The Role of the Inflammasome in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Identification of cytochrome P450 2E1 as a novel target in neuroinflammation and development of its inhibitor Q11 as a treatment strategy

Neuroinflammation is implicated in nearly all pathological processes of central nervous system (CNS) diseases. However, no medications specifically targeting neuroinflammation are clinically available, and conventional anti-inflammatory drugs exhibit limited efficacy. Here, we identified cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) as a novel therapeutic target in neuroinflammation. Elevated CYP2E1 levels were observed in hippocampal tissues of mouse and rat neuroinflammation models, as well as in LPS-stimulated primary microglia. Genetic ablation of Cyp2e1 improved spatial learning and memory in neuroinflammatory rats and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in Cyp2e1-deficient microglia. Furthermore, Q11 (1-(4-methyl-5-thiazolyl) ethanone), a novel CYP2E1 inhibitor developed and synthesized in our laboratory, effectively ameliorated Alzheimer's disease-related spatial learning and memory functions and depression-related anxiety-like behaviors in mice/rats. Mechanistically, Q11 attenuated microglial activation, neuronal damage, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation by suppressing the PI3K/Akt, STAT1/3, and NF-κB signaling pathways. These findings establish CYP2E1 as a druggable target for neuroinflammation and propose Q11 as a promising candidate for treating neuroinflammation-related diseases.

Molecular mechanism of PANoptosis and programmed cell death in neurological diseases

PANoptosis represents a highly coordinated inflammatory programmed cell death governed by the assembly and activation of PANoptosome, which strategically integrate core molecular elements from pyroptosis, apoptosis, and necroptosis. The triple-component cell death pathways set themselves apart from alternative regulated cell death mechanisms through their unique capacity to concurrently integrate and process molecular signals derived from multiple death-signaling modalities, thereby coordinating a multifaceted cellular defense system against diverse pathological insults. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns synergistically interact with cytokine storms, and oncogenic stress to active PANoptosis, establishing this programmed cell death pathway as a critical nexus in inflammatory pathogenesis and tumor immunomodulation. This molecular crosstalk highlights PANoptosis as a promising therapeutic target for managing immune-related disorders and malignant transformation. Emerging evidence links PANoptosis to neuroinflammatory disorders through dysregulated crosstalk between programmed death pathways (apoptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis) and accidental necrosis, driving neuronal loss and neural damage. Single-cell transcriptomics reveals spatially resolved PANoptosis signatures in Alzheimer's hippocampal microenvironments and multiple sclerosis demyelinating plaques, with distinct molecular clusters correlating to quantifiable neuroinflammatory metrics. Emerging PANoptosis-targeted therapies show preclinical promise in alleviating neurovascular dysfunction while preserving physiological microglial surveillance functions. Accumulating evidence linking dysregulated cell death pathways (particularly PANoptosis) to neurological disorders underscores the urgency of deciphering its molecular mechanisms and developing precision modulators as next-generation therapies. This review systematically deciphers PANoptosome assembly mechanisms and associated cell death cascades, evaluates their pathological roles in neurological disorders through multiscale regulatory networks, and proposes PANoptosis-targeted therapeutic frameworks to advance precision neurology.

Inflammasome links traumatic brain injury, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and Alzheimer's disease

Traumatic brain injury, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and Alzheimer's disease are three distinct neurological disorders that share common pathophysiological mechanisms involving neuroinflammation. One sequela of neuroinflammation includes the pathologic hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, an endogenous microtubule-associated protein that protects the integrity of neuronal cytoskeletons. Tau hyperphosphorylation results in protein misfolding and subsequent accumulation of tau tangles forming neurotoxic aggregates. These misfolded proteins are characteristic of traumatic brain injury, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and Alzheimer's disease and can lead to downstream neuroinflammatory processes, including assembly and activation of the inflammasome complex. Inflammasomes refer to a family of multimeric protein units that, upon activation, release a cascade of signaling molecules resulting in caspase-induced cell death and inflammation mediated by the release of interleukin-1β cytokine. One specific inflammasome, the NOD-like receptor protein 3, has been proposed to be a key regulator of tau phosphorylation where it has been shown that prolonged NOD-like receptor protein 3 activation acts as a causal factor in pathological tau accumulation and spreading. This review begins by describing the epidemiology and pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and Alzheimer's disease. Next, we highlight neuroinflammation as an overriding theme and discuss the role of the NOD-like receptor protein 3 inflammasome in the formation of tau deposits and how such tauopathic entities spread throughout the brain. We then propose a novel framework linking traumatic brain injury, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and Alzheimer's disease as inflammasome-dependent pathologies that exist along a temporal continuum. Finally, we discuss potential therapeutic targets that may intercept this pathway and ultimately minimize long-term neurological decline.

Water-Soluble Ginseng Oligosaccharides Prevent Scopolamine-Induced Cholinergic Dysfunction and Inflammatory Cytokine Overexpression

Cholinergic deficiency and neuroinflammation are the two main factors of Alzheimer's disease. Recent studies have shown that water-soluble ginseng oligosaccharides (WGOS) derived from Panax ginseng roots can protect against scopolamine-induced impairments in learning and memory. However, the fundamental mechanisms remain unclear for the most part. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of WGOS on cholinergic function and protein levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus of mice. Mice were first pretreated with WGOS or saline, and then treated with scopolamine to establish an Alzheimer's disease model. The cognition memory of the mice was assessed through the behavioral test. The effect of WGOS on the cholinergic system was evaluated by measuring acetylcholine (ACh) neurotransmitter concentration and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the hippocampus. Using ELISA, the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α in the hippocampus were identified. This study found that WGOS treatment prevented the scopolamine-induced impairment of mice's recognition memory, as seen by their enhanced object recognition. In addition, WGOS prevented the scopolamine-induced decrease in ACh concentration and increase in AChE activity. Moreover, WGOS treatment inhibited scopolamine-induced upregulation of the inflammatory proteins IL-1β and TNF-α. These findings suggest that the amelioration of scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in mice by WGOS was a consequence of the control of cholinergic function and inflammatory response in the hippocampus. Our findings suggest that WGOS should be investigated as a dietary supplement or medication for the treatment of learning and memory disorders in humans.

The Role of Tetrahydrocurcumin in Tumor and Neurodegenerative Diseases Through Anti-Inflammatory Effects

Tetrahydrocurcumin (THC), a curcumin derivative, shows potential in oncology and neurology. It regulates NF-κB, reduces inflammation, promotes cancer cell apoptosis, inhibits tumor angiogenesis, and enhances antioxidants, aiding in treating inflammation-related cancers. In neurology, THC's anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties protect neurons, reduce neuroinflammation, and support autophagy for cellular debris clearance, with its blood-brain barrier penetration offering a neuroprotective edge. Research on THC's therapeutic application must focus on improving delivery and bioavailability and confirming its clinical safety and efficacy.

Targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome in Parkinson's disease: From molecular mechanism to therapeutic strategy

Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, characterized by substantial loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons, the formation of Lewy bodies (LBs) in the substantia nigra, and pronounced neuroinflammation. The nucleotide-binding domain like leucine-rich repeat- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is one of the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that function as intracellular sensors in response to both pathogenic microbes and sterile triggers associated with Parkinson's disease. These triggers include reactive oxygen species (ROS), misfolding protein aggregation, and potassium ion (K+) efflux. Upon activation, it recruits and activates caspase-1, then processes the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18, which mediate neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of NLRP3 inflammasome, detailing its structure, activation pathways, and the factors that trigger its activation. We also explore the pathological mechanisms by which NLRP3 contributes to Parkinson's disease and discuss potential strategies for targeting NLRP3 as a therapeutic approach.

Parthenolide regulates microglial and astrocyte function in primary cultures from ALS mice and has neuroprotective effects on primary motor neurons

Over the last twenty years, the role of microgliosis and astrocytosis in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases has increasingly been recognized. Dysregulation of microglial and astrocyte properties and function has been described also in the fatal degenerative motor neuron disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Microglia cells, the immune cells of the nervous system, can either have an immunonegative neurotoxic or immunopositive neuroprotective phenotype. The feverfew plant (Tanacetum parthenium) derived compound parthenolide has been found to be capable of interfering with microglial phenotype and properties. Positive treatment effects were shown in animal models of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Now we were able to show that PTL has a modulating effect on primary mouse microglia cells, both wild type and SOD1, causing them to adopt a more neuroprotective potential. Furthermore, we were able to show that PTL, through its positive effect on microglia, also has an indirect positive impact on motor neurons, although PTL itself has no direct effect on these primary motor neurons. The results of our study give reason to consider PTL as a drug candidate for ALS.

