.

IMPORTANCE

The intracellular bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila targets conserved eukaryotic pathways to establish a replicative niche inside host cells. With a host range that spans billions of years of evolution (from protists to humans), the interaction between L. pneumophila and its hosts frequently involves conserved eukaryotic pathways (protein translation, ubiquitination, membrane trafficking, autophagy, and the cytoskeleton). Here, we present the identification of a new, highly conserved host target of L. pneumophila effectors: the CCR4-NOT complex. CCR4-NOT modulates mRNA stability in eukaryotes from yeast to humans, making it an attractive target for a generalist pathogen, such as L. pneumophila. We show that the uncharacterized L. pneumophila effector PieF specifically targets one component of this complex, the deadenylase subunit CNOT7/8. We show that the interaction between PieF and CNOT7 is direct, occurs with high affinity, and reshapes the catalytic activity, localization, and composition of the complex across evolutionarily diverse eukaryotic cells.

Detection of blaTEM, blaOXA, blaCTX-M, and blaSHV genes of antibiotic resistance in diarrheagenic E. coli causing enteric infection in hypertensive patients at Laquintinie Hospital, Littoral Region of Cameroon

BACKGROUND

Pathogenic Escherichia coli is one of the most common causes of acute watery diarrhea among children and adults in the developing world. The severity of infection by this bacterium is a product of many factors, including virulence properties and antimicrobial resistance. This study aimed to determine the distribution of different virulence genes of E. coli isolates in hypertensive and non-hypertensive patients and their association with some selected beta-lactam resistance genes.

METHODS

At the Douala Laquintinie Hospital, 518 fecal samples were collected from both hypertensive and non-hypertensive patients with enteric infections. E. coli was isolated on eosin-methylene blue agar (EMB) and identified by the Api 20 E Galery. The virulence genes and extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing (ESBL) E. coli genes were detected by simplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR), while antimicrobial susceptibility was tested by the Kirby-Bauer agar disc diffusion method.

RESULTS

The prevalence of enteric infection due to diarrheagenic E. coli (n = 204) was found to be 39.38 % in the general population (n = 518). There were 55 enterovirulent E. coli isolates identified. According to hypertension (HTN), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) isolates were more isolated in hypertensive patients (77.78 %) than in non-hypertensive patients (22.22 %), while enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) were the most frequent in non-hypertensive patients (58.33 %). EPEC, EAEC, enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) isolates showed higher rates of resistance to amoxicillin (AMO) (90.48 %; 100.00 %; 100.00 %; 100.00 % vs 83.33 %; 85.71 %; 75.00 %; 50.00 %) and SXT (71.43 %; 80.00 %; 75.00 %; 75.00 % vs 0.00 %; 28.57 %; 50.00 %; 25.00 %) in hypertensive patients compared to non-hypertensive patients. The prevalence of ESBL-producing (ESBL-P) E. coli was 87.27 %. The resistance genes blaTEM (64.71 % vs 52.38 %) and blaOXA (23.53 % vs 9.52 %) were more frequently detected in hypertensive patients than in non-hypertensive patients. The high resistance to AMO was correlated with the presence of the blaCTX-M gene (OR: 5.52; 95 % CI: 0.61-49.39; p = 0.093).

CONCLUSION

This study reveals the high burden of the typical EPEC, EAEC, and ESBL-P E. coli and confirmed the high occurrence of blaCTX-M and blaTEM among ESBL-producing E. coli in hypertensive patients. The study suggests that measures need to be taken to reduce the harmfulness of enterovirulent E. coli and the resistance of enterovirulent E. coli in hypertensive patients.

Global proteomics reveals pathways of mesenchymal stem cells altered by Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) has a remarkable ability to persist inside host cells. Several studies showed that M. tb infects and survives inside bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) escaping the host immune system. Here, we have identified various cellular pathways that are modulated in human BM-MSCs upon infection with virulent M. tb and the proteomic profile of these cells varies from that of avirulent M. tb infected cells. We found that virulent M. tb infection reshapes host pathways such as stem cell differentiation, alternative splicing, cytokine production, mitochondrial function etc., which might be modulated by M. tb to persist inside this unconventional niche of human BM-MSCs. Additionally, we observed that virulent M. tb infection suppresses various cellular processes. This study uncovers the differences in the host proteomic profiles resulting from the virulent versus avirulent M. tb infection that can pave the way to identify host-directed therapeutic targets for the treatment of tuberculosis.

Persistent microbial infections and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis - an insight into non-typeable Haemophilus influenza pathogenesis

Interstitial lung disease (ILD) is characterized by chronic inflammation and scarring of the lungs, of which idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is the most devastating pathologic form. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis pathogenesis leads to loss of lung function and eventual death in 50% of patients, making it the leading cause of ILD-associated mortality worldwide. Persistent and subclinical microbial infections are implicated in the acute exacerbation of chronic lung diseases. However, while epidemiological studies have highlighted pollutants, gastric aspirate, and microbial infections as major causes for the progression and exacerbation of IPF, the role of persistent microbial infections in the pathogenesis of IPF remains unclear. In this review, we have focused on the role of persistent microbial infections, including viral, bacterial, and fungal infections, and their mechanisms of action in the pathogenesis of IPF. In particular, the mechanisms and pathogenesis of the Gram-negative bacteria Non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) in ILDs are discussed, along with growing evidence of its role in IPF, given its unique ability to establish persistent intracellular infections by leveraging its non-capsulated nature to evade host defenses. While antibiotic treatments are presumably beneficial to target the extracellular, interstitial, and systemic burden of pathogens, their effects are significantly reduced in combating pathogens that reside in the intracellular compartments. The review also includes recent clinical trials, which center on combinatorial treatments involving antimicrobials and immunosuppressants, along with antifibrotic drugs that help mitigate disease progression in IPF patients. Finally, future directions focus on mRNA-based therapeutics, given their demonstrated effectiveness across a wide range of clinical applications and feasibility in targeting intracellular pathogens.

