Potential Antitumor Effects of 6-Gingerol in p53-Dependent Mitochondrial Apoptosis and Inhibition of Tumor Sphere Formation in Breast Cancer Cells

Biological activities of fig latex -loaded cellulose acetate/poly(ethylene oxide) nanofiber for potential therapeutics: Anticancer and antioxidant material

Cancer is a fatal disease, and unfortunately, the anticancer drugs harm normal cells. Plant's extracts are the golden key to solving this issue. In this research, fig latex - from Ficus carica- was encapsulated using cellulose acetate (CA) and poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) polymers via electrospinning method (Fig@CA/PEO). Fig@CA/PEO nanofiber scaffold was characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The average fiber diameter was decreased with an increase in latex concentration from 715 nm to 583 nm. FT-IR spectroscopy indicated the presence of fig latex in Fig@CA/PEO nanofibers. Compared to 5-fluorouracil, Fig@CA/PEO nanofiber scaffold considered safe towards normal cells (WI-38). Moreover, the nanofiber scaffold was efficient against colon cancer cells (Caco) and liver cancer cells (HepG2) as it demonstrated IC50 values for cells by 23.97 μg/mL and 23.96 μg/mL, respectively. Besides, the nanofiber scaffold revealed mechanistic variations in apoptotic oncogenes; described by the upregulation of BCL2 and P21, combined by downregulation of p53 and TNF. Moreover, the nanofiber scaffold showed antioxidant activity counting 33.4, 36 and 41 % of DPPH scavenging as the fig latex concentration increased. The results demonstrate that the Fig@CA/PEO nanofiber scaffold is a promising substitute to traditional chemotherapy.

Targeting epidermal growth factor receptor and its downstream signaling pathways by natural products: A mechanistic insight

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) that maintains normal tissues and cell signaling pathways. EGFR is overactivated and overexpressed in many malignancies, including breast, lung, pancreatic, and kidney. Further, the EGFR gene mutations and protein overexpression activate downstream signaling pathways in cancerous cells, stimulating the growth, survival, resistance to apoptosis, and progression of tumors. Anti-EGFR therapy is the potential approach for treating malignancies and has demonstrated clinical success in treating specific cancers. The recent report suggests most of the clinically used EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors developed resistance to the cancer cells. This perspective provides a brief overview of EGFR and its implications in cancer. We have summarized natural products-derived anticancer compounds with the mechanistic basis of tumor inhibition via the EGFR pathway. We propose that developing natural lead molecules into new anticancer agents has a bright future after clinical investigation.

Hinokitiol Inhibits Breast Cancer Cells In Vitro Stemness-Progression and Self-Renewal with Apoptosis and Autophagy Modulation via the CD44/Nanog/SOX2/Oct4 Pathway

Breast cancer (BC) represents one of the most prevalent malignant threats to women globally. Tumor relapse or metastasis is facilitated by BC stemness progression, contributing to tumorigenicity. Therefore, comprehending the characteristics of stemness progression and the underlying molecular mechanisms is pivotal for BC advancement. Hinokitiol (β-thujaplicin), a tropolone-related compound abundant in the heartwood of cupressaceous plants, exhibits antimicrobial activity. In our study, we employed three BC cell lines (MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, and T47D) to assess the expression of stemness-, apoptosis-, and autophagy-related proteins. Hinokitiol significantly reduced the viability of cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, we observed that hinokitiol enhances apoptosis by increasing the levels of cleaved poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) and phospho-p53. It also induces dysfunction in autophagy through the upregulation of LC3B and p62 protein expression. Additionally, hinokitiol significantly suppressed the number and diameter of cancer cell line spheres by reducing the expression of cluster of differentiation44 (CD44) and key transcription factors. These findings underscore hinokitiol's potential as a therapeutic agent for breast cancer, particularly as a stemness-progression inhibitor. Further research and clinical studies are warranted to explore the full therapeutic potential of hinokitiol in the treatment of breast cancer.

Phytometabolites as modulators of breast cancer: a comprehensive review of mechanistic insights

Breast cancer (BC) is a highly debilitating malignancy affecting females globally and imposing a substantial burden on healthcare systems in both developed and developing nations. Despite the application of conventional therapeutic modalities such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and hormonal intervention, BC frequently exhibits resistance, necessitating the urgent development of novel, cost-effective, and accessible treatment strategies. In this context, there is a growing scientific interest in exploring the pharmacological potential of chemical compounds derived from botanical sources, which often exhibit notable biological activity. Extensive in vitro and in vivo investigations have revealed the capacity of these compounds, referred to as phytochemicals, to attenuate the metastatic cascade and reduce the risk of cancer dissemination. These phytochemicals exert their effects through modulation of key molecular and metabolic processes, including regulation of the cell cycle, induction of apoptotic cell death, inhibition of angiogenesis, and suppression of metastatic progression. To shed light on the latest advancements in this field, a comprehensive review of the scientific literature has been conducted, focusing on secondary metabolite agents that have recently been investigated and have demonstrated promising anticancer properties. This review aims to delineate their underlying mechanisms of action and elucidate the associated signaling pathways, thereby contributing to a deeper understanding of their therapeutic potential in the context of BC management.