Targeting Neuroinflammation in Preterm White Matter Injury: Therapeutic Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes

Neuroinflammation is a key factor in the development of preterm white matter injury (PWMI), leading to glial cell dysfunction, arrest of oligodendrocyte maturation, and long-term neurological damage. As a potential therapeutic strategy, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exhibit significant immunomodulatory and regenerative potential. Recent studies suggest that the primary mechanism of MSC action is their paracrine effects, particularly mediated by extracellular vesicles, with MSC-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) being the key mediators. MSC-Exos, enriched with lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, regulate neuroinflammation by modulating glial cell activity and influencing signaling pathways associated with inflammation and repair. Preclinical evidence has indicated that MSC-Exos can suppress the activation of microglia and astrocytes, promote oligodendrocyte maturation, and enhance myelination, highlighting their potential as a cell-free treatment for PWMI. However, there are a paucity of comprehensive reviews on how MSC-Exos regulate neuroinflammation in PWMI through specific signaling pathways. This review aims to summarize the key signaling pathways through which MSC-Exos modulate neuroinflammation in PWMI and discuss the challenges associated with the clinical application of MSC-Exos-based therapies.

Bioactivities and Structure-Activity Relationships of Harmine and Its Derivatives: A Review

Natural products and their derivatives play a crucial role in treating various diseases. Harmine, a tricyclic β-carboline alkaloid isolated from the seeds of Peganum harmala L., has emerged as a promising therapeutic candidate owing to its multifaceted biological activities. Recent studies have further highlighted the enhanced therapeutic potential of harmine derivatives. To assess the current research landscape on harmine and its derivatives, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of studies published between 2019 and 2024 in scientific databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. In this review, the possible applications of harmine and its derivatives were systematically illustrated, including biological activities, structure-activity relationships, and nanotechnology applications. Notably, the biological activities of harmine and its derivatives mainly contained antitumor, neuroprotective, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic properties. In addition, structural modifications and the application of nanocarriers make harmine and its derivatives more druggable. The aim of this review is to summarize the recent advancements in harmine and its derivatives research, analyze emerging trends, and explore their clinical value.

Priming and release of cytokine IL-1β in microglial cells from the retina

The P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) for extracellular ATP is implicated in several forms of retinal degeneration, including diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma. P2X7R stimulation can trigger release of master cytokine IL-1β from microglia in the brain and from macrophages, but evidence of release from retinal microglia is indirect. Isolated mouse and rat retinal microglia, and wholemounts from Cx3CR1+/GFP mice, were examined to determine if ATP induced IL-1β release directly from retinal microglial cells and if it also primed expression of IL-1β on an mRNA and protein level. Isolated retinal microglia were ramified and expressed low levels of polarization markers unless provoked. Over 90% of isolated microglial cells expressed P2X7R, with cytoplasmic Ca2+ elevation following receptor stimulation. ATP induced a dose-dependent release of IL-1β from primed microglial cells that was blocked by P2X7R antagonist A839977 and emulated by agonist BzATP. P2X7R stimulation also primed Il1b mRNA in isolated microglia cells. BzATP increased IL-1β immunostaining and GFP fluorescence throughout lamina of retinal wholemounts from CX3CR1+/GFP mice. Some of the IL-1β and GFP signals colocalized, particularly in the outer retina, and in projections extending distally through photoreceptor layers. The inner retina had more microglia without IL-1β, and more IL-1β staining without microglia. Substantial IL-1β release was also detected from rat retinal microglial cells, but not optic nerve head astrocytes. In summary, this study implicates microglial cells as a key source of released IL-1β when levels of extracellular ATP are increased following retinal damage, and suggest a greater participation in the outer retina.

Mechanism of effect and therapeutic potential of NLRP3 inflammasome in spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a serious and disabling central nervous system injury that can trigger various neuropathological conditions, resulting in neuronal damage and release of various pro-inflammatory mediators, leading to neurological dysfunction. Currently, surgical decompression, drugs and rehabilitation are primarily used to relieve symptoms and improve endogenous repair mechanisms; however, they cannot directly promote nerve regeneration and functional recovery. SCI can be divided into primary and secondary injuries. Secondary injury is key to determining the severity of injury, whereas inflammation and cell death are important pathological mechanisms in the process of secondary SCI. The activation of the inflammasome complex is thought to be a necessary step in neuro-inflammation and a key trigger for neuronal death. The NLRP3 inflammasome is a cytoplasmic multiprotein complex that is considered an important factor in the development of SCI. Once the NLRP3 inflammasome is activated after SCI, NLRP3 nucleates the assembly of an inflammasome, leading to caspase 1-mediated proteolytic activation of the interleukin-1β (IL-1β) family of cytokines, and induces an inflammatory, pyroptotic cell death. Inhibition of inflammasomes can effectively inhibit inflammation and cell death in the body and promote the recovery of nerve function after SCI. Therefore, inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation may be a promising approach for the treatment of SCI. In this review, we describe the current understanding of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in SCI pathogenesis and its subsequent impact on SCI and summarize drugs and other potential inhibitors based on NLRP3 inflammasome regulation. The objective of this study was to emphasize the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in SCI, and provide a new therapeutic strategy and theoretical basis for targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome as a therapy for SCI.

Role of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Chronic Pain and Alzheimer's Disease-A Review

The coexistence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and chronic pain (CP) in the elderly population has been extensively documented, and a growing body of evidence supports the potential interconnections between these two conditions. This comprehensive review explores the mechanisms by which CP may contribute to the development and progression of AD, with a particular focus on neuroinflammatory pathways and the role of microglia, as well as the activation of the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. The review proposes that prolonged pain processing in critical brain regions can dysregulate the activity of the NLRP3 inflammasome within microglia, leading to the overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and excessive oxidative stress in these regions. This aberrant microglial response also results in localized neuroinflammation in brain areas crucial for cognitive function. Additionally, CP as a persistent physiological and psychological stressor may be associated with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction, systemic inflammation, disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and neuroinflammation. These pathophysiological changes can cause morphological and functional impairments in brain regions responsible for cognition, memory, and neurotransmitter production, potentially contributing to the development and progression of CP-associated AD. Resultant neuroinflammation can further promote amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaque deposition, a hallmark of AD pathology. Potential therapeutic interventions targeting these neuroinflammatory pathways, particularly through the regulation of microglial NLRP3 activation, hold promise for improving outcomes in individuals with comorbid CP and AD. However, further research is required to fully elucidate the complex interplay between these conditions and develop effective treatment strategies.

Targeting Cytokine-Mediated Inflammation in Brain Disorders: Developing New Treatment Strategies

Cytokine-mediated inflammation is increasingly recognized for playing a vital role in the pathophysiology of a wide range of brain disorders, including neurodegenerative, psychiatric, and neurodevelopmental problems. Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) cause neuroinflammation, alter brain function, and accelerate disease development. Despite progress in understanding these pathways, effective medicines targeting brain inflammation are still limited. Traditional anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory drugs are effective in peripheral inflammatory illnesses. Still, they face substantial hurdles when applied to the central nervous system (CNS), such as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and unwanted systemic effects. This review highlights the developing treatment techniques for modifying cytokine-driven neuroinflammation, focusing on advances that selectively target critical cytokines involved in brain pathology. Novel approaches, including cytokine-specific inhibitors, antibody-based therapeutics, gene- and RNA-based interventions, and sophisticated drug delivery systems like nanoparticles, show promise with respect to lowering neuroinflammation with greater specificity and safety. Furthermore, developments in biomarker discoveries and neuroimaging techniques are improving our ability to monitor inflammatory responses, allowing for more accurate and personalized treatment regimens. Preclinical and clinical trial data demonstrate the therapeutic potential of these tailored techniques. However, significant challenges remain, such as improving delivery across the BBB and reducing off-target effects. As research advances, the creation of personalized, cytokine-centered therapeutics has the potential to alter the therapy landscape for brain illnesses, giving patients hope for better results and a higher quality of life.