Analysis of Mannose-Binding Lectin Protein and mRNA Levels on Selected Chicken Breeds in South Africa

BACKGROUND

Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is a key component of the innate immune system that plays a crucial role in binding to the microbial sugar surface to recognize and eliminate pathogens by activating the complement system.

OBJECTIVE

To detect and quantify the MBL protein concentration and chicken MBL expression in selected chicken breeds in South Africa.

METHODS

Forty-five blood samples from three indigenous chicken breeds, Ovambo (OV = 9), Venda (VD = 9) and Potchefstroom Koekoek (PK = 9), and two exotic chicken breeds, Rhode Island Red (RIR = 9) and Lohmann Brown (LB = 9), were used for MBL protein concentration using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) techniques. Also 20 liver samples from symptomatic two indigenous chicken breeds, OV (5) and PK (5), and two exotic chicken breeds, RIR (5) and LB (5), were used for MBL expression using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) techniques. A general linear model was done using Tukey's multiple comparison post hoc test.

RESULTS

The findings revealed MBL protein concentration from 5.26 to 18.56 µg/mL. The LB breed had the lowest mean 6.40 ± 0.80 µg/mL, whereas the PK breed had the highest mean MBL concentration of 17.70 ± 0.24 µg/mL of MBL protein concentration. At 12, 25 and 35 weeks, the MBL proteins of OV, VD, PK, RIR and LB varied significantly at p ≤ 0.05. The mRNA MBL expression of OV and LB breeds showed a 1-fold decrease in MBL expression, while RIR showed a 2-fold increase in MBL expression, and the PK showed more than a 3-fold increase in MBL expression relative to the control. The least-squares means for OV, LB, PK and RIR mRNA MBL expression were 0.54 ± 0.19, 0.68 ± 0.30, 4.46 ± 2.76 and 2.89 ± 0.19 µg/mL, respectively.

CONCLUSION

MBL protein was detected and quantified with distinct differences in concentration and expression levels  at the presence of mycoplasma gallisepticum among the sampled South African chicken breeds. This highlights the genetic diversity of MBL as a tool for disease prevention in South African chicken breeds.

Comparative analysis of transcriptomics and metabolomics provides insights into the mechanisms of VPAHPND invasion and hepatopancreatic damage in Litopenaeus vannamei

Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) poses significant threats to the global shrimp farming industry; however, its molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. Previous research has primarily focused on comparisons between infected and non-infected states, limiting our understanding of VPAHPND mechanisms. We integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses to investigate the pathogenic mechanism underpinning AHPND in highly vulnerable post-larvae (PL) stage shrimp. By comparing shrimp infected with VPAHPND, those infected with non-VPAHPND, and uninfected shrimp (controls), we identified different VPAHPND infection responses, including significant cytoskeleton and metabolic reprogramming changes. Specifically, VPAHPND infection disturbed lipid, glutathione, and bile acid metabolism, while a key regulatory factor Farnesoid X Receptor (FXR) in these pathways was down-regulated. These findings suggest that VPAHPND manipulates host metabolism to enhance infectivity, leading to severe and irreparable hepatopancreas damage. Our study highlights the molecular interactions between VPAHPND and shrimp, and provides potential targets to mitigate the impact of AHPND in aquaculture.

Identification of potential nucleomodulins of Mycoplasma bovis by direct biotinylation and proximity-based biotinylation approaches

Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) is a significant bovine pathogen associated with various diseases, including bovine bronchopneumonia and mastitis resulting in substantial economic losses within the livestock industry. However, the development of effective control measures for M. bovis is hindered by a limited understanding of its virulence factors and pathogenesis. Nucleomodulins are newly identified secreted proteins of bacteria that internalize the host nuclei to regulate host cell gene expression and serve as critical virulence factors. Although recent reports have initiated exploration of mycoplasma nucleomodulins, the efficiency of conventional techniques for identification is very limited. Therefore, this study aimed to establish high-throughput methods to identify novel nucleomodulins of M. bovis. Using a direct biotinylation (DB) approach, a total of 289 proteins were identified including 66 high abundant proteins. In parallel, the use of proximity-based biotinylation (PBB), identified 28 proteins. Finally, seven nucleomodulins were verified to be nuclear by transfecting the bovine macrophage cell line BoMac with the plasmids encoding EGFP-fused proteins and observed with Opera Phenix, including the known nucleomodulin MbovP475 and six novel nucleomodulins. The novel nucleomodulins were four ribosomal proteins (MbovP599, MbovP678, MbovP710, and MbovP712), one transposase (MbovP790), and one conserved hypothetical protein (MbovP513). Among them, one unique nucleomodulin MbovP475 was identified with DB, two unique nucleomodulins (MbovP513 and MbovP710) with PBB, and four nucleomodulins by both. Overall, these findings established a foundation for further research on M. bovis nucleomodulin-host interactions for identification of new virulence factors.

Epithelial cells maintain memory of prior infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae through di-methylation of histone H3

Epithelial cells are the first point of contact for bacteria entering the respiratory tract. Streptococcus pneumoniae is an obligate human pathobiont of the nasal mucosa, carried asymptomatically but also the cause of severe pneumoniae. The role of the epithelium in maintaining homeostatic interactions or mounting an inflammatory response to invasive S. pneumoniae is currently poorly understood. However, studies have shown that chromatin modifications, at the histone level, induced by bacterial pathogens interfere with the host transcriptional program and promote infection. Here, we uncover a histone modification induced by S. pneumoniae infection maintained for at least 9 days upon clearance of bacteria with antibiotics. Di-methylation of histone H3 on lysine 4 (H3K4me2) is induced in an active manner by bacterial attachment to host cells. We show that infection establishes a unique epigenetic program affecting the transcriptional response of epithelial cells, rendering them more permissive upon secondary infection. Our results establish H3K4me2 as a unique modification induced by infection, distinct from H3K4me3 or me1, which localizes to enhancer regions genome-wide. Therefore, this study reveals evidence that bacterial infection leaves a memory in epithelial cells after bacterial clearance, in an epigenomic mark, thereby altering cellular responses to subsequent infections and promoting infection.