Fabrication, optimization, and characterization of pH-responsive PEGylated nanoniosomes containing gingerol for enhanced treatment of breast cancer

Multiple potential drug delivery strategies have emerged as a result of recent advances in nanotechnology and nanomedicine. The aim of this research was to prepare an optimized system of PEGylated gingerol-loaded niosomes (Nio-Gin@PEG) as an excellent candidate for the treatment of human breast cancer cells. The preparation procedure was modified by adjusting the drug concentration, lipid content, and Span60/Tween60 ratio, resulting in high encapsulation efficacy (EE%), rapid release rate, and reduced size. The Nio-Gin@PEG exhibited significantly improved storage stability compared to the gingerol-loaded niosomes formulation (Nio-Gin), with minimal changes in EE%, release profile, and size during storage. Furthermore, Nio-Gin@PEG demonstrated pH-dependent release behavior, with delayed drug diffusion at physiological pH and significant drug diffusion under acidic conditions (pH = 5.4), making it a promising option for cancer treatment. Cytotoxicity tests indicated that Nio-Gin@PEG possessed excellent biocompatibility with human fibroblast cells while exerting a remarkable inhibitory effect on MCF-7 and SKBR3 breast cancer cells, attributed to the presence of gingerol and the PEGylated structure in the preparation. Nio-Gin@PEG also exhibited the ability to modulate the expression of target genes. We observed statistically significant down-regulation of the expression of BCL2, MMP2, MMP9, HER2, CCND1, CCNE1, BCL2, CDK4, and VEGF genes, along with up-regulation of the expression of BAX, CASP9, CASP3, and P21 genes. Flow cytometry results revealed that Nio-Gin@PEG could induce a higher rate of apoptosis in both cancerous cells compared to gingerol and Nio-Gin, owing to the optimal encapsulation and efficient drug release from the formulation, as confirmed by cell cycle tests. ROS generation demonstrated the superior antioxidant effect of Nio-Gin@PEG compared to other prepared formulations. The results of this study emphasize the potential of formulating highly biocompatible niosomes in the future of nanomedicine, enabling more precise and effective treatment of cancers.

Anticancer Effects of 6-Gingerol through Downregulating Iron Transport and PD-L1 Expression in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells

Iron homeostasis is considered a key factor in human metabolism, and abrogation in the system could create adverse effects, including cancer. Moreover, 6-gingerol is a widely used bioactive phenolic compound with anticancer activity, and studies on its exact mechanisms on non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells are still undergoing. This study aimed to find the mechanism of cell death induction by 6-gingerol in NSCLC cells. Western blotting, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and flow cytometry were used for molecular signaling studies, and invasion and tumorsphere formation assay were also used with comet assay for cellular processes. Our results show that 6-gingerol inhibited cancer cell proliferation and induced DNA damage response, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis in NSCLC cells, and cell death induction was found to be the mitochondrial-dependent intrinsic apoptosis pathway. The role of iron homeostasis in the cell death induction of 6-gingerol was also investigated, and iron metabolism played a vital role in the anticancer ability of 6-gingerol by downregulating EGFR/JAK2/STAT5b signaling or upregulating p53 and downregulating PD-L1 expression. Also, 6-gingerol induced miR-34a and miR-200c expression, which may indicate regulation of PD-L1 expression by 6-gingerol. These results suggest that 6-gingerol could be a candidate drug against NSCLC cells and that 6-gingerol could play a vital role in cancer immunotherapy.

Pharmacological network study on the effect of 6-gingerol on cervical cancer using computerized databases

Cervical cancer (CC) is the most frequent cancer in the female population worldwide. Although there are treatments available, they are ineffective and cause adverse effects. 6-gingerol is an active component in ginger with anticancer activity. This research aims to discover the mechanism by which 6-gingerol act as an anticancer agent on CC through a pharmacological network using bioinformatics databases. From MalaCard, Swiss Target Prediction, Comparative Toxicogenomics Database, and Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform, we obtained the target genes for 6-gingerol and CC and matched them. We got 26 genes and analyzed them in ShinyGO-0.76.3 and DAVID-Bioinformatics Resources. Then, we generated a protein-protein interaction network in Cytoscape and obtained 12 hub genes. Hub genes were analyzed in Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis and TISIDB. In addition, molecular docking studies were performed between target proteins with 6-gingerol using SwissDock database. Finally, molecular dynamics studies for three proteins with the lowest interaction energy were implemented using Gromacs software. According to gene ontology results, 6-gingerol is involved in processes of apoptosis, cell cycle, and protein kinase complexes, affecting mitochondria and pathways related to HPV infection. CTNNB1 gene was negatively correlated with CD8+ infiltration but was not associated with a higher survival rate. Furthermore, the molecular docking study showed that 6-gingerol has a high binding to proteins, and the molecular dynamics showed a stable interaction of 6-gingerol to AKT1, CCNB1, and CTNNB1 proteins. Conclusion, our work helps to understand the anticancer activity of 6-gingerol in CC that should be studied experimentally.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

6-Gingerol Ameliorates Hepatic Steatosis, Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice through Activating LKB1/AMPK Signaling

6-Gingerol, one of the major pharmacologically active ingredients extracted from ginger, has been reported experimentally to exert hepatic protection in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, the molecular mechanism remains largely elusive. RNA sequencing indicated the significant involvement of the AMPK signaling pathway in 6-gingerol-induced alleviation of NAFLD in vivo. Given the significance of the LKB1/AMPK pathway in metabolic homeostasis, this study aims to investigate its role in 6-gingerol-induced mitigation on NAFLD. Our study showed that 6-gingerol ameliorated hepatic steatosis, inflammation and oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro. Further experiment validation suggested that 6-gingerol activated an LKB1/AMPK pathway cascade in vivo and in vitro. Co-immunoprecipitation analysis demonstrated that the 6-gingerol-elicited activation of an LKB1/AMPK pathway cascade was related to the enhanced stability of the LKB1/STRAD/MO25 complex. Furthermore, radicicol, an LKB1 destabilizer, inhibited the activating effect of 6-gingerol on an LKB1/AMPK pathway cascade via destabilizing LKB1/STRAD/MO25 complex stability in vitro, thus reversing the 6-gingerol-elicited ameliorative effect. In addition, molecular docking analysis further predicated the binding pockets of LKB1 necessary for binding with 6-gingerol. In conclusion, our results indicate that 6-gingerol plays an important role in regulating the stability of the LKB1/STRAD/MO25 complex and the activation of LKB1, which might weigh heavily in the 6-gingerol alleviation of NAFLD.