Regulatory T cell expansion prevents retinal degeneration in type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND

The global incidence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) is rapidly increasing, with retinopathy being its most common complication and a leading cause of preventable blindness. Although the precise mechanisms involved in the development of diabetic retinopathy (DR) are not fully understood, defective immunomodulation is a recognized key factor in its pathophysiology. Regulatory T cells (Treg) regulate inflammation and promote regeneration, and while they are known to have important anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective roles in other tissues, including central nervous system, their role in the diabetic retina remains largely unknown. The aim of the present study is to examine the effect of Treg expansion of retinal neurodegeneration, an early event in the pathogenesis of DR.

METHODS

Treg expansion was achieved by co-injecting recombinant mouse IL-2 with anti-IL-2 monoclonal antibody or its isotype in db/db mice as an established model of T2D. Treg expansion was confirmed via flow cytometry in blood, spleen, and retina. Fundus angiography was performed in the days prior to animal sacrifice at 18 weeks. To study the effect of Tregs on retinal neurons, glia and vascular permeability, immunohistochemistry against Cone-Arrestin, PKCα, synaptophysin, ChAT, TH, GFAP, Iba-1, calbindin, Brn3a, RBPMS, isolectin B4, and albumin was used. Retinal VEGF levels were measured with a magnetic bead-based immunoassay, and NLRP3, Casp1, p20 and IL-18 were analyzed by Western Blot in retinal homogenates.

RESULTS

There was a significant decrease in Treg in db/db mice blood. When this deficiency was corrected in db/db mice by systemic Treg expansion, there was an effective protection against retinal neurodegenerative, gliotic, inflammatory changes and vascular leakage associated with T2D. Importantly, Treg expansion did not impact the T2D phenotype in db/db mice as evaluated by blood glucose, HbA1c and circulating insulin.

CONCLUSION

Treg modulation in T2D offers a promising therapeutic approach to prevent early stages of DR. This strategy focuses on reducing neuroinflammation and mitigating the associated neuronal, glial, and vascular degenerative changes characteristic of DR.

Gut-Brain Axis a Key Player to Control Gut Dysbiosis in Neurological Diseases

Parkinson's disease is a chronic neuropathy characterised by the formation of Lewy bodies (misfolded alpha-synuclein) in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra and other parts of the brain. Dopaminergic neurons play a vital role in generating both motor and non-motor symptoms. Finding therapeutic targets for Parkinson's disease (PD) is hindered due to an incomplete understanding of the disease's pathophysiology. Existing evidence suggests that the gut microbiota participates in the pathogenesis of PD via immunological, neuroendocrine, and direct neural mechanisms. Gut microbial dysbiosis triggers the loss of dopaminergic neurons via mitochondrial dysfunction. Gut dysbiosis triggers bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine, which increases the permeability barrier and induces systemic inflammation. It results in excessive stimulation of the innate immune system. In addition to that, activation of enteric neurons and enteric glial cells initiates the aggregation of alpha-synuclein. This alpha-synucleinopathy thus affects all levels of the brain-gut axis, including the central, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems. Though the neurobiological signaling cascade between the gut microbiome and the central nervous system is poorly understood, gut microbial metabolites may serve as a promising therapeutic strategy for PD. This article summarises all the known possible ways of bidirectional signal communication, i.e., the "gut-brain axis," where microbes from the middle gut interact with the brain and vice versa, and highlights a unique way to treat neurodegenerative diseases by maintaining homeostasis. The tenth cranial nerve (vagus nerve) plays a significant part in this signal communication. However, the leading regulatory factor for this axis is a diet that helps with microbial colonisation and brain function. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), derived from microbially fermented dietary fibres, link host nutrition to maintain intestinal homeostasis. In addition to that, probiotics modulate cognitive function and the metabolic and behavioural conditions of the body. As technology advances, new techniques will emerge to study the tie-up between gut microbes and neuronal diseases.

NLRP3 inflammasome-mitochondrion loop in autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behavior. To date, no single cause has been demonstrated but both genetic and environmental factors are believed to be involved in abnormal brain development. In recent years, immunological and mitochondrial dysfunctions acquired particular interest in the study of the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of ASD. For this reason, our study focused on evaluating the mitochondrial component and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, a critical player of the innate immune system. The assembly of NLRP3 with ASC mediates activation of Caspase-1, which in turn, by proteolytic cleavage, activates Gasdermin D and the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β/IL-18 with their subsequent secretion. Using primary fibroblasts of autistic and control patients we studied basal and stimulated conditions. Specifically, LPS and ATP were used to activate the NLRP3 inflammasome and MCC950 for its inhibition. In addition, FCCP was used as a mitochondrial stressor and MitoTEMPO as a scavenger of mitochondrial ROS. Our results showed a hyperactivation of NLRP3 inflammasome in ASDs, as evidenced by the co-localization of the two main components, NLRP3 and ASC, by the higher levels of ASC specks, oligomers and dimers and by the increased amounts of active Caspase-1 and IL-1β. In addition, increased mitochondrial superoxide anion and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential were detected in ASD cells. These data are in accordance with the abnormal mitochondrial morphology evidenced by transmission electron microscopy analysis. Interestingly, NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition with MCC950 improved mitochondrial parameters, while the use of MitoTEMPO, in addition to decrease mitochondrial ROS production, was able to prevent NLRP3 inflammasome activation suggesting for the first time an abnormal bidirectional crosstalk between mitochondria and NLRP3 inflammasome in ASD.

Expression pattern of long non-coding RNAs in treatment-naïve and medicated schizophrenia patients

Schizophrenia is a disabling mental disorder that affects 1% of people over their lifetime. The etiology and mechanism of schizophrenia are very complex, and many genes are involved in many different signaling pathways in the etiology of this disease. According to recent studies, one of the important mechanisms altered in this disorder is the regulation of immune system and the inflammation mechanism. In the present study, we evaluated the peripheral blood expression pattern of four lncRNAs and three protein-coding genes in the treatment- naïve patients, and medicated patients compared with sex and age-matched controls. In the medicated-patients, expression levels of IFNG, IL18RAP, AC007278.2 were significantly up-regulated (P < 0.05); and the expression level of IFNG-AS1-001 was significantly down-regulated compared to healthy controls (P < 0.05). However, levels of IL18R1, AC007278.3 and IFNG-AS1-003 were not different between these groups. In the treatment-naïve patients, IFNG, IL18R1, IL18RAP, IFNG-AS1-001, AC007278.2, and AC007278.3 were significantly up-regulated compared to controls. On the other hand, IFNG-AS1-003 was significantly down-regulated in the treatment-naïve patients compared to controls. Based on the Spearman correlation matrix, there was a significant correlation between genes in the treatment-naïve patients. We also showed the high sensitivity and specificity of IFNG-AS1-003, IFNG, IL18R1, and AC007278.3 in the identification of treatment-naïve patients from controls. The current study contributes further evidence to the understanding of the role of lncRNAs in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Future research is necessary to establish the validity of lncRNAs as peripheral markers for this condition.

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury: a review

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of disability worldwide, characterized by a complex interplay of primary and secondary injury mechanisms. Microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system, play a crucial role in the inflammatory response following TBI. To review the current understanding of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in TBI, exploring its dual nature as a protective and detrimental process. A comprehensive literature review was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Relevant studies investigating the role of microglia in TBI were included. In the early stages of TBI, microglia exhibit a protective response, releasing cytokines and chemokines to promote neuronal survival and tissue repair. However, prolonged or excessive microglial activation can lead to neurotoxicity and exacerbate secondary injury. Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation involves complex signaling pathways, including Toll-like receptors, purinergic receptors, and the complement system. Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in TBI is a double-edged sword. While acute microglial activation can promote repair, chronic or excessive inflammation contributes to neuronal damage and functional deficits. Understanding the temporal and molecular dynamics of microglial responses is crucial for developing therapeutic strategies to modulate neuroinflammation and improve outcomes after TBI.