Effects of tobacco smoke on the expression of virulence genes in Escherichia coli

It is widely acknowledged that smoking exacerbates the severity of infectious diseases. A presumed mechanism involves the damage inflicted by tobacco smoke on the organs of host organisms. In this study, an alternative hypothesis was explored: smoking enhances the virulence of bacteria. This possibility was investigated using Escherichia coli as the model bacteria and Drosophila as the host organism. Our inquiry focused on the potential gene expression changes in E. coli subsequent to exposure to tobacco smoke extracts. Analysis of the transcription promoter activity of genes encoding proteins within the E. coli two-component system, a regulatory machinery governing gene expression, revealed the suppression of thirteen out of 23 promoters in response to tobacco smoke extracts. Subsequently, Drosophila was infected with E. coli exposed to tobacco smoke extracts or left untreated. Interestingly, there were no significant differences observed in the survival periods of Drosophila following infection with E. coli, whether treated or untreated with tobacco smoke extracts. Contrary to the initial hypothesis, the findings suggest that while tobacco smoke extracts alter gene expression in E. coli, these changes do not appear to impact bacterial virulence. Although this study has illuminated the influence of tobacco smoke extracts on the gene expression of E. coli, further analyses are necessary to elucidate the implications of these changes. Nevertheless, the results imply that smoking affects not only host organisms but may also exert influence on invading bacteria.

Molecular docking and dynamics simulation studies uncover the host-pathogen protein-protein interactions in Penaeus vannamei and Vibrio parahaemolyticus

Shrimp aquaculture contributes significantly to global economic growth, and the whiteleg shrimp, Penaeus vannamei, is a leading species in this industry. However, Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection poses a major challenge in ensuring the success of P. vannamei aquaculture. Despite its significance in this industry, the biological knowledge of its pathogenesis remains unclear. Hence, this study was conducted to identify the interaction sites and binding affinity between several immune-related proteins of P. vannamei with V. parahaemolyticus proteins associated with virulence factors. Potential interaction sites and the binding affinity between host and pathogen proteins were identified using molecular docking and dynamics (MD) simulation. The P. vannamei-V. parahaemolyticus protein-protein interaction of Complex 1 (Ferritin-HrpE/YscL family type III secretion apparatus protein), Complex 2 (Protein kinase domain-containing protein-Chemotaxis CheY protein), and Complex 3 (GPCR-Chemotaxis CheY protein) was found to interact with -4319.76, -5271.39, and -4725.57 of the docked score and the formation of intermolecular bonds at several interacting residues. The docked scores of Complex 1, Complex 2, and Complex 3 were validated using MD simulation analysis, which revealed these complexes greatly contribute to the interactions between P. vannamei and V. parahaemolyticus proteins, with binding free energies of -22.50 kJ/mol, -30.20 kJ/mol, and -26.27 kJ/mol, respectively. This finding illustrates the capability of computational approaches to search for molecular binding sites between host and pathogen, which could increase the knowledge of Vibrio spp. infection on shrimps, which then can be used to assist in the development of effective treatment.

To target or not to target? The role of DNA and histone methylation in bacterial infections

Epigenetics describes chemical modifications of the genome that do not alter DNA sequence but participate in the regulation of gene expression and cellular processes such as proliferation, division, and differentiation of eukaryotic cell. Disruption of the epigenome pattern in a human cell is associated with different diseases, including infectious diseases. During infection pathogens induce epigenetic modifications in the host cell. This can occur by controlling expression of genes involved in immune response. That enables bacterial survival and replication within the host and evasion of the immune response. Methylation is an example of epigenetic modification that occurs on DNA and histones. Reasoning that DNA and histone methylation of human host cells plays a crucial role during pathogenesis, these modifications are promising targets for the development of alternative treatment strategies in infectious diseases. Here, we discuss the role of DNA and histone methyltransferases in human host cell upon bacterial infections. We further hypothesize that compounds targeting methyltransferases are tools to study epigenetics in the context of host-pathogen interactions and can open new avenues for the treatment of bacterial infections.

VirulentPred 2.0: An improved method for prediction of virulent proteins in bacterial pathogens

Virulence proteins in pathogens are essential for causing disease in a host. They enable the pathogen to invade, survive and multiply within the host, thus enhancing its potential to cause disease while also causing evasion of host defense mechanisms. Identifying these factors, especially potential vaccine candidates or drug targets, is critical for vaccine or drug development research. In this context, we present an improved version of VirulentPred 1.0 for rapidly identifying virulent proteins. The VirulentPred 2.0 is based on training machine learning models with experimentally validated virulent protein sequences. VirulentPred 2.0 achieved 84.71% accuracy with the validation dataset and 85.18% on an independent test dataset. The models are trained and evaluated with the latest sequence datasets of virulent proteins, which are three times greater in number than the proteins used in the earlier version of VirulentPred. Moreover, a significant improvement of 11% in the prediction accuracy over the earlier version is achieved with the best position-specific scoring matrix (PSSM)-based model for the latest test dataset. VirulentPred 2.0 is available as a user-friendly web interface at https://bioinfo.icgeb.res.in/virulent2/ and a standalone application suitable for bulk predictions. With higher efficiency and availability as a standalone tool, VirulentPred 2.0 holds immense potential for high throughput yet efficient identification of virulent proteins in bacterial pathogens.