Preparation and Evaluation of 6-Gingerol Derivatives as Novel Antioxidants and Antiplatelet Agents

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is widely used as a spice and a traditional medicine. Many bioactivities have been reported for its extracts and the isolated compounds, including cardiovascular protective effects. Different pathways were suggested to contribute to these effects, like the inhibition of platelet aggregation. In this study, we synthesised fourteen 6-gingerol derivatives, including eight new compounds, and studied their antiplatelet, COX-1 inhibitor, and antioxidant activities. In silico docking of selected compounds to h-COX-1 enzyme revealed favourable interactions. The investigated 6-gingerol derivatives were also characterised by in silico and experimental physicochemical and blood-brain barrier-related parameters for lead and preclinical candidate selection. 6-Shogaol (2) was identified as the best overall antiplatelet lead, along with compounds 3 and 11 and the new compound 17, which require formulation to optimize their water solubility. Compound 5 was identified as the most potent antioxidant that is also promising for use in the central nervous system (CNS).

Synthesis of Gingerol-loaded Uio-66 nanoparticles and its anti-cancer effect against gastric cancer cell line (AGS)

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer is the world's fifth most prevalent cancer and its treatments are associated with issues. In this investigation, a UIO-66 nanoparticle was loaded with Gingerol (UIO-66-Gin) as a great drug carrier vehicle for chemotherapy of the AGS cancer cell lines.

METHODS AND RESULTS

UIO-66-Gin characterization was performed using SEM, DLS and FTIR tests. The release profile of Gin from UIO-66 was also assessed. The cytotoxicity of UIO-66-Gin against AGS cells was assessed using MTT assay. Caspase3, Caspase9, Bax, and Bcl2 genes expression was evaluated via Real-time PCR and apoptosis rate was performed using flow-cytometry assay. Size analysis indicated the spherical shape of nano-formulation with the mean size of 174.3 nm. Release analysis indicated that there was a 50% Gin release from the nanocarrier was reported in roughly 21 h, which revealed the regulated release of bioactive compound from the UIO-66 formulation in PBS medium. After 48 and 72 h, various concentration of both the Gin and UIO-66-Gin started to induce cytotoxicity in cancerous cells. However, the induction of cytotoxicity was higher in cells treated with UIO-66-Gin. UIO-66-Gin could induce the expression of pro-apoptotic (Bax, Caspase3, and Caspase9) genes and down-regulate the expression of Bcl2 as anti-apoptotic gene rather than other formulation. Flowcytometry results indicated that the elevation of apoptotic rate in cells treated with UIO-66-Gin was significantly higher than Gin treated cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our investigation revealed the potent anticancer effect and apoptotic induction ability of UIO-66-Gin against cancerous cells through altering the expression of genes involved in apoptosis.

Three-dimensional cell cultures as preclinical models to assess the biological activity of phytochemicals in breast cancer

The demand for the development of three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models in both/either drug screening and/or toxicology is gradually magnified. Natural Products derived from plants are known as phytochemicals and serve as resources for novel drugs and cancer therapy. Typical examples include taxol analogs (i.e., paclitaxel and docetaxel), vinca alkaloids (i.e., vincristine, vinblastine), and camptothecin analogs (topotecan, irinotecan). Breast cancer is the most frequent malignancy in women, with a 70% chance of patients being cured; however, metastatic disease is not considered curable using currently available chemotherapeutic options. In addition, phytochemicals present promising options for overcoming chemotherapy-related problems, such as drug resistance and toxic effects on non-target tissues. In the toxicological evaluation of these natural compounds, 3D cell culture models are a powerful tool for studying their effects on different tissues and organs in similar environments and behave as if they are in vivo conditions. Considering that 3D cell cultures represent a valuable platform for identifying the biological features of tumor cells as well as for screening natural products with antitumoral activity, the present review aims to summarize the most common 3D cell culture methods, focusing on multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS) of breast cancer cell lines used in the discovery of phytochemicals with anticancer properties in the last ten years.

6-Shogaol Overcomes Gefitinib Resistance via ER Stress in Ovarian Cancer Cells

In women, ovary cancer is already the fifth leading cause of mortality worldwide. The use of cancer therapies, such as surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, may be a powerful anti-cancer therapeutic strategy; however, these therapies still have many problems, including resistance, toxicity, and side effects. Therefore, natural herbal medicine has the potential to be used for cancer therapy because of its low toxicity, fewer side effects, and high success. This study aimed to investigate the anti-cancer effect of 6-shogaol in ovarian cancer cells. 6-shogaol induces ER stress and cell death via the reduction in cell viability, the increase in LDH cytotoxicity, caspase-3 activity, and Ca²⁺ release, and the upregulation of GRP78, p-PERK, p-eIF2α, ATF-4, CHOP, and DR5. Moreover, 6-shogaol treatment medicates endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and cell death by upregulating Nox4 and releasing ROS. The knockdown of Nox4 in ovarian cancer cells inhibits ER stress and cell death by blocking the reduction in cell viability and the enhancement of LDH cytotoxicity, caspase-3 activity, Ca²⁺, and ROS release. In gefitinib-resistant ovarian cancer cells, A2780R and OVCAR-3R, 6-shogaol/gefitinib overcomes gefitinib resistance by inhibiting EMT phenomena such as the reduction in E-cadherin, and the increase in N-cadherin, vimentin, Slug, and Snail. Therefore, our results suggest that 6-shogaol exerts a potential anti-cancer effect in ovarian cancer and combination treatment with 6-shogaol and gefitinib may provide a novel anti-tumor therapeutic strategy in gefitinib-resistant ovarian cancer.