Brain-Region-Specific Differences in Protein Citrullination/Deimination in a Pre-Motor Parkinson's Disease Rat Model

The detection of early molecular mechanisms and potential biomarkers in Parkinson's disease (PD) remains a challenge. Recent research has pointed to novel roles for post-translational citrullination/deimination caused by peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs), a family of calcium-activated enzymes, in the early stages of the disease. The current study assessed brain-region-specific citrullinated protein targets and their associated protein-protein interaction networks alongside PAD isozymes in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) induced rat model of pre-motor PD. Six brain regions (cortex, hippocampus, striatum, midbrain, cerebellum and olfactory bulb) were compared between controls/shams and the pre-motor PD model. For all brain regions, there was a significant difference in citrullinated protein IDs between the PD model and the controls. Citrullinated protein hits were most abundant in cortex and hippocampus, followed by cerebellum, midbrain, olfactory bulb and striatum. Citrullinome-associated pathway enrichment analysis showed correspondingly considerable differences between the six brain regions; some were overlapping for controls and PD, some were identified for the PD model only, and some were identified in control brains only. The KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) pathways identified in PD brains only were associated with neurological, metabolic, immune and hormonal functions and included the following: "Axon guidance"; "Spinocerebellar ataxia"; "Hippo signalling pathway"; "NOD-like receptor signalling pathway"; "Phosphatidylinositol signalling system"; "Rap1 signalling pathway"; "Platelet activation"; "Yersinia infection"; "Fc gamma R-mediated phagocytosis"; "Human cytomegalovirus infection"; "Inositol phosphate metabolism"; "Thyroid hormone signalling pathway"; "Progesterone-mediated oocyte maturation"; "Oocyte meiosis"; and "Choline metabolism in cancer". Some brain-region-specific differences were furthermore observed for the five PAD isozymes (PADs 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6), with most changes in PAD 2, 3 and 4 when comparing control and PD brain regions. Our findings indicate that PAD-mediated protein citrullination plays roles in metabolic, immune, cell signalling and neurodegenerative disease-related pathways across brain regions in early pre-motor stages of PD, highlighting PADs as targets for future therapeutic avenues.

Cytokines in cerebrospinal fluid as a prognostic predictor after treatment of nusinersen in SMA patients

OBJECTIVES

Recent studies have suggested that neuroinflammation may play a role in the progression of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), and this may influence the efficacy of antisense oligonucleotide treatment. This study explored the biomarkers associated with SMA and the efficacy of nusinersen therapy.

METHODS

Fifteen patients with SMA were enrolled and their motor function (World Health Organization motor milestone, Hammersmith Functional Motor Scale Expanded (HFMSE), and Revised Upper Limb Module [RULM] scores, and 6-minute walking test) was evaluated before, during (63 days), and after (6 months) nusinersen treatment. The concentrations of monocyte chemoactive protein 1 (MCP1), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin (IL)-10 in the cerebrospinal fluid were measured at the indicated time points, and their correlations with motor function were analysed.

RESULTS

A significant increase in MCP1 was observed after 6 month's treatment compared with that before treatment, while TNF-α gradually decreased over the course of treatment. IL-10 levels were negatively correlated with HFMSE scores before treatment, and reductions in IL-10 levels were correlated with improvements in RULM scores.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that neuroinflammation may be associated with the severity of SMA and with the therapeutic effects of nusinersen, which could have clinical implications in the treatment of SMA.

SP1-Driven FOXM1 Upregulation Induces Dopaminergic Neuron Injury in Parkinson's Disease

The aberrant expression of Forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) has been associated with the pathological processes of Parkinson's disease (PD), but the upstream and downstream regulators remain poorly understood. This study sought to examine the underlying mechanism of FOXM1 in dopaminergic neuron injury in PD. Bioinformatics analysis was conducted to pinpoint the differential expression of FOXM1, which was verified in the nigral tissues of rotenone-lesioned mice and dopaminergic neuron MN9D cells. Interactions among SP1, FOXM1, SNAI2, and CXCL12 were analyzed. To evaluate their effects on dopaminergic neuron injury, the lentiviral vector-mediated manipulation of FOXM1, SP1, and CXCL12 was introduced in rotenone-lesioned mice and MN9D cells. SP1, FOXM1, SNAI2, and CXCL12 abundant expression occurred in rotenone-lesioned mice and MN9D cells. Silencing of FOXM1 delayed the rotenone-induced dopaminergic neuron injury in vitro. Mechanistically, SP1 was an upstream transcription factor of FOXM1 and upregulated FOXM1 expression, leading to increased SNAI2 and CXCL12 expression. In vivo, data confirmed that SP1 promoted dopaminergic neuron injury by activating the FOXM1/SNAI2/CXCL12 axis. Our data indicate that SP1 silencing has neuroprotective effects on dopaminergic neurons, which is dependent upon the inactivated FOXM1/SNAI2/CXCL12 axis.

Probiotics and the microbiota-gut-brain axis in neurodegeneration: Beneficial effects and mechanistic insights

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are a group of heterogeneous disorders with a high socioeconomic burden. Although pharmacotherapy is currently the principal therapeutic approach for the management of NDs, mounting evidence supports the notion that the protracted application of available drugs would abate their dopaminergic outcomes in the long run. The therapeutic application of microbiome-based modalities has received escalating attention in biomedical works. In-depth investigations of the bidirectional communication between the microbiome in the gut and the brain offer a multitude of targets for the treatment of NDs or maximizing the patient's quality of life. Probiotic administration is a well-known microbial-oriented approach to modulate the gut microbiota and potentially influence the process of neurodegeneration. Of note, there is a strong need for further investigation to map out the mechanistic prospects for the gut-brain axis and the clinical efficacy of probiotics. In this review, we discuss the importance of microbiome modulation and hemostasis via probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics and synbiotics in ameliorating pathological neurodegenerative events. Also, we meticulously describe the underlying mechanism of action of probiotics and their metabolites on the gut-brain axis in different NDs. We suppose that the present work will provide a functional direction for the use of probiotic-based modalities in promoting current practical treatments for the management of neurodegenerative-related diseases.

Calcitriol attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation and depressive-like behaviors by suppressing the P2X7R/NLRP3/caspase-1 pathway

RATIONALE

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation is a vital hallmark in progression of depression, while calcitriol exerts anti-inflammatory effects in the brain. The activation of the P2X7 receptor has an important link to neuroinflammation. However, it is unclear whether calcitriol treatment exerts anti-inflammatory effects in association with P2X7R activation.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we assessed the antidepressive and neuroprotective effects of calcitriol on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated depressive-like behavior, neuroinflammation, and neuronal damage.

METHODS

In in vitro experiments, the BV2 cells were exposed to LPS, and the protective effects of calcitriol were assessed. For in vivo experiment, thirty-two male C57BL/6 mice were divided into four groups of control, calcitriol, LPS and LPS + calcitriol. Calcitriol was administered at 1 µg/kg for 14 days and LPS at 1 mg/kg once every other day for 14 days. The control group mice were given equal volumes of vehicles. All treatments were delivered intraperitoneally.

RESULTS

The in vitro experiments showed calcitriol inhibited the release of inflammatory mediators induced by LPS in BV2 cells. The in vivo experiments revealed that calcitriol alleviated LPS-induced behavioral abnormalities and spatial learning impairments. Moreover, calcitriol treatment reduced the mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, while increasing anti-inflammatory cytokine levels in the hippocampus. Our results further revealed that calcitriol administration attenuated LPS-induced microglia activation by suppressing P2X7R/NLRP3/caspase-1 signaling. Moreover, calcitriol inhibited apoptosis of neurons in the hippocampus as evidenced by expression of apoptosis-related proteins and TUNEL assay.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our findings demonstrated that calcitriol exerts antidepressive and neuroprotective effects through the suppression of the P2X7R/NLRP3/caspase-1 pathway both in LPS-induced inflammation models in vitro and in vivo.