Correlation between gut microbiota composition, enteric infections and linear growth impairment: a case-control study in childhood stunting in Pidie, Aceh, Indonesia

BACKGROUND

Gut microbiota is pivotal in maintaining children's health and well-being. The ingestion of enteric pathogens and dysbiosis lead to Environmental Enteric Dysfunction (EED), which is essential in stunting pathogenesis. The roles of gut microbiome and enteric infections have not been explored comprehensively in relation to childhood stunting in Indonesia. This study aimed to determine the correlation between gut microbiota composition, enteric infections, and growth biomarker, Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1), in stunted children from Pidie, Aceh, Indonesia.

METHODS

This study was a case-control study involving 42 subjects aged 24 to 59 months, comprising 21 stunted children for the case and 21 normal children for the control group. The IGF-1 serum level was quantified using ELISA. The gut microbiome profiling was conducted using 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing. The expression of enteric pathogens virulence genes was determined using quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay. The correlations of observed variables were analysed using suitable statistical analyses.

RESULTS

The result showed that the IGF-1 sera levels in stunted were lower than those in normal children (p ≤ 0.001). The abundance of Firmicutes (50%) was higher than Bacteroidetes (34%) in stunted children. The gut microbiome profile of stunted children showed enriched genera such as Blautia, Dorea, Collinsella, Streptococcus, Clostridium sensu stricto 13, Asteroleplasma and Anaerostipes. Meanwhile the depleted genera comprised Prevotella, Lactococcus, Butyrivibrio, Muribaculaceae, Alloprevotella, Akkermansia, Enterococcus, Terrisporobacter and Turicibacter. The abundance of water biological contaminants such as Aeromonas, Stappiaceae, and Synechococcus was also higher in stunted children compared to normal children. The virulence genes expression of Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (aaiC), Enterotoxigenic E. coli (estA), Enteropathogenic E. coli (eaeA), Shigella/Enteroinvasive E. coli (ipaH3) and Salmonella enterica (ompC) in stunted was higher than in normal children (p ≤ 0.001), which negatively correlated to height and level of IGF-1.

CONCLUSION

The present study showed the distinctive gut microbiome profile of stunted and normal children from Pidie, Aceh, Indonesia. The gut microbiota of stunted children revealed dysbiosis, comprised several pro-inflammatory, metabolic abnormalities and high-fat/low-fiber diet-related taxa, and expressed virulence genes of enteric pathogens. These findings provide evidence that it is imperative to restore dysbiosis and preserve the balance of gut microbiota to support linear growth in children.

Hand infection: a management approach based on a new understanding of combined bacterial and neutrophil mediated tissue damage

Concepts of tissue damage from sepsis are rooted in the works of Pasteur regarding colonization by microorganisms, and Lister's observation of avoiding suppuration by their exclusion. The reactive inflammation has been considered a beneficial defence mechanism. A more complex biology is now unfolding of pathogenic mechanisms with toxins produced by the organisms now being placed in a broad category of virulence factors. Neutrophils are key cells in providing innate immunity and their trafficking to sites of infection results in entry to the extracellular space where they attack pathogens by release of the contents of neutrophil granules and neutrophil extracellular traps. There is now considerable evidence that much of the tissue damage in infection is due to excessive host innate immunological reaction; a hyperinflammatory response, whether localized or systemic. In addition to traditional surgical methods of drainage and decompression there is now a focus on dilution of inflammatory mediators. This emerging knowledge can potentially alter the way we approach hand infections.

Multidimensional Landscape of SA-AKI Revealed by Integrated Proteomics and Metabolomics Analysis

Sepsis-associated acute kidney injury (SA-AKI) is a severe and life-threatening condition with high morbidity and mortality among emergency patients, and it poses a significant risk of chronic renal failure. Clinical treatments for SA-AKI remain reactive and non-specific, lacking effective diagnostic biomarkers or treatment targets. In this study, we established an SA-AKI mouse model using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and performed proteomics and metabolomics analyses. A variety of bioinformatic analyses, including gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), protein and protein interactions (PPI), and MetaboAnalyst analysis, were conducted to investigate the key molecules of SA-AKI. Integrated proteomics and metabolomics analysis revealed that sepsis led to impaired renal mitochondrial function and metabolic disorders. Immune-related pathways were found to be activated in kidneys upon septic infection. The catabolic products of polyamines accumulated in septic kidneys. Overall, our integrated analysis provides a multidimensional understanding of SA-AKI and identifies potential pathways for this condition.

Pulmonary Pathogen-Induced Epigenetic Modifications

Epigenetics generally involves genetic control by factors other than our own DNA sequence. Recent research has focused on delineating the mechanisms of two major epigenetic phenomena: DNA methylation and histone modification. As epigenetics involves many cellular processes, it is no surprise that it can also influence disease-associated gene expression. A direct link between respiratory infections, host cell epigenetic regulations, and chronic lung diseases is still unknown. Recent studies have revealed bacterium- or virus-induced epigenetic changes in the host cells. In this review, we focused on respiratory pathogens (viruses, bacteria, and fungi) induced epigenetic modulations (DNA methylation and histone modification) that may contribute to lung disease pathophysiology by promoting host defense or allowing pathogen persistence.

Risk Factors and Associated Outcomes of Virulence Genes eae, entB, and pipD Carriage in Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella spp. From HIV-1 and HIV-Negative Gastroenteritis Patients in the Dschang Regional Hospital Annex