Review to Understand the Crosstalk between Immunotherapy and Tumor Metabolism

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have ushered in a new era of cancer treatment by increasing the likelihood of long-term survival for patients with metastatic disease and by introducing fresh therapeutic indications in cases where the disease is still in its early stages. Immune checkpoint inhibitors that target the proteins cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) or programmed death-1/programmed death ligand-1 have significantly improved overall survival in patients with certain cancers and are expected to help patients achieve complete long-lasting remissions and cures. Some patients who receive immune checkpoint inhibitors, however, either experience therapeutic failure or eventually develop immunotherapy resistance. Such individuals are common, which necessitates a deeper understanding of how cancer progresses, particularly with regard to nutritional regulation in the tumor microenvironment (TME), which comprises metabolic cross-talk between metabolites and tumor cells as well as intracellular metabolism in immune and cancer cells. Combination of immunotherapy with targeted metabolic regulation might be a focus of future cancer research despite a lack of existing clinical evidence. Here, we reviewed the significance of the tumor microenvironment and discussed the most significant immunological checkpoints that have recently been identified. In addition, metabolic regulation of tumor immunity and immunological checkpoints in the TME, including glycolysis, amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism, and other metabolic pathways were also incorporated to discuss the possible metabolism-based treatment methods being researched in preclinical and clinical settings. This review will contribute to the identification of a relationship or crosstalk between tumor metabolism and immunotherapy, which will shed significant light on cancer treatment and cancer research.

Is the Triggering of PD-L1 Dimerization a Potential Mechanism for Food-Derived Small Molecules in Cancer Immunotherapy? A Study by Molecular Dynamics

Using small molecules to inhibit the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway is an important approach in cancer immunotherapy. Natural compounds such as capsaicin, zucapsaicin, 6-gingerol and curcumin have been proposed to have anticancer immunologic functions by downregulating the PD-L1 expression. PD-L1 dimerization promoted by small molecules was recently reported to be a potential mechanism to inhibit the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway. To clarify the molecular mechanism of such compounds on PD-L1 dimerization, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations were performed. The results evidenced that these compounds could inhibit PD-1/PD-L1 interactions by directly targeting PD-L1 dimerization. Binding free energy calculations showed that capsaicin, zucapsaicin, 6-gingerol and curcumin have strong binding ability with the PD-L1 dimer, where the affinities of them follow the trend of zucapsaicin > capsaicin > 6-gingerol ≈ curcumin. Analysis by residue energy decomposition, contact numbers and nonbonded interactions revealed that these compounds have a tight interaction with the C-sheet, F-sheet and G-sheet fragments of the PD-L1 dimer, which were also involved in the interactions with PD-1. Moreover, non-polar interactions between these compounds and the key residues Ile54, Tyr56, Met115 and Ala121 play a key role in stabilizing the protein−ligand complexes in solution, in which the 4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl group and the carbonyl group of zucapsaicin, capsaicin, 6-ginger and curcumin were significant for the complexation of small molecules with the PD-L1 dimer. The conformational variations of these complexes were further analyzed by free energy landscape (FEL) and principal component analysis (PCA) and showed that these small molecules could make the structure of dimers more stable. This work provides a mechanism insight for food-derived small molecules blocking the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway via directly targeting the PD-L1 dimerization and offers theoretical guidance to discover more effective small molecular drugs in cancer immunotherapy.

The inhibitory effect of 6-gingerol and cisplatin on ovarian cancer and antitumor activity: In silico, in vitro, and in vivo

Background

Epithelial ovarian cancer is very common in women and causes hundreds of deaths per year worldwide. Chemotherapy drugs including cisplatin have adverse effects on patients' health. Complementary treatments and the use of herbal medicines can help improve the performance of medicine. 6-Gingerol is the major pharmacologically active component of ginger. In this study, we compared the effects of 6-gingerol, cisplatin, and their combination in apoptotic and angiogenetic activities in silico, in test tubes, and in in vivo assays against two ovarian cancer cell lines: OVCAR-3 and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs).

Methods

The drug-treated cell lines were evaluated for their cytotoxicity, cell cycle, and apoptotic and angiogenetic gene expression changes.

Results

The proportion of apoptosis treated by 6-gingerol coupled with cisplatin was significantly high. In the evaluation of the cell cycle, the combination therapy also showed a significant promotion of a higher extent of the S sequence. The expression of p53 level, Caspase-8, Bax, and Apaf1 genes was amplified again with combination therapy. Conversely, in both cell lines, the cumulative drug concentrations reduced the expression of VEGF, FLT1, KDR, and Bcl-2 genes. Similarly, in the control group, combination treatment significantly decreased the expression of VEGF, FLT1, KDR, and Bcl-2 genes in comparison to cisplatin alone.

Conclusions

The findings of the present study demonstrated that the cisplatin and 6-gingerol combination is more effective in inducing apoptosis and suppressing the angiogenesis of ovarian cancer cells than using each drug alone.

Natural Products/Bioactive Compounds as a Source of Anticancer Drugs

Cancer is one of the major deadly diseases globally. The alarming rise in the mortality rate due to this disease attracks attention towards discovering potent anticancer agents to overcome its mortality rate. The discovery of novel and effective anticancer agents from natural sources has been the main point of interest in pharmaceutical research because of attractive natural therapeutic agents with an immense chemical diversity in species of animals, plants, and microorganisms. More than 60% of contemporary anticancer drugs, in one form or another, have originated from natural sources. Plants and microbial species are chosen based on their composition, ecology, phytochemical, and ethnopharmacological properties. Plants and their derivatives have played a significant role in producing effective anticancer agents. Some plant derivatives include vincristine, vinblastine, irinotecan, topotecan, etoposide, podophyllotoxin, and paclitaxel. Based on their particular activity, a number of other plant-derived bioactive compounds are in the clinical development phase against cancer, such as gimatecan, elomotecan, etc. Additionally, the conjugation of natural compounds with anti-cancerous drugs, or some polymeric carriers particularly targeted to epitopes on the site of interest to tumors, can generate effective targeted treatment therapies. Cognizance from such pharmaceutical research studies would yield alternative drug development strategies through natural sources which could be economical, more reliable, and safe to use.