Retinal microglial cells increase expression and release of IL-1β when exposed to ATP

Cytokine IL-1β is an early component of inflammatory cascades, with both priming and activation steps required before IL-1β release. Here, the P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) for ATP was shown to both prime and release IL-1β from retinal microglial cells. Isolated retinal microglial cells increased expression of Il1b when stimulated with endogenous receptor agonist extracellular ATP; ATP also rapidly downregulated expression of microglial markers Tmem119 and Cd206. Changes to all three genes were reduced by specific P2X7R antagonist A839977, implicating the P2X7R. Microglial cells expressed the P2X7R on ramifications and responded to receptor agonist BzATP with robust and rapid rises in intracellular Ca 2+ . BzATP increased expression of IL-1β protein colocalizing with CX3CR1-GFP in retinal wholemounts consistent with microglial cells. ATP also triggered release of IL-1β from isolated retinal microglia into the bath; release was inhibited by A839977 and induced by BzATP, supporting a role for the P2X7R in release as well as priming. The IL-1β release triggered by ATP was substantially greater from microglial cells compared to astrocytes from the optic nerve head region. Il1b expression was increased by a transient rise in intraocular pressure and Il1b levels remained elevated 10 days after a single IOP elevation. In summary, this study suggests the P2X7 receptor can both prime IL-1β levels in microglial cells and trigger its release. The P2Y12R was previously identified as a chemoattractant for retinal microglia, suggesting the recruitment of the cells towards the source of released extracellular ATP could position microglia for P2X7R receptor, enabling both priming and release of IL-1β.

The regulatory effect of intermittent fasting on inflammasome activation in health and disease

Intermittent fasting (IF), one of the most popular diets, can regulate inflammation and promote health; however, the detailed molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. The present review aims to provide an overview of recent preclinical and clinical studies that have examined the effect of IF on inflammasome signaling, and to discuss the translational gap between preclinical and clinical studies. Three databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase) were searched to identify all relevant preclinical and clinical studies up to October 30, 2022. A total of 1544 studies were identified through the database searches, and 29 preclinical and 10 clinical studies were included. Twenty-three of the 29 preclinical studies reported that IF treatment could reduce inflammasome activation in neurological diseases, metabolic and cardiovascular diseases, immune and inflammatory diseases, gastrointestinal diseases, and pulmonary diseases, and 7 of the 10 clinical studies demonstrated reduced inflammasome activation after IF intervention in both healthy and obese participants. Among various IF regimens, time-restricted eating seemed to be the most effective one in terms of inflammasome regulation, and the efficacy of IF might increase over time. This review highlights the regulatory effect of IF on inflammasome activation in health and disease. Future studies using different IF regimens, in various populations, are needed in order to evaluate its potential to be used alone or as an adjunct therapy in humans to improve health and counteract diseases.

Neuroinflammation: A Critical Factor in Neurodegenerative Disorders

This review offers a comprehensive review of the signals and the paramount role neuroinflammation plays in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The study explores the sophisticated interactions between microglial, astrocytic, and dendritic cells and how neuroinflammation affects long-term neuronal damage and dysfunction. There are specific pathways related to the mentioned inflammatory processes, including Janus kinases/signal transducer and activator of transcriptions, nuclear factor-κB, and mitogen-activated protein kinases pathways. Neuroinflammation is argued to be a double-edged sword, being not only a protective agent that prevents further neuron damage but also the causative factor in more cell injury development. This concept of contrasting inflammation with neuroprotection advocates for the use of therapeutic techniques that seek to modulate neuroinflammatory responses as part of the neurodegeneration treatment. The recent research findings are integrated with the established knowledge to help present a comprehensive image of neuroinflammation's impact on neurodegenerative diseases and its implications for future therapy.

Novel Therapeutic Strategies in Alzheimer's Disease: Pitfalls and Challenges of Anti-Amyloid Therapies and Beyond

Alzheimer's disease (AD) causes a significant challenge to global healthcare systems, with limited effective treatments available. This review examines the landscape of novel therapeutic strategies for AD, focusing on the shortcomings of traditional therapies against amyloid-beta (Aβ) and exploring emerging alternatives. Despite decades of research emphasizing the role of Aβ accumulation in AD pathogenesis, clinical trials targeting Aβ have obtained disappointing results, highlighting the complexity of AD pathophysiology and the need for investigating other therapeutic approaches. In this manuscript, we first discuss the challenges associated with anti-Aβ therapies, including limited efficacy and potential adverse effects, underscoring the necessity of exploring alternative mechanisms and targets. Thereafter, we review promising non-Aβ-based strategies, such as tau-targeted therapies, neuroinflammation modulation, and gene and stem cell therapy. These approaches offer new avenues for AD treatment by addressing additional pathological hallmarks and downstream effects beyond Aβ deposition.

Research on the signaling pathways related to the intervention of traditional Chinese medicine in Parkinson's disease:A literature review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting more than 10 million people worldwide and is characterized by the progressive loss of Daergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. It has been reported that signaling pathways play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of PD, while the active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) have been found to possess a protective effect against PD. TCM has demonstrated significant potential in mitigating oxidative stress (OS), neuroinflammation, and apoptosis of DA neurons via the regulation of signaling pathways associated with PD.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This study discussed and analyzed the signaling pathways involved in the occurrence and development of PD and the mechanism of active ingredients of TCM regulating PD via signaling pathways, with the aim of providing a basis for the development and clinical application of therapeutic strategies for TCM in PD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

With "Parkinson's disease", "Idiopathic Parkinson's Disease", "Lewy Body Parkinson's Disease", "Parkinson's Disease, Idiopathic", "Parkinson Disease, Idiopathic", "Parkinson's disorders", "Parkinsonism syndrome", "Traditional Chinese medicine", "Chinese herbal medicine", "active ingredients", "medicinal plants" as the main keywords, PubMed, Web of Science and other online search engines were used for literature retrieval.

RESULTS

PD exhibits a close association with various signaling pathways, including but not limited to MAPKs, NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, Nrf2/ARE, Wnt/β-catenin, TLR/TRIF, NLRP3, Notch. The therapeutic potential of TCM lies in its ability to regulate these signaling pathways. In addition, the active ingredients of TCM have shown significant effects in improving OS, neuroinflammation, and DA neuron apoptosis in PD.

CONCLUSION

The active ingredients of TCM have unique advantages in regulating PD-related signaling pathways. It is suggested to combine network pharmacology and bioinformatics to study the specific targets of TCM. This not only provides a new way for the prevention and treatment of PD with the active ingredients of TCM, but also provides a scientific basis for the selection and development of TCM preparations.

A Decade of Dedication: Pioneering Perspectives on Neurological Diseases and Mental Illnesses

Welcome to Biomedicines' 10th Anniversary Special Issue, a journey through the human mind's labyrinth and complex neurological pathways [...].

The Vital Role of Melatonin and Its Metabolites in the Neuroprotection and Retardation of Brain Aging

While primarily produced in the pineal gland, melatonin's influence goes beyond its well-known role in regulating sleep, nighttime metabolism, and circadian rhythms, in the field of chronobiology. A plethora of new data demonstrates melatonin to be a very powerful molecule, being a potent ROS/RNS scavenger with anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, and oncostatic properties. Melatonin and its metabolites exert multiple beneficial effects in cutaneous and systemic aging. This review is focused on the neuroprotective role of melatonin during aging. Melatonin has an anti-aging capacity, retarding the rate of healthy brain aging and the development of age-related neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, etc. Melatonin, as well as its metabolites, N1-acetyl-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine (AFMK) and N1-acetyl-5-methoxykynuramine (AMK), can reduce oxidative brain damage by shielding mitochondria from dysfunction during the aging process. Melatonin could also be implicated in the treatment of neurodegenerative conditions, by modifying their characteristic low-grade neuroinflammation. It can either prevent the initiation of inflammatory responses or attenuate the ongoing inflammation. Drawing on the current knowledge, this review discusses the potential benefits of melatonin supplementation in preventing and managing cognitive impairment and neurodegenerative diseases.