Background Enterobacteriaceae is one of the main families of gram-negative bacilli responsible for serious infections in humans. The severity of infection by these bacteria is a product of many factors, including virulence properties and antimicrobial resistance. This severity may be further intensified if there is an association between these factors and a depressed immune system, such as in HIV patients. This study aimed to determine the distribution of representative virulence genes among key Enterobacteriaceae isolates from HIV-1 and non-HIV gastroenteritis patients and the relationship between carrying these virulence genes and antimicrobial susceptibility, seropositive status, and severity of symptoms associated with Enterobacteriaceae infections in Dschang Regional Hospital Annex. Methodology A total of 200 gastroenteritis patients (100 HIV-1 and 100 non-HIV patients) were selected and evaluated for symptoms associated with gastroenteritis. Stool samples were obtained and cultured, from which Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella spp. isolates were obtained. Antibiotic susceptibility tests were performed on the isolates by agar disc diffusion using commonly used antibiotics. These isolates were tested for the possession of virulence genes by polymerase chain reaction (PCR); eae for E. coli, entB for K. pneumoniae, and pipD for Salmonella spp. Correlation tests and risk assessments were performed between the presence of virulence genes, antibiotic resistance, and specific symptoms. Results The isolates obtained from HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients were, respectively, 61 against 62 for E. coli, 10 against 21 for K. pneumoniae, and 11 against 15 for Salmonella spp.These organisms showed the highest resistance to amoxicillin and clavulanic acid, while the least resistance was observed against ofloxacin, gentamicin, and amikacin in both groups of patients. The virulence genes showed a generally higher occurrence in isolates from HIV-negative patients than HIV-positive patients, with the eae gene 5/61 (8.20%) against 12/62 (19.35%), the entB gene 4/10 (40.00%) against 14/21 (66.66%), and the pipD gene 5/11 (45.45%) against 7/15 (46.46%) in HIV-positive and negative patients, respectively. There was a significant correlation between eae gene carriage and resistance against imipenem (p = 0.047), gentamycin (p = 0.047), and doxycycline (p = 0.029); entB gene carriage and resistance toward levofloxacin (p = 0.017) in K. pneumoniae; and pipD gene carriage and resistance against levofloxacin (p = 0.039), imipenem (p = 0.041), and doxycycline (p = 0.042). The carriage of the virulence genes was seen to be a stronger risk only for the resistance of K. pneumoniae to ceftriaxone (odds ratio (OR) = 2.286) and gentamycin (OR = 3.000), and Salmonella spp. against imipenem (OR = 2.750) and doxycycline (OR = 2.118). The development of severe symptoms correlated significantly with virulence gene carriage in isolates, mainly in HIV-positive patients with eae (p = 0.017) and pipD (p = 0.025), with a strong risk association with the pipD gene (OR = 2.665). Conclusions Antibiotic resistance was associated with virulence gene carriage, indicating that virulence and antibiotic resistance can associate their effects and contribute to poor outcomes in the treatment of bacterial diseases in HIV patients. The possession of virulence genes increased the severity of symptoms associated with gastroenteritis in HIV-positive patients.

Does Performance of D-Dimer for Diagnosis of Periprosthetic Joint Infection Change with the Virulence of Infecting Organism?

INTRODUCTION

The impact of the organism virulence on diagnostic accuracy of D-Dimer for periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is unknown. Our objective was to assess if the performance of D-Dimer in PJI diagnosis changes with the virulence of the organism(s).

METHODS

Retrospective review of 143 consecutive revision total hip/knee arthroplasties (THA/TKAs) with D-Dimer ordered preoperatively. Operations were performed by 3 surgeons at a single institution (November 2017 through September 2020). There were 141 revisions with complete 2013-International Consensus Meeting (ICM)-criteria initially included. This criteria was used to classify revisions as aseptic vs. septic. Culture-negative septic revisions (n=8) were excluded, and 133 revisions (47-hips/86-knees; 67-septic/66-aseptic) were analyzed. Based on culture results, septic-revisions were categorized into 'low-virulence (LV/n=40)' or 'high-virulence (HV/n=27)'. The D-Dimer threshold (850-ng/mL) was tested against 2013-ICM-criteria ("standard") in identifying septic-revisions (LV/HV) from aseptic-revisions. Sensitivity, specificity, and positive/negative-predictive-values (PPV/NPV) were determined. Receiver-operating-characteristic-curve-analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Plasma D-Dimer showed high sensitivity (97.5%) and NPV (95.4%) in LV septic cases, which appeared to reduce by about 5% in HV septic cases (sensitivity=92.5% and NPV=91.3%). However, this marker had poor overall accuracy (LV=57%; HV=49.4%), low specificity (LV and HV=31.8%), and PPV (LV=46.4%; HV=35.7%) to diagnose PJI. The area under the curve (AUC) was 0.647 and 0.622 in LV and HV vs. aseptic revisions, respectively.

CONCLUSION

D-Dimer performs poorly to identify septic from aseptic revisions in the setting of LV/HV infecting organisms alike. However, it shows high sensitivity for PJI diagnosis in cases of low virulence organisms which might be missed by most diagnostic tests.

The phosphoproteome of choroid plexus epithelial cells following infection with Neisseria meningitidis

The Gram-negative bacterium Neisseria meningitidis, which causes meningitis in humans, has been demonstrated to manipulate or alter host signalling pathways during infection of the central nervous system (CNS). However, these complex signalling networks are not completely understood. We investigate the phosphoproteome of an in vitro model of the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) based on human epithelial choroid plexus (CP) papilloma (HIBCPP) cells during infection with the N. meningitidis serogroup B strain MC58 in presence and absence of the bacterial capsule. Interestingly, our data demonstrates a stronger impact on the phosphoproteome of the cells by the capsule-deficient mutant of MC58. Using enrichment analyses, potential pathways, molecular processes, biological processes, cellular components and kinases were determined to be regulated as a consequence of N. meningitidis infection of the BCSFB. Our data highlight a variety of protein regulations that are altered during infection of CP epithelial cells with N. meningitidis, with the regulation of several pathways and molecular events only being detected after infection with the capsule-deficient mutant. Mass spectrometry proteomics data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD038560.