Future Prospective of Radiopharmaceuticals from Natural Compounds Using Iodine Radioisotopes as Theranostic Agents

Natural compounds provide precursors with various pharmacological activities and play an important role in discovering new chemical entities, including radiopharmaceuticals. In the development of new radiopharmaceuticals, iodine radioisotopes are widely used and interact with complex compounds including natural products. However, the development of radiopharmaceuticals from natural compounds with iodine radioisotopes has not been widely explored. This review summarizes the development of radiopharmaceuticals from natural compounds using iodine radioisotopes in the last 10 years, as well as discusses the challenges and strategies to improve future discovery of radiopharmaceuticals from natural resources. Literature research was conducted via PubMed, from which 32 research articles related to the development of natural compounds labeled with iodine radioisotopes were reported. From the literature, the challenges in developing radiopharmaceuticals from natural compounds were the purity and biodistribution. Despite the challenges, the development of radiopharmaceuticals from natural compounds is a golden opportunity for nuclear medicine advancement.

Phytochemical Targeting of Mitochondria for Breast Cancer Chemoprevention, Therapy, and Sensitization

Breast cancer is a common and deadly disease that causes tremendous physical, emotional, and financial burden on patients and society. Early-stage breast cancer and less aggressive subtypes have promising prognosis for patients, but in aggressive subtypes, and as cancers progress, treatment options and responses diminish, dramatically decreasing survival. Plants are nutritionally rich and biologically diverse organisms containing thousands of metabolites, some of which have chemopreventive, therapeutic, and sensitizing properties, providing a rich source for drug discovery. In this study we review the current landscape of breast cancer with a central focus on the potential role of phytochemicals for treatment, management, and disease prevention. We discuss the relevance of phytochemical targeting of mitochondria for improved anti-breast cancer efficacy. We highlight current applications of phytochemicals and derivative structures that display anti-cancer properties and modulate cancer mitochondria, while describing future applicability and identifying areas of promise.

Ethanolic extract of Origanum syriacum L. leaves exhibits potent anti-breast cancer potential and robust antioxidant properties

Background: Breast cancer (BC) is the second most common cancer overall. In women, BC is the most prevalent cancer and the leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Triple-negative BC (TNBC) is the most aggressive BC, being resistant to hormonal and targeted therapies. Hypothesis/Purpose: The medicinal plant Origanum syriacum L. is a shrubby plant rich in bioactive compounds and widely used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases. However, its therapeutic potential against BC remains poorly investigated. In the present study, we screened the phytochemical content of an ethanolic extract of O. syriacum (OSEE) and investigated its anticancer effects and possible underlying mechanisms of action against the aggressive and highly metastatic human TNBC cell line MDA-MB-231. Methods: MTT, trans-well migration, and scratch assays were used to assess cell viability, invasion, or migration, respectively. Antioxidant potential was evaluated in vitro using the DPPH radical-scavenging assay and levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were assessed in cells in culture using DHE staining. Aggregation assays were used to determine cell-cell adhesion. Flow cytometry was used to analyze cell cycle progression. Protein levels of markers of apoptosis (BCL-2, pro-Caspase3, p53), proliferation (p21, Ki67), cell migration, invasion, or adhesion (FAK, E-cadherin), angiogenesis (iNOS), and cell signaling (STAT3, p38) were determined by immunoblotting. A chorioallantoic Membrane (CAM) assay evaluated in ovo angiogenesis. Results: We demonstrated that OSEE had potent radical scavenging activity in vitro and induced the generation of ROS in MDA-MB-231 cells, especially at higher OSEE concentrations. Non-cytotoxic concentrations of OSEE attenuated cell proliferation and induced G₀/G₁ cell cycle arrest, which was associated with phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, an increase in the levels of tumor suppressor protein p21, and a decrease of proliferation marker protein Ki67. Additionally, only higher concentrations of OSEE were able to attenuate inhibition of proliferation induced by the ROS scavenger N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), indicating that the anti-proliferative effects of OSEE could be ROS-dependent. OSEE stimulated apoptosis and its effector Caspase-3 in MDA-MB-231 cells, in correlation with activation of the STAT3/p53 pathway. Furthermore, the extract reduced the migration and invasive properties of MDA-MB-231 cells through the deactivation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK). OSEE also reduced the production of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and inhibited in ovo angiogenesis. Conclusion: Our findings reveal that OSEE is a rich source of phytochemicals and has robust anti-breast cancer properties that significantly attenuate the malignant phenotype of MD-MB-231 cells, suggesting that O. syriacum may not only act as a rich source of potential TNBC therapeutics but may also provide new avenues for the design of novel TNBC drugs.