The Neglected Sibling: NLRP2 Inflammasome in the Nervous System

While classical NOD-like receptor pyrin domain containing protein 1 (NLRP1) and NLRP3 inflammasomal proteins have been extensively investigated, the contribution of NLRP2 is still ill-defined in the nervous system. Given the putative significance of NLRP2 in orchestrating neuroinflammation, further inquiry is needed to gain a better understanding of its connectome, hence its specific targeting may hold a promising therapeutic implication. Therefore, bioinformatical approach for extracting information, specifically in the context of neuropathologies, is also undoubtedly preferred. To the best of our knowledge, there is no review study selectively targeting only NLRP2. Increasing, but still fragmentary evidence should encourage researchers to thoroughly investigate this inflammasome in various animal- and human models. Taken together, herein we aimed to review the current literature focusing on the role of NLRP2 inflammasome in the nervous system and more importantly, we provide an algorithm-based protein network of human NLRP2 for elucidating potentially valuable molecular partnerships that can be the beginning of a new discourse and future therapeutic considerations.

The Contribution of Type 2 Diabetes to Parkinson's Disease Aetiology

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are chronic disorders that have a significant health impact on a global scale. Epidemiological, preclinical, and clinical research underpins the assumption that insulin resistance and chronic inflammation contribute to the overlapping aetiologies of T2D and PD. This narrative review summarises the recent evidence on the contribution of T2D to the initiation and progression of PD brain pathology. It also briefly discusses the rationale and potential of alternative pharmacological interventions for PD treatment.

Advancements in research on the immune-inflammatory mechanisms mediated by NLRP3 inflammasome in ischemic stroke and the regulatory role of natural plant products

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a major cause of mortality and disability among adults. Recanalization of blood vessels to facilitate timely reperfusion is the primary clinical approach; however, reperfusion itself may trigger cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Emerging evidence strongly implicates the NLRP3 inflammasome as a potential therapeutic target, playing a key role in cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury. The aberrant expression and function of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammation in cerebral ischemia have garnered considerable attention as a recent research focus. Accordingly, this review provides a comprehensive summary of the signaling pathways, pathological mechanisms, and intricate interactions involving NLRP3 inflammasomes in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Moreover, notable progress has been made in investigating the impact of natural plant products (e.g., Proanthocyanidins, methylliensinine, salidroside, α-asarone, acacia, curcumin, morin, ginsenoside Rd, paeoniflorin, breviscapine, sulforaphane, etc.) on regulating cerebral ischemia and reperfusion by modulating the NLRP3 inflammasome and mitigating the release of inflammatory cytokines. These findings aim to present novel insights that could contribute to the prevention and treatment of cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury.

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Exposure Is Associated with Lower Alzheimer's Disease Risk: A Retrospective Cohort Proof-of-Concept Study

Brain somatic gene recombination (SGR) and the endogenous reverse transcriptases (RTs) that produce it have been implicated in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), suggesting RT inhibitors as novel prophylactics or therapeutics. This retrospective, proof-of-concept study evaluated the incidence of AD in people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) with or without exposure to nucleoside RT inhibitors (NRTIs) using de-identified medical claims data. Eligible participants were aged ≥60 years, without pre-existing AD diagnoses, and pursued medical services in the United States from October 2015 to September 2016. Cohorts 1 (N = 46,218) and 2 (N = 32,923) had HIV. Cohort 1 had prescription claims for at least one NRTI within the exposure period; Cohort 2 did not. Cohort 3 (N = 150,819) had medical claims for the common cold without evidence of HIV or antiretroviral therapy. The cumulative incidence of new AD cases over the ensuing 2.75-year observation period was lowest in patients with NRTI exposure and highest in controls. Age- and sex-adjusted hazard ratios showed a significantly decreased risk for AD in Cohort 1 compared with Cohorts 2 (HR 0.88, p < 0.05) and 3 (HR 0.84, p < 0.05). Sub-grouping identified a decreased AD risk in patients with NRTI exposure but without protease inhibitor (PI) exposure. Prospective clinical trials and the development of next-generation agents targeting brain RTs are warranted.

Role of the NLRP1 inflammasome in skin cancer and inflammatory skin diseases

Inflammasomes are cytoplasmic protein complexes that play a crucial role in protecting the host against pathogenic and sterile stressors by initiating inflammation. Upon activation, these complexes directly regulate the proteolytic processing and activation of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 to induce a potent inflammatory response, and induce a programmed form of cell death called pyroptosis to expose intracellular pathogens to the surveillance of the immune system, thus perpetuating inflammation. There are various types of inflammasome complexes, with the NLRP1 (nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-containing family, pyrin domain-containing-1) inflammasome being the first one identified and currently recognized as the predominant inflammasome sensor protein in human keratinocytes. Human NLRP1 exhibits a unique domain structure, containing both an N-terminal pyrin (PYD) domain and an effector C-terminal caspase recruitment domain (CARD). It can be activated by diverse stimuli, such as viruses, ultraviolet B radiation and ribotoxic stress responses. Specific mutations in NLRP1 or related genes have been associated with rare monogenic skin disorders, such as multiple self-healing palmoplantar carcinoma; familial keratosis lichenoides chronica; autoinflammation with arthritis and dyskeratosis; and dipeptidyl peptidase 9 deficiency. Recent research breakthroughs have also highlighted the involvement of dysfunctions in the NLRP1 pathway in a handful of seemingly unrelated dermatological conditions. These range from monogenic autoinflammatory diseases to polygenic autoimmune diseases such as vitiligo, psoriasis, atopic dermatitis and skin cancer, including squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma and Kaposi sarcoma. Additionally, emerging evidence implicates NLRP1 in systemic lupus erythematosus, pemphigus vulgaris, Addison disease, Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome and leprosy. The aim of this review is to shed light on the implications of pathological dysregulation of the NLRP1 inflammasome in skin diseases and investigate the potential rationale for targeting this pathway as a future therapeutic approach.

Emerging functions and therapeutic targets of IL-38 in central nervous system diseases

Interleukin (IL)-38 is a newly discovered cytokine of the IL-1 family, which binds various receptors (i.e., IL-36R, IL-1 receptor accessory protein-like 1, and IL-1R1) in the central nervous system (CNS). The hallmark physiological function of IL-38 is competitive binding to IL-36R, as does the IL-36R antagonist. Emerging research has shown that IL-38 is abnormally expressed in the serum and brain tissue of patients with ischemic stroke (IS) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), suggesting that IL-38 may play an important role in neurological diseases. Important advances include that IL-38 alleviates neuromyelitis optica disorder (NMOD) by inhibiting Th17 expression, improves IS by protecting against atherosclerosis via regulating immune cells and inflammation, and reduces IL-1β and CXCL8 release through inhibiting human microglial activity post-ASD. In contrast, IL-38 mRNA is markedly increased and is mainly expressed in phagocytes in spinal cord injury (SCI). IL-38 ablation attenuated SCI by reducing immune cell infiltration. However, the effect and underlying mechanism of IL-38 in CNS diseases remain inadequately characterized. In this review, we summarize the biological characteristics, pathophysiological role, and potential mechanisms of IL-38 in CNS diseases (e.g., NMOD, Alzheimer's disease, ASD, IS, TBI, and SCI), aiming to explore the therapeutic potential of IL-38 in the prevention and treatment of CNS diseases.

Molecular Foundations of Inflammatory Diseases: Insights into Inflammation and Inflammasomes

Inflammatory diseases are a global health problem affecting millions of people with a wide range of conditions. These diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), osteoarthritis (OA), gout, and diabetes, impose a significant burden on patients and healthcare systems. A complicated interaction between genetic variables, environmental stimuli, and dysregulated immune responses shows the complex biological foundation of various diseases. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms underlying inflammatory diseases, including the function of inflammasomes and inflammation. We investigate the impact of environmental and genetic factors on the progression of inflammatory diseases, explore the connection between inflammation and inflammasome activation, and examine the incidence of various inflammatory diseases in relation to inflammasomes.