Non-clinical isolates of Vibrio parahaemolyticus harbouring traits of potential pathogenicity and fitness: A molecular analysis

Here we investigated the distribution of virulence and fitness attributes V. parahaemolyticus isolated from marine environment (n = 105). We discovered ∼1% of isolates positive for tdh, 8.57% for trh, and 4.76% had tdh and trh genes. More than 50% of the isolates had pathogenicity islands specific to pandemic clones and secretion systems which are detected partially or entirely. VPaI-1 found in 59.04%; VPaI-4 in 60%; VPaI-5 in 34.28%; VPaI-2 in 99.04%; VPaI-3 in 91.42% and VPaI-6 in 99.04% isolates. Also, 34.28% of the isolates harboured T3SS2 encoding VPaI 7; T3SS1 in 98.09%; T6SS2 in 99.04% isolates and T6SS1 in 60.95% isolates. The cytotoxicity analysis showed a significant effect by causing when infected with trh⁺ environmental isolates. The expression of the trh, VopC, and VopA genes during infection showed a significant upregulation. This suggests the presence of virulence traits among V. parahaemolyticus that could threaten public health.

Activity-based Tools for Interrogating Host Biology During Infection

Host cells sense and respond to pathogens by dynamically regulating cell signaling. The rapid modulation of signaling pathways is achieved by post-translational modifications (PTMs) that can alter protein structure, function, and/or binding interactions. By using chemical probes to broadly profile changes in enzyme function or side-chain reactivity, activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) can reveal PTMs that regulate host-microbe interactions. While ABPP has been widely utilized to uncover microbial mechanisms of pathogenesis, in this review, we focus on more recent applications of this technique to the discovery of host PTMs and enzymes that modulate signaling within infected cells. Collectively, these advances underscore the importance of ABPP as a tool for interrogating the host response to infection and identifying potential targets for host-directed therapies.

The Xenogeneic Silencer Histone-Like Nucleoid-Structuring Protein Mediates the Temperature and Salinity-Dependent Regulation of the Type III Secretion System 2 in Vibrio parahaemolyticus

The marine bacterium Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a major seafood-borne pathogen that causes acute diarrhea in humans. A crucial virulence determinant of V. parahaemolyticus is the type III secretion system 2 (T3SS2), which is encoded on the Vibrio parahaemolyticus pathogenicity island (Vp-PAI), in which gene expression is dependent on environmental cues, such as temperature and salinity. This characteristic may implicate the adaptation of V. parahaemolyticus from its natural habitat to the human body environment during infection; however, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. Here, we describe the regulatory role of the histone-like nucleoid-structuring protein (H-NS), which is a xenogeneic silencing protein, in T3SS2 gene expression through the conditional silencing of the gene encoding a master regulator of Vp-PAI, VtrB. The hns deletion canceled the temperature- and salinity-dependent differential T3SS2 gene expression. H-NS bound to the vtrB promoter containing AT-rich sequences, and the binding sites partially overlapped the binding sites of two positive regulators of vtrB (i.e., VtrA and ToxR), which may block the transcriptional activation of vtrB. H-NS-family proteins multimerize along the DNA strand, forming stiffened filament and/or bridging DNA duplexes for its target silencing. In V. parahaemolyticus, mutations at conserved residues that are required for the multimerization of H-NS abolished the repressive activity on VtrB expression, supporting the contention that H-NS multimerization is also critical for vtrB silencing in V. parahaemolyticus. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the principal role of H-NS as a thermal and salt switch with sensory and regulatory properties for ensuring T3SS2 gene regulation in V. parahaemolyticus. IMPORTANCE In the major seafood-borne pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus, the type III secretion system 2 (T3SS2) is a major virulence factor that is responsible for the enterotoxicity of this bacterium. The expression of T3SS2 varies according to changes in temperature and salinity, but the mechanism via which T3SS2 expression is regulated in response to such physical cues remains unknown. Here, we report that H-NS, a xenogeneic silencer that is widespread in Gram-negative bacteria, modulates the entirety of T3SS2 gene expression through the transcriptional silencing of the gene encoding the T3SS2 master regulator VtrB in a temperature- and salinity-dependent manner. Thus, our findings provide insights into how this pathogen achieves the appropriate control of the expression of virulence genes in the transition between aquatic and human environments.

Integrated Profiling of Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Probiotic Genomes, Proteomes and Metabolomes Revealed Small Molecules with Differential Growth Inhibition of Antimicrobial-Resistant Pathogens

Probiotics produce small molecules that may serve as alternatives to conventional antibiotics by suppressing growth of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) pathogens. The objective of this study was to identify and examine antimicrobials produced and secreted by probiotics using 'omics' profiling with computer-based metabolic flux analyses. The cell-free supernatant of Gram-positive Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) and Gram-negative Escherichia coli Nissle (ECN) probiotics inhibited growth of AMR Salmonella Typhimurium, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella oxytoca ranging between 28.85 - 41.20% (LGG) and 11.48 - 29.45% (ECN). A dose dependent analysis of probiotic supernatants showed LGG was 6.27% to 20.55% more effective at reducing AMR pathogen growth when compared to ECN. Principal component analysis showed clear separation of ECN and LGG cell free supernatant metabolomes. Among 667 metabolites in the supernatant, 304 were differentially abundant between LGG and ECN probiotics. Proteomics identified 87 proteins, whereby 67 (ECN) and 14 (LGG) showed differential expression as enzymes related to carbohydrate and energy metabolic pathways. The whole genomes and metabolomes were next used for in-silico metabolic network analysis. The model predicted the production of 166 metabolites by LGG and ECN probiotics across amino acid, carbohydrate/energy, and nucleotide metabolism with antimicrobial functions. The predictive accuracy of the metabolic flux analysis highlights the novel utility for profiling probiotic supplements as dietary-based antimicrobial alternatives in the control of AMR pathogen growth.

Analysis of host-pathogen gene association networks reveals patient-specific response to streptococcal and polymicrobial necrotising soft tissue infections

BACKGROUND

Necrotising soft tissue infections (NSTIs) are rapidly progressing bacterial infections usually caused by either several pathogens in unison (polymicrobial infections) or Streptococcus pyogenes (mono-microbial infection). These infections are rare and are associated with high mortality rates. However, the underlying pathogenic mechanisms in this heterogeneous group remain elusive.