Preparation, pungency and bioactivity of gingerols from ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): a review

Ginger has been widely used for different purposes, such as condiment, functional food, drugs, and cosmetics. Gingerols, the main pungent component in ginger, possess a variety of bioactivities. To fully understand the significance of gingerols in the food and pharmaceutical industry, this paper first recaps the composition and physiochemical properties of gingerols, and the major extraction and synthesis methods. Furthermore, the pungency and bioactivity of gingerols are reviewed. In addition, the food application of gingerols and future perspectives are discussed. Gingerols, characterized by a 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl moiety, are divided into gingerols, shogaols, paradols, zingerone, gingerdiones and gingerdiols. At present, gingerols are extracted by conventional, innovative, and integrated extraction methods, and synthesized by chemical, biological and in vitro cell synthesis methods. Gingerols can activate transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) and induce signal transduction, thereby exhibiting its pungent properties and bioactivity. By targeted mediation of various cell signaling pathways, gingerols display potential anticancer, antibacterial, blood glucose regulatory, hepato- and renal-protective, gastrointestinal regulatory, nerve regulatory, and cardiovascular protective effects. This review contributes to the application of gingerols as functional ingredients in the food and pharmaceutical industry.

6‑Gingerol suppresses cell viability, migration and invasion via inhibiting EMT, and inducing autophagy and ferroptosis in LPS‑stimulated and LPS‑unstimulated prostate cancer cells

6-Gingerol is a bioactive compound isolated from Zingiber officinale. 6-Gingerol has been shown to have anticancer effects in numerous types of cancer cell. The mechanisms underlying the anticancer effect of 6-Gingerol in prostate cancer requires investigation. In the present study, the effect on cell viability of 6-Gingerol on LNCaP, PC3 and DU145 prostate cancer cells were determined using the MTT and colony formation assays. 6-Gingerol significantly inhibited cell migration, adhesion and invasion in LPS-stimulated and LPS-unstimulated prostate cancer cells. Furthermore, these changes were accompanied by alterations in the protein expression levels of epithelial-mesenchymal transition biomarkers, including E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Vimentin and zonula occludens-1. 6-Gingerol also induced autophagy by significantly increasing LC3B-II and Beclin-1 protein expression levels in prostate cancer cells. Combining 6-Gingerol with LY294002, an autophagy inhibitor, significantly increased cell survival in DU145 cells. Furthermore, 6-Gingerol significantly decreased the protein expression levels of glutathione (GSH) peroxidase 4 and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 in prostate cancer cells. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were significantly increased but GSH levels were decreased following 6-Gingerol treatment in prostate cancer cells. Co-treatment with the ferroptosis inhibitor, ferrostatin-1, significantly increased cell viability and significantly decreased ROS levels in 6-Gingerol-treated cells. These results suggested that 6-Gingerol may have inhibited prostate cell cancer viability via the regulation of autophagy and ferroptosis. In addition, 6-Gingerol inhibited cell migration, adhesion and invasion via the regulation of EMT-related protein expression levels in LPS-stimulated and LPS-unstimulated prostate cancer cells. In conclusion, 6-Gingerol may induce protective autophagy, autophagic cell death and ferroptosis-mediated cell death in prostate cancer cells. These findings may provide a strategy for the treatment and prevention of prostate cancer.

Anticancer Efficacy of 6-Gingerol with Paclitaxel against Wild Type of Human Breast Adenocarcinoma

Breast cancer is one of the most common malignant neoplasms, and despite the dynamic development of anticancer therapies, 5-year survival in the metastatic stage is still less than 30%. 6-Gingerol (1-[4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone) is a substance contained in ginger, which exhibits anti-cancer properties. Paclitaxel is a cytostatic substance used to treat breast cancer, but its therapeutically effective dose has many adverse effects. The aim of the presented study was to assess the anticancer effect of 6-gingerol and the possibility of increasing the effectiveness of Paclitaxel in the death induction of wild type human breast cancer cells. MCF-7/WT cells were treated with drugs—6-gingerol and paclitaxel at selected concentrations. The mitochondrial activity assay, caspase 7 activity assay, ATP assay, microscopy studies, and RT-PCR assays were performed to evaluate the antitumor activity and mechanism of action of both compounds, alone and in combination. After 72 h of incubation, the mitochondrial activity showed that the combination of 5 nM Paclitaxel with 10 µM 6-Gingerol led to the same decrease in viability as the use of 20 nM Paclitaxel alone; 10 µM 6-Gingerol led to an enhancement of caspase 7 activity, with the highest activity observed after 24 h of incubation. A real-time PCR study showed that 6-Gingerol induces the simultaneous transcription of Bax with TP53 genes in large excess to BCL-2. In contrast, 5 nM Paclitaxel induces TP53 transcription in excess of BCL-2 and Bax. Our results suggest that 6-Gingerol may act as a cell death-inducing agent in cancer cells and, in combination with paclitaxel, and increase the effectiveness of conventional chemotherapy.

Role of Plant-Derived Active Constituents in Cancer Treatment and Their Mechanisms of Action

Despite significant technological advancements in conventional therapies, cancer remains one of the main causes of death worldwide. Although substantial progress has been made in the control and treatment of cancer, several limitations still exist, and there is scope for further advancements. Several adverse effects are associated with modern chemotherapy that hinder cancer treatment and lead to other critical disorders. Since ancient times, plant-based medicines have been employed in clinical practice and have yielded good results with few side effects. The modern research system and advanced screening techniques for plants’ bioactive constituents have enabled phytochemical discovery for the prevention and treatment of challenging diseases such as cancer. Phytochemicals such as vincristine, vinblastine, paclitaxel, curcumin, colchicine, and lycopene have shown promising anticancer effects. Discovery of more plant-derived bioactive compounds should be encouraged via the exploitation of advanced and innovative research techniques, to prevent and treat advanced-stage cancers without causing significant adverse effects. This review highlights numerous plant-derived bioactive molecules that have shown potential as anticancer agents and their probable mechanisms of action and provides an overview of in vitro, in vivo and clinical trial studies on anticancer phytochemicals.