Migration Inhibition Factor Secreted by Peripheral Blood Memory B Cells Binding to CD74-CD44 Receptor Complex Drives Macrophage Behavior in Alzheimer's Disease

Dysregulation of the peripheral immune system is be involved in the neuroinflammation in Alzheimer disease (AD) and accelerate the disease progression. The contribution of immune cells, particularly B cells, to AD pathogenesis has gained attention in recent research. In this study, we investigated the role of Peripheral Blood Memory B cells (PBMBs) and their secreted Migration Inhibition Factor (MIF) in driving macrophage behavior in AD based on the scRNA-seq technique, immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. We discovered that MIF binds to the CD74-CD44 receptor complex on macrophages, influencing their behavior. The dysregulated macrophage response hampers the clearance of amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques, exacerbating AD pathology. Targeting the MIF-CD74-CD44 signal pathway may hold therapeutic potential in modulating macrophage activity and mitigating neuroinflammation in AD. This study provides a further understanding of peripheral immune cells dysregulated in AD.

Tonabersat Significantly Reduces Disease Progression in an Experimental Mouse Model of Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease marked by chronic neuroinflammation thought to be mediated by the inflammasome pathway. Connexin 43 (Cx43) hemichannels contribute to the activation of the inflammasome through the release of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) inflammasome activation signals. The objective of the study was to evaluate if the Cx43 hemichannel blocker, tonabersat, is effective in modulating the inflammatory response and reducing disability in the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein 35-55-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (MOG35-55 EAE) model of MS. Here, we show that the Cx43 hemichannel blocking drug, tonabersat, significantly reduced expression of neuroinflammatory markers for microglial activation (ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1)) and astrogliosis (glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)) while preserving myelin basic protein (MBP) expression levels in the corpus callosum, motor cortex, and striatum regions of the brain in MOG35-55 EAE mice. Reduced NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome complex assembly and Caspase-1 activation confirmed the drug's mode of action. MOG35-55 EAE mice showed clinical signs of MS, but MOG35-55 EAE mice treated with tonabersat retained behavior closer to normal. These data suggest that clinical trial phase IIb-ready tonabersat may merit further investigation as a promising candidate for MS treatment.

Microglia Depletion Attenuates the Pro-Resolving Activity of the Formyl Peptide Receptor 2 Agonist AMS21 Related to Inhibition of Inflammasome NLRP3 Signalling Pathway: A Study of Organotypic Hippocampal Cultures

Microglial cells have been demonstrated to be significant resident immune cells that maintain homeostasis under physiological conditions. However, prolonged or excessive microglial activation leads to disturbances in the resolution of inflammation (RoI). Formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2) is a crucial player in the RoI, interacting with various ligands to induce distinct conformational changes and, consequently, diverse biological effects. Due to the poor pharmacokinetic properties of endogenous FPR2 ligands, the aim of our study was to evaluate the pro-resolving effects of a new ureidopropanamide agonist, compound AMS21, in hippocampal organotypic cultures (OHCs) stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Moreover, to assess whether AMS21 exerts its action via FPR2 specifically located on microglial cells, we conducted a set of experiments in OHCs depleted of microglial cells using clodronate. We demonstrated that the protective and anti-inflammatory activity of AMS21 manifested as decreased levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), nitric oxide (NO), and proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 release evoked by LPS in OHCs. Moreover, in LPS-stimulated OHCs, AMS21 treatment downregulated NLRP3 inflammasome-related factors (CASP1, NLRP3, PYCARD) and this effect was mediated through FPR2 because it was blocked by the FPR2 antagonist WRW4 pre-treatment. Importantly this beneficial effect of AMS21 was only observed in the presence of microglial FPR2, and absent in OHCs depleted with microglial cells using clodronate. Our results strongly suggest that the compound AMS21 exerts, at nanomolar doses, protective and anti-inflammatory properties and an FPR2 receptor located specifically on microglial cells mediates the anti-inflammatory response of AMS21. Therefore, microglial FPR2 represents a promising target for the enhancement of RoI.

Ox-inflammasome involvement in neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the onset and the progression of several neuropathologies, from neurodegenerative disorders to migraine, from Rett syndrome to post-COVID 19 neurological manifestations. Inflammasomes are cytosolic multiprotein complexes of the innate immune system that fuel inflammation. They have been under study for the last twenty years and more recently their involvement in neuro-related conditions has been of great interest as possible therapeutic target. The role of oxidative stress in inflammasome activation has been described, however the exact way of action of specific endogenous and exogenous oxidants needs to be better clarified. In this review, we provide the current knowledge on the involvement of inflammasome in the main neuropathologies, emphasizing the importance to further clarify the role of oxidative stress in its activation including the role of mitochondria in inflammasome-induced neuroinflammation.

Integrating single-nucleus sequence profiling to reveal the transcriptional dynamics of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and multiple sclerosis (MS) are three nervous system diseases that partially overlap clinically and genetically. However, bulk RNA-sequencing did not accurately detect the core pathogenic molecules in them. The availability of high-quality single cell RNA-sequencing data of post-mortem brain collections permits the generation of a large-scale gene expression in different cells in human brain, focusing on the molecular features and relationships between diseases and genes. We integrated single-nucleus RNA-sequencing (snRNA-seq) datasets of human brains with AD, PD, and MS to identify transcriptomic commonalities and distinctions among them.

METHODS

The snRNA-seq datasets were downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The Seurat package was used for snRNA-seq data processing. The uniform manifold approximation and projection (UMAP) were utilized for cluster identification. The FindMarker function in Seurat was used to identify the differently expressed genes. Functional enrichment analysis was carried out using the Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) and Gene ontology (GO). The protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) was analyzed using STRING database ( http://string-db.org ). SCENIC analysis was performed using utilizing pySCENIC (v0.10.0) based on the hg19-tss-centered-10 kb-10species databases. The analysis of potential therapeutic drugs was analyzed on Connectivity Map ( https://clue.io ).

RESULTS

The gene regulatory network analysis identified several hub genes regulated in AD, PD, and MS, in which HSPB1 and HSPA1A were key molecules. These upregulated HSP family genes interact with ribosome genes in AD and MS, and with immunomodulatory genes in PD. We further identified several transcriptional regulators (SPI1, CEBPA, TFE3, GRHPR, and TP53) of the hub genes, which has important implications for uncovering the molecular crosstalk among AD, PD, and MS. Arctigenin was identified as a potential therapeutic drug for AD, PD, and MS.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, the integrated snRNA-seq data and findings have significant implications for unraveling the shared and unique molecular crosstalk among AD, PD, and MS. HSPB1 and HSPA1A as promising targets involved in the pathological mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, the identification of arctigenin as a potential therapeutic drug for AD, PD, and MS further highlights its potential in treating these neurological disorders. These discoveries lay the groundwork for future research and interventions to enhance our understanding and treatment of AD, PD, and MS.

Cadmium-induced pyroptosis is mediated by PERK/TXNIP/NLRP3 signaling in SH-SY5Y cells

Cadmium (Cd) is a hypertoxic heavy metal that may be exposed to environmental pollutants by humans and animals. It can lead to cognitive disfunction, and is linked to neurodegenerative diseases. Cadmium reportedly can induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, but few studies have concentrated on it in nerve cells, and the connection between ER stress and neuroinflammation. In this study, in vitro experiments on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells were carried out. We aimed at exploring whether Cd attributed to the cell pyroptosis and the role of PERK in promoting this form of cell damage which can induce strong inflammatory responses. Our results demonstrated that CdCl2 treatment induced excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, caused significant modifications in the expression of PERK and increased TXNIP, NLRP3, IL-1β, IL-18, and caspase1 in SH-SY5Y cells. In addition, scavenging ROS with N-acetylcysteine or inhibiting the expression of PERK by using GSK2606414, rescued the SH-SY5Y cells from cadmium-induced pyroptosis. In conclusion, the results suggest that Cd induces pyroptotic death of SH-SY5Y cells through ER stress, and this may be the potential mechanism of Cd incurring neurological diseases.

Exploring the mechanism of luteolin by regulating microglia polarization based on network pharmacology and in vitro experiments

Neuroinflammation manifests following injury to the central nervous system (CNS) and M1/M2 polarization of microglia is closely associated with the development of this neuroinflammation. In this study, multiple databases were used to collect targets regarding luteolin and microglia polarization. After obtaining a common target, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was created and further analysis was performed to obtain the core network. Molecular docking of the core network with luteolin after gene enrichment analysis. In vitro experiments were used to examine the polarization of microglia and the expression of related target proteins. A total of 77 common targets were obtained, and the core network obtained by further analysis contained 38 proteins. GO and KEGG analyses revealed that luteolin affects microglia polarization in regulation of inflammatory response as well as the interleukin (IL)-17 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathways. Through in vitro experiments, we confirmed that the use of luteolin reduced the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), IL-6, TNF-α, p-NFκBIA (p-IκB-α), p-NFκB p65, and MMP9, while upregulating the expression of Arg-1 and IL-10. This study reveals various potential mechanisms by which luteolin induces M2 polarization in microglia to inhibit the neuroinflammatory response.