METHODS

In this study, we built interactomes at both the population and individual levels consisting of host-pathogen interactions inferred from dual RNA-Seq gene transcriptomic profiles of the biopsies from NSTI patients.

RESULTS

NSTI type-specific responses in the host were uncovered. The S. pyogenes mono-microbial subnetwork was enriched with host genes annotated with involved in cytokine production and regulation of response to stress. The polymicrobial network consisted of several significant associations between different species (S. pyogenes, Porphyromonas asaccharolytica and Escherichia coli) and host genes. The host genes associated with S. pyogenes in this subnetwork were characterised by cellular response to cytokines. We further found several virulence factors including hyaluronan synthase, Sic1, Isp, SagF, SagG, ScfAB-operon, Fba and genes upstream and downstream of EndoS along with bacterial housekeeping genes interacting with the human stress and immune response in various subnetworks between host and pathogen.

CONCLUSIONS

At the population level, we found aetiology-dependent responses showing the potential modes of entry and immune evasion strategies employed by S. pyogenes, congruent with general cellular processes such as differentiation and proliferation. After stratifying the patients based on the subject-specific networks to study the patient-specific response, we observed different patient groups with different collagens, cytoskeleton and actin monomers in association with virulence factors, immunogenic proteins and housekeeping genes which we utilised to postulate differing modes of entry and immune evasion for different bacteria in relationship to the patients' phenotype.

Capsule-dependent impact of MAPK signalling on host cell invasion and immune response during infection of the choroid plexus epithelium by Neisseria meningitidis

Background

The Gram-negative bacterium Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) can cause meningitis in humans, but the host signalling pathways manipulated by Nm during central nervous system (CNS) entry are not completely understood.

Methods

We investigate the role of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) Erk1/2 and p38 in an in vitro model of the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) based on human epithelial choroid plexus (CP) papilloma (HIBCPP) cells during infection with Nm serogroup B (NmB) and serogroup C (NmC) strains. A transcriptome analysis of HIBCPP cells following infection with Nm by massive analysis of cDNA ends (MACE) was done to further characterize the cellular response to infection of the barrier.

Results

Interestingly, whereas NmB and NmC wild type strains required active Erk1/2 and p38 pathways for infection, invasion by capsule-deficient mutants was independent of Erk1/2 and, in case of the NmB strain, of p38 activity. The transcriptome analysis of HIBCPP cells following infection with Nm demonstrated specific regulation of genes involved in the immune response dependent on Erk1/2 signalling. Gene ontology (GO) analysis confirmed loss of MAPK signalling after Erk1/2 inhibition and revealed an additional reduction of cellular responses including NFκB and JAK-STAT signalling. Interestingly, GO terms related to TNF signalling and production of IL6 were lost specifically following Erk1/2 inhibition during infection with wild type Nm, which correlated with the reduced infection rates by the wild type in absence of Erk1/2 signalling.

Conclusion

Our data point towards a role of MAPK signalling during infection of the CP epithelium by Nm, which is strongly influenced by capsule expression, and affects infection rates as well as the host cell response.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12987-021-00288-7.

Novel Methylation Biomarkers for Colorectal Cancer Prognosis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) comprises the third most common cancer worldwide and the second regarding number of deaths. In order to make a correct and early diagnosis to predict metastasis formation, biomarkers are an important tool. Although there are multiple signaling pathways associated with cancer progression, the most recognized are the MAPK pathway, p53 pathway, and TGF-β pathway. These pathways regulate many important functions in the cell, such as cell cycle regulation, proliferation, differentiation, and metastasis formation, among others. Changes in expression in genes belonging to these pathways are drivers of carcinogenesis. Often these expression changes are caused by mutations; however, epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation, are increasingly acknowledged to play a role in the deregulation of oncogenic genes. This makes DNA methylation changes an interesting biomarkers in cancer. Among the newly identified biomarkers for CRC metastasis INHBB, SMOC2, BDNF, and TBRG4 are included, all of which are highly deregulated by methylation and closely associated with metastasis. The identification of such biomarkers in metastasis of CRC may allow a better treatment and early identification of cancer formation in order to perform better diagnostics and improve the life expectancy.

Identification and characterization of novel infection associated transcripts in macrophages

By analysis of lncRNA expression profiles of macrophages in response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection, we identified novel highly expressed transcripts, unique in encompassing a protein coding transcript- Cytidine Monophosphate Kinase 2 (CMPK2) and a previously identified lncRNA- Negative Regulator of Interferon Response (NRIR). While these transcripts (TILT1, 2,3 - TLR4 and Infection induced Long Transcript) are induced by virulent Mtb as well as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) early, lack of/delayed expression in non-viable Mtb/BCG infected cells, respectively, suggest an important role in macrophage responses. The elevated expression by 3 hr in response to fast growing bacteria further emphasizes the importance of these RNAs in the macrophage infection response. Overall, we provide evidence for the presence of multiple transcripts that form a part of the early infection response programme of macrophages.Abbreviations: IFN: Interferon; NRIR: negative regulator of interferon response; CMPK2: cytidine/ uridine monophosphate kinase; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; LAM: Lipoarabinomannan; PIMs: Phosphatidylinositol Mannosides; TILT1, 2,3: TLR4 and Infection induced Long Transcript; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4; Mtb: Mycobacterium tuberculosis; BCG: Mycobacterium bovis BCG; MDMs: human monocyte derived macrophages.