Antitumor Effects of Natural Bioactive Ursolic Acid in Embryonic Cancer Stem Cells

Embryonic cancer cells (CSCs) could cause different types of cancer, a skill that makes them even more dangerous than other cancer cells. Identifying CSCs using natural products is a good option as it inhibits the recurrence of cancer with moderate various effects. Ursolic acid (UA) is a pentacyclic triterpenoid extracted from fruit and herbal remedies and has known anticancer functions against various cancer cells. However, its potential against CSCs remains uncertain. This study was planned to examine the induction of cell apoptosis by the UA. For cell signaling studies, we performed experiments, which are real-time qPCR and immunoblotting. Also, various cellular processes were analyzed using flow cytometry. The results raised a barrier to cell proliferation by the UA in NTERA-2 and NCCIT cells. Morphological studies also confirmed the UA's ability to cause cell death in embryonic CSCs. Examination of cell death importation showed that the UA formed the expression of the iNOS and thus the cell generation and mitochondrial reactive oxygen generation, which created a reaction to cellular DNA damage by raising the protein levels of phospho-histone ATR and ATM. In addition, the UA created the binding of the G0/G1 cell cycle to NTERA-2 and NCCIT cells, improved the expression levels of p21 and p27, and reduced the expression levels of CDK4, cyclin D1, and cyclin E, confirming the UA's ability to initiate cell cycle arrest. Finally, the UA created an internal mechanism of apoptosis in the embryonic CSC using BAX and cytochrome c regulation as well as the regulation of BCL-xL and BCL-2 proteins. Therefore, UA could be the best candidate for targeting CSCs and thus suppressing the emergence of cancer.

Promoting Apoptosis, a Promising Way to Treat Breast Cancer With Natural Products: A Comprehensive Review

Breast cancer is one of the top-ranked malignant carcinomas associated with morbidity and mortality in women worldwide. Chemotherapy is one of the main approaches to breast cancer treatment. Breast cancer initially responds to traditional first- and second-line drugs (aromatase inhibitor, tamoxifen, and carboplatin), but eventually acquires resistance, and certain patients relapse within 5 years. Chemotherapeutic drugs also have obvious toxic effects. In recent years, natural products have been widely used in breast cancer research because of their low side effects, low toxicity, and good efficacy based on their multitarget therapy. Apoptosis, a programmed cell death, occurs as a normal and controlled process that promotes cell growth and death. Inducing apoptosis is an important strategy to control excessive breast cancer cell proliferation. Accumulating evidence has revealed that natural products become increasingly important in breast cancer treatment by suppressing cell apoptosis. In this study, we reviewed current studies on natural product–induced breast cancer cell apoptosis and summarized the proapoptosis mechanisms including mitochondrial, FasL/Fas, PI3K/AKT, reactive oxygen species, and mitogen-activated protein kinase–mediated pathway. We hope that our review can provide direction in the search for candidate drugs derived from natural products to treat breast cancer by promoting cell apoptosis.

The Herbal Formula JI017 Induces ER Stress via Nox4 in Breast Cancer Cells

Chemotherapy is a powerful anti-tumor therapeutic strategy; however, resistance to treatment remains a serious concern. To overcome chemoresistance, combination therapy with anticancer drugs is a potential strategy. We developed a novel herbal extract, JI017, with lower toxicity and lesser side effects. JI017 induced programmed cell death and excessive unfolded protein response through the release of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and calcium in breast cancer cells. JI017 treatment increased the expression of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress markers, including p-PERK, p-eIF2α, ATF4, and CHOP, via the activation of both exosomal GRP78 and cell lysate GRP78. The ROS inhibitors diphenyleneiodonium and N-acetyl cysteine suppressed apoptosis and excessive ER stress by inhibiting Nox4 in JI017-treated breast cancer cells. Furthermore, in paclitaxel-resistant breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7R and MDA-MB-231R, a combination of JI017 and paclitaxel overcame paclitaxel resistance by blocking epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) processes, such as the downregulation of E-cadherin expression and the upregulation of HIF-1α, vimentin, Snail, and Slug expression. These findings suggested that JI017 exerts a powerful anti-cancer effect in breast cancer and a combination therapy of JI017 and paclitaxel may be a potential cancer therapy for paclitaxel resistant breast cancer.

Pivotal Role of Iron Homeostasis in the Induction of Mitochondrial Apoptosis by 6-Gingerol Through PTEN Regulated PD-L1 Expression in Embryonic Cancer Cells

Embryonic cancer stem cells (CSCs) can differentiate into any cancer type. Targeting CSCs with natural compounds is a promising approach as it suppresses cancer recurrence with fewer adverse effects. 6-Gingerol is an active component of ginger, which exhibits well-known anti-cancer activities. This study determined the mechanistic aspects of cell death induction by 6-gingerol. To analyze cellular processes, we used Western blot and real-time qPCR for molecular signaling studies and conducted flow cytometry. Our results suggested an inhibition of CSC marker expression and Wnt/β-catenin signaling by 6-gingerol in NCCIT and NTERA-2 cells. 6-Gingerol induced reactive oxygen species generation, the DNA damage response, cell cycle arrest, and the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in embryonic CSCs. Furthermore, 6-gingerol inhibited iron metabolism and induced PTEN, which both played vital roles in the induction of cell death. The activation of PTEN resulted in the inhibition of PD-L1 expression through PI3K/AKT/p53 signaling. The induction of PTEN also mediated the downregulation of microRNAs miR-20b, miR-21, and miR-130b to result in PD-L1 suppression by 6-gingerol. Hence, 6-gingerol may be a promising candidate to target CSCs by regulating PTEN-mediated PD-L1 expression.