Role of neuroinflammation in neurodegeneration development

Studies in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and so on, have suggested that inflammation is not only a result of neurodegeneration but also a crucial player in this process. Protein aggregates which are very common pathological phenomenon in neurodegeneration can induce neuroinflammation which further aggravates protein aggregation and neurodegeneration. Actually, inflammation even happens earlier than protein aggregation. Neuroinflammation induced by genetic variations in CNS cells or by peripheral immune cells may induce protein deposition in some susceptible population. Numerous signaling pathways and a range of CNS cells have been suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration, although they are still far from being completely understood. Due to the limited success of traditional treatment methods, blocking or enhancing inflammatory signaling pathways involved in neurodegeneration are considered to be promising strategies for the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases, and many of them have got exciting results in animal models or clinical trials. Some of them, although very few, have been approved by FDA for clinical usage. Here we comprehensively review the factors affecting neuroinflammation and the major inflammatory signaling pathways involved in the pathogenicity of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. We also summarize the current strategies, both in animal models and in the clinic, for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Urinary Cytokines as Potential Biomarkers of Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's Disease: A Pilot Study

Background

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, accounting for 80% of all cases. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a transitional state between normal aging and AD. Early detection is crucial, as irreversible brain damage occurs before symptoms manifest.

Objective

This study aimed to identify potential biomarkers for early detection of AD by analyzing urinary cytokine concentrations. We investigated 37 cytokines in AD, MCI, and cognitively normal individuals (NC), assessing their associations with AD development.

Methods

Urinary cytokine concentrations were measured in AD (n = 25), MCI (n = 25), and NC (n = 26) patients. IL6ST and MMP-2 levels were compared between AD and NC, while TNFRSF8, IL6ST, and IL-19 were assessed in AD versus MCI. Diagnostic models distinguished AD from NC, and in-silico analysis explored molecular mechanisms related to AD.

Results

Significant perturbations in IL6ST and MMP-2 concentrations were observed in AD urine compared to NC, suggesting their potential as biomarkers. TNFRSF8, IL6ST, and IL-19 differed significantly between AD and MCI, implicating them in disease progression. Diagnostic models exhibited promising performance (AUC: 0.59-0.79, sensitivity: 0.72-0.80, specificity: 0.56-0.78) in distinguishing AD from NC. In-silico analysis revealed molecular insights, including relevant non-coding RNAs, microRNAs, and transcription factors.

Conclusion

This study establishes significant associations between urinary cytokine concentrations and AD and MCI. IL6ST, MMP-2, TNFRSF8, IL6ST, and IL-19 emerge as potential biomarkers for early detection of AD. In-silico analysis enhances understanding of molecular mechanisms in AD. Further validation and exploration of these biomarkers in larger cohorts are warranted to assess their clinical utility.

IL-11 induces NLRP3 inflammasome activation in monocytes and inflammatory cell migration to the central nervous system

The objective of this study is to examine IL-11-induced mechanisms of inflammatory cell migration to the central nervous system (CNS). We report that IL-11 is produced at highest frequency by myeloid cells among the peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) subsets. Patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) have an increased frequency of IL-11+ monocytes, IL-11+ and IL-11R+ CD4+ lymphocytes, and IL-11R+ neutrophils in comparison to matched healthy controls. IL-11+ and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)+ monocytes, CD4+ lymphocytes, and neutrophils accumulate in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The effect of IL-11 in-vitro stimulation, examined using single-cell RNA sequencing, revealed the highest number of differentially expressed genes in classical monocytes, including up-regulated NFKB1, NLRP3, and IL1B. All CD4+ cell subsets had increased expression of S100A8/9 alarmin genes involved in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. In IL-11R+-sorted cells from the CSF, classical and intermediate monocytes significantly up-regulated the expression of multiple NLRP3 inflammasome-related genes, including complement, IL18, and migratory genes (VEGFA/B) in comparison to blood-derived cells. Therapeutic targeting of this pathway with αIL-11 mAb in mice with RR experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) decreased clinical scores, CNS inflammatory infiltrates, and demyelination. αIL-11 mAb treatment decreased the numbers of NFκBp65+, NLRP3+, and IL-1β+ monocytes in the CNS of mice with EAE. The results suggest that IL-11/IL-11R signaling in monocytes represents a therapeutic target in RRMS.

Cause or consequence? The role of IL-1 family cytokines and receptors in neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases

Cytokines and receptors of the IL-1 family are key mediators in innate immune and inflammatory reactions in physiological defensive conditions, but are also significantly involved in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Here, we will address the role of cytokines of the IL-1 superfamily and their receptors in neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Multiple Sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Notably, several members of the IL-1 family are present in the brain as tissue-specific splice variants. Attention will be devoted to understanding whether these molecules are involved in the disease onset or are effectors of the downstream degenerative events. We will focus on the balance between the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 and inhibitory cytokines and receptors, in view of future therapeutic approaches.

Long-Term Course of Neural Autoantibody-Associated Psychiatric Disorders: Retrospective Data from a Specifically Immunopsychiatric Outpatient Clinic

Background: Autoantibody-associated psychiatric disorders are a new terrain that is currently underrepresented considering immunopsychiatry's potential importance for therapeutic aspects. The aim of our research was thus to present initial pilot data on the long-term clinical course of our patients in an outpatient clinic specializing in autoantibody-associated psychiatric disorders. Methods: Thirty-seven patients were examined clinically in our outpatient clinic at regular intervals over a 1.5-year period. We collected clinical data on their demographics, psychopathology, and cognition, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) data as well as the status of neural autoantibodies in blood and/or serum. Results: Our main finding was that affective, psychotic, and cognitive symptoms did not change significantly over the 1.5-year period, thus revealing no progression. We divided the entire cohort of autoantibody-positive patients (n = 32) into subgroups consisting of patients with dementia (n = 14), mild cognitive impairment (MCI) (n = 7), psychotic disorders (n = 6), and a CSF profile of Alzheimer's disease (n = 6). Relying on established classification schemes, we identified the following percentages in our autoantibody-positive cohort: 28% with autoimmune encephalitis, 15% with autoimmune psychosis, and 63% with autoimmune psychiatric syndromes. Discussion: These initial pilot results suggest that autoantibody-associated diseases do not show a significantly progressive course in the long-term and are often characterized by impaired verbal memory recall when cognitive impairment progresses to dementia. These initial data need to be verified in larger cohorts. We believe that this pilot study underscores the importance of promoting such a specialized outpatient clinic to better characterize various aspects of autoantibody-mediated psychiatric disorders.

Pharmacological activity of Aspalathus linearis extracts: pre-clinical research in view of prospective neuroprotection

OBJECTIVES

Rooibos tea, a very popular everyday beverage made of Aspalathus linearis plant material and containing multiple polyphenolic compounds, reveals an expectation to positively affect various processes observed in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases as in the case of consumption of other polyphenol-abundant food products.

METHODS

This review is based on available data from pre-clinical in vitro and in vivo studies and presents a broad report on the pharmacological activity of the A. linearis extracts relevant for neurodegenerative diseases.

RESULTS

Flavonoids present in herbal infusions are absorbed from gastro-intestinal tract and may affect the central nervous system. The experimental investigations yield the results indicating to supporting role of A. linearis in the prevention of neurodegeneration, primarily owing to anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, anti-hyperglycaemic and anti-hyperlipidaemic effects as well as favourable impact on neurotransmission with following cognitive and behavioural after-math.

DISCUSSION

The multiple pharmacological activities and safety of Aspalathus linearis extracts are commented in the manuscript. The continuous rooibos tea consumption seems to be safe (despite anecdotal liver irritation); however, there is a risk of herbal-drug interactions.