Orientia tsutsugamushi Nucleomodulin Ank13 Exploits the RaDAR Nuclear Import Pathway To Modulate Host Cell Transcription

Orientia tsutsugamushi is the etiologic agent of scrub typhus, the deadliest of all diseases caused by obligate intracellular bacteria. Nucleomodulins, bacterial effectors that dysregulate eukaryotic transcription, are being increasingly recognized as key virulence factors. How they translocate into the nucleus and their functionally essential domains are poorly defined. We demonstrate that Ank13, an O. tsutsugamushi effector conserved among clinical isolates and expressed during infection, localizes to the nucleus in an importin β1-independent manner. Rather, Ank13 nucleotropism requires an isoleucine at the thirteenth position of its fourth ankyrin repeat, consistent with utilization of eukaryotic RaDAR (RanGDP-ankyrin repeats) nuclear import. RNA-seq analyses of cells expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged Ank13, nucleotropism-deficient Ank13_I127R, or Ank13ΔF-box, which lacks the F-box domain essential for interacting with SCF ubiquitin ligase, revealed Ank13 to be a nucleomodulin that predominantly downregulates transcription of more than 2,000 genes. Its ability to do so involves its nucleotropism and F-box in synergistic and mutually exclusive manners. Ank13 also acts in the cytoplasm to dysregulate smaller cohorts of genes. The effector’s toxicity in yeast heavily depends on its F-box and less so on its nucleotropism. Genes negatively regulated by Ank13 include those involved in the inflammatory response, transcriptional control, and epigenetics. Importantly, the majority of genes that GFP-Ank13 most strongly downregulates are quiescent or repressed in O. tsutsugamushi-infected cells when Ank13 expression is strongest. Ank13 is the first nucleomodulin identified to coopt RaDAR and a multifaceted effector that functions in the nucleus and cytoplasm via F-box-dependent and -independent mechanisms to globally reprogram host cell transcription.

A hijack mechanism of Indian SARS-CoV-2 isolates for relapsing contemporary antiviral therapeutics

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) rapidly expands to a global pandemic and its impact on public health varies from country to country. It is caused by a new virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It is imperative for relapsing current antiviral therapeutics owing to randomized genetic drift in global SARS-CoV-2 isolates. A molecular mechanism behind the emerging genomic variants is not yet understood for the prioritization of selective antivirals. The present computational study was aimed to repurpose existing antivirals for Indian SARS-CoV-2 isolates by uncovering a hijack mechanism based on structural and functional characteristics of protein variants. Forty-one protein mutations were identified in 12 Indian SARS-CoV-2 isolates by analysis of genome variations across 460 genome sequences obtained from 30 geographic sites in India. Two unique mutations such as W6152R and N5928H found in exonuclease of Surat (GBRC275b) and Gandhinagar (GBRC239) isolates. We report for the first time the impact of folding rate on stabilizing/retaining a sequence-structure-function-virulence link of emerging protein variants leading to accommodate hijack ability from current antivirals. Binding affinity analysis revealed the effect of point mutations on virus infectivity and the drug-escaping efficiency of Indian isolates. Emodin and artinemol suggested herein as repurposable antivirals for the treatment of COVID-19 patients infected with Indian isolates. Our study concludes that a protein folding rate is a key structural and evolutionary determinant to enhance the receptor-binding specificity and ensure hijack ability from the prevalent antiviral therapeutics.

Structural biology of the invasion arsenal of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens

In the last several years, there has been a tremendous progress in the understanding of host-pathogen interactions and the mechanisms by which bacterial pathogens modulate behavior of the host cell. Pathogens use secretion systems to inject a set of proteins, called effectors, into the cytosol of the host cell. These effectors are secreted in a highly regulated, temporal manner and interact with host proteins to modify a multitude of cellular processes. The number of effectors varies between pathogens from ~ 30 to as many as ~ 350. The functional redundancy of effectors encoded by each pathogen makes it difficult to determine the cellular effects or function of individual effectors, since their individual knockouts frequently produce no easily detectable phenotypes. Structural biology of effector proteins and their interactions with host proteins, in conjunction with cell biology approaches, has provided invaluable information about the cellular function of effectors and underlying molecular mechanisms of their modes of action. Many bacterial effectors are functionally equivalent to host proteins while being structurally divergent from them. Other effector proteins display new, previously unobserved functionalities. Here, we summarize the contribution of the structural characterization of effectors and effector-host protein complexes to our understanding of host subversion mechanisms used by the most commonly investigated Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. We describe in some detail the enzymatic activities discovered among effector proteins and how they affect various cellular processes.

Bacterial nucleomodulins: A coevolutionary adaptation to the eukaryotic command center

Through long-term interactions with their hosts, bacterial pathogens have evolved unique arsenals of effector proteins that interact with specific host targets and reprogram the host cell into a permissive niche for pathogen proliferation. The targeting of effector proteins into the host cell nucleus for modulation of nuclear processes is an emerging theme among bacterial pathogens. These unique pathogen effector proteins have been termed in recent years as "nucleomodulins." The first nucleomodulins were discovered in the phytopathogens Agrobacterium and Xanthomonas, where their nucleomodulins functioned as eukaryotic transcription factors or integrated themselves into host cell DNA to promote tumor induction, respectively. Numerous nucleomodulins were recently identified in mammalian pathogens. Bacterial nucleomodulins are an emerging family of pathogen effector proteins that evolved to target specific components of the host cell command center through various mechanisms. These mechanisms include: chromatin dynamics, histone modification, DNA methylation, RNA splicing, DNA replication, cell cycle, and cell signaling pathways. Nucleomodulins may induce short- or long-term epigenetic modifications of the host cell. In this extensive review, we discuss the current knowledge of nucleomodulins from plant and mammalian pathogens. While many nucleomodulins are already identified, continued research is instrumental in understanding their mechanisms of action and the role they play during the progression of pathogenesis. The continued study of nucleomodulins will enhance our knowledge of their effects on nuclear chromatin dynamics, protein homeostasis, transcriptional landscapes, and the overall host cell epigenome.

Microbial Virulence Factors

Microbial virulence factors encompass a wide range of molecules produced by pathogenic microorganisms, enhancing their ability to evade their host defenses and cause disease [...].