Iron Metabolism as a Potential Mechanism for Inducing TRAIL-Mediated Extrinsic Apoptosis Using Methylsulfonylmethane in Embryonic Cancer Stem Cells

Embryonic cancer stem cells (CSCs) can differentiate into any cancer type. Targeting CSC using natural compounds is a good approach as it suppresses cancer recurrence with fewer adverse effects, and methylsulfonylmethane (MSM) is a sulfur-containing compound with well-known anticancer activities. This study determined the mechanistic aspects of the anticancer activity of MSM. We used Western blotting and real-time qPCR for molecular signaling studies and conducted flow cytometry for analyzing the processes in cells. Our results suggested an inhibition in the expression of CSC markers and Wnt/β-catenin signaling. MSM induced TRAIL-mediated extrinsic apoptosis in NCCIT and NTERA-2 cells rather than an intrinsic pathway. Inhibition of iron metabolism-dependent reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation takes part in TRAIL-mediated apoptosis induction by MSM. Suppressing iron metabolism by MSM also regulated p38/p53/ERK signaling and microRNA expressions, such as upregulating miR-130a and downregulating miR-221 and miR-222, which resulted in TRAIL induction and thereby extrinsic pathway of apoptosis. Hence, MSM could be a good candidate for neoadjuvant therapy by targeting CSCs by inhibiting iron metabolism.

Halting Tumor Progression via Novel Non-Hydroxamate Triazole-Based Mannich Bases MMP-2/9 Inhibitors; Design, Microwave-Assisted Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are key signaling modulators in the tumor microenvironment. Among MMPs, MMP-2 and MMP-9 are receiving renewed interest as validated druggable targets for halting different tumor progression events. Over the last decades, a diverse range of MMP-2/9 inhibitors has been identified starting from the early hydroxamic acid-based peptidomimetics to the next generation non-hydroxamates. Herein, focused 1,2,4-triazole-1,2,3-triazole molecular hybrids with varying lengths and decorations, mimicking the thematic features of non-hydroxamate inhibitors, were designed and synthesized using efficient protocols and were alkylated with pharmacophoric amines to develop new Mannich bases. After full spectroscopic characterization the newly synthesized triazoles tethering Mannich bases were subjected to safety assessment via MTT assay against normal human fibroblasts, then evaluated for their potential anticancer activities against colon (Caco-2) and breast (MDA-MB 231) cancers. The relatively lengthy bis-Mannich bases 15 and 16 were safer and more potent than 5-fluorouracil with sub-micromolar IC₅₀ and promising selectivity to the screened cancer cell lines rather than normal cells. Both compounds upregulated p53 (2–5.6-fold) and suppressed cyclin D expression (0.8–0.2-fold) in the studied cancers, and thus, induced apoptosis. 15 was superior to 16 in terms of cytotoxic activities, p53 induction, and cyclin D suppression. Mechanistically, both were efficient MMP-2/9 inhibitors with comparable potencies to the reference prototype hydroxamate-based MMP inhibitor NNGH at their anticancer IC₅₀ concentrations. 15 (IC₅₀ = 0.143 µM) was 4-fold more potent than NNGH against MMP-9 with promising selectivity (3.27-fold) over MMP-2, whereas 16 was comparable to NNGH. Concerning MMP-2, 16 (IC₅₀ = 0.376 µM) was 1.2-fold more active than 15. Docking simulations predicted their possible binding modes and highlighted the possible structural determinants of MMP-2/9 inhibitory activities. Computational prediction of their physicochemical properties, ADMET, and drug-likeness metrics revealed acceptable drug-like criteria.

Mechanistic Insights of Anti-Immune Evasion by Nobiletin through Regulating miR-197/STAT3/PD-L1 Signaling in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) Cells

Tumor immune escape is a common process in the tumorigenesis of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells where programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) expression, playing a vital role in immunosuppression activity. Additionally, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) phosphorylation activates Janus kinase-2 (JAK2) and signal transduction, thus activating transcription 3 (STAT3) to results in the regulation of PD-L1 expression. Chemotherapy with commercially available drugs against NSCLC has struggled in the prospect of adverse effects. Nobiletin is a natural flavonoid isolated from the citrus peel that exhibits anti-cancer activity. Here, we demonstrated the role of nobiletin in evasion of immunosuppression in NSCLC cells by Western blotting and real-time polymerase chain reaction methods for molecular signaling analysis supported by gene silencing and specific inhibitors. From the results, we found that nobiletin inhibited PD-L1 expression through EGFR/JAK2/STAT3 signaling. We also demonstrated that nobiletin exhibited p53-independent PD-L1 suppression, and that miR-197 regulates the expression of STAT3 and PD-L1, thereby enhancing anti-tumor immunity. Further, we evaluated the combination ability of nobiletin with an anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody in NSCLC co-culture with peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Similarly, we found that nobiletin assisted the induction of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade, which is a key factor for the immune escape mechanism. Altogether, we propose nobiletin as a modulator of tumor microenvironment for cancer immunotherapy.

Medicinal chemistry inspired by ginger: exploring the chemical space around 6-gingerol

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) has been used as a spice and as a traditional remedy since ancient times, especially in traditional Chinese medicine. It has been applied as a treatment for many diseases either alone or in combination with other remedies. Many studies were conducted on ginger and its constituents and a wide array of bioactivities were reported, e.g., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiemetic, and anticancer activity. Most of these had been correlated to gingerols and shogaols, the most abundant secondary metabolites in ginger. This inspired several research groups to explore the biomedical value of the chemical space around these compounds, and many of their synthetic or semi-synthetic analogues have been prepared and studied for various bioactivities. Thanks to this, many valuable structure activity relationships have been revealed for such compounds. Herein, we provide a brief summary on the synthetic derivatization efforts that had so far been implemented on 6-gingerol, the main constituent of fresh ginger. This review covers 160 natural, semisynthetic, or synthetic 6-gingerol derivatives and their reported bioactivities.

Structure and reported bioactivities of semi-synthetic and synthetic 6-gingerol derivatives.