Bio-Based Packaging: Materials, Modifications, Industrial Applications and Sustainability

Microplastics in the marine environment: Challenges and the shift towards sustainable plastics and plasticizers

The United Nations (UN) estimate that around 75-199 million tons of plastic is floating in the world's oceans today. Continuous unintentional disposal of plastic waste in marine environments has and continues to cause significant biological impacts to various marine organisms ranging from mild difficulties in swimming or superficial damage to critical organ malfunctions and mortality. Over time, plastics in these environments degrade into microplastics which are now acknowledged as a pervasive harmful pollutant found in the cryosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. In response to this issue, the production of bespoke biodegradable bioplastics derived from renewable resources, such as vegetable oils, starch and plant fibres, is emerging to mitigate our reliance on environmentally persistent conventional fossil fuel-based plastics. While bioplastics degrade more readily than conventional plastics, they present new challenges, including leaching of toxic chemical additives and plasticizers into the environment. Consequently, various techniques have been explored in the search for sustainable plasticizers, from cheap, non-toxic compounds, such as vegetable oils and sugars to hyperbranched structures with limited migration. This article seeks to explain the intricate relationship between the problem of microplastics in marine environments and the strategies that have been investigated to address it thus far.

A cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment of multilayer plastic film food packaging materials, comparing to a paper-based alternative

This study evaluates alternatives to polymers with high environmental impact in plastic-based multilayer packaging (PMP). This Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) quantifies energy demand, fossil resource scarcity (FRS), and greenhouse gases (GHG) associated with 14 PMP films, with comparisons to coated paper-based packaging (CPP). Two functional units, one ton and one m3of packaging, were considered. End-of-life scenarios, including landfilling and incineration, were based on average US use for plastic waste, along with recycling for CPP paper. Production of polyamide 6 (PA 6) has four times the GHG impact of polymers like high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) due to its natural gas demand, and almost twice that of polystyrene (PS), the second highest environmental burden for a skin layer on a volume basis. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a promising alternative to PA 6, offering improved functionality and reduced environmental impact. As a core layer, ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) has lower impacts than PA 6 in terms of energy (-35%), GHGs (-74%), and FRS (-34%). Among PMPs, HDPE-EVOH, LDPE-EVOH, LLDPE-EVOH, and PP-EVOH have lower environmental impacts while meeting required O2and water permeability. CPP production is more environmentally-friendly than PMPs in energy (25-34% improvement), FRS (81-83% improvement), and GHGs (34-62% improvement). Using 75% recovered paper in CPP production improves energy, FRS, and GHG impacts by up to 41%, 16%, and 11%, respectively, compared to using virgin paper. This study offers a framework for layered packaging impact assessments, guiding manufacturers toward environmentally-friendly options that retain essential functions.

Process Mapping as a Key Tool in Identifying Waste in Dermatologic Procedures to Improve Cost-Effectiveness and Sustainability: An Interventional Case Study

BACKGROUND

Dermatologic procedures use many consumable items, resulting in significant financial and environmental costs.

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate process mapping's utility in identifying and reducing consumable waste generated during dermatologic excisions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Process mapping was used to identify and quantify consumable wastes generated by 20 excisions at a dermatologic surgery clinic. The results were discussed among researchers, clinical support staff, and clinicians to develop waste mitigation interventions. 20 additional excisions were mapped after implementation of these interventions to quantify reduction of consumable waste and associated financial savings.

RESULTS

Preintervention, the average total cost of consumables per excision was $48.02. The average cost of wasted consumables was $21.69 (45%). Process mapping identified unused items, such as cotton-tipped applicators, and partially used items, including iodine, lidocaine, and gauze. Interdisciplinary discussion of results revealed limitations to waste mitigation such as standard packaging sizes, existing supply chains, hospital and state policies, and workflow efficiency tradeoffs. Waste mitigation strategies included removal of unused products (e.g., cotton-tipped applicators and extra blades), alternative formulations (e.g., betadine swab vs bottles), and smaller packaging sizes. Postintervention, the waste cost per case decreased by 16.9% to $18.01.

CONCLUSION

Process mapping is an effective tool to identify consumable waste in dermatologic surgeries and results in significant cost savings.

A review of fire performance of plant-based natural fibre reinforced polymer composites

Natural fibre from plant-based reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) offers an attractive solution for various applications due to their cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and favourable properties. These materials provide high strength and stiffness while remaining lightweight, which is especially advantageous in weight-sensitive applications. However, their susceptibility to high flammability poses a significant challenge for applications requiring robust fire resistance. Consequently, researchers and engineers face the primary task of enhancing flame retardancy and thermal stability in NFRPCs. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the flammability and flame retardancy aspects of NFRPCs, delving into critical elements such as modification methods, the interfacial bond between natural fibres and the polymer matrix, fibre type, loading ratio, fibre orientation, polymer type, and composite structure. Understanding these factors is crucial for improving material fire resistance. The paper explores various flame-retardant strategies for NFRPCs, including additives, coatings, treatments, and nanomaterial hybridization. Detailed insights into mechanisms and characterization techniques related to thermal and flame retardancy are provided, covering aspects like thermal degradation, char formation, gas-phase reactions, fire testing methods, universally accepted standards, and specific flame-retardant requirements for NFRPCs in diverse applications such as automotive, aerospace, marine, and civil construction. The discussion on future directions emphasizes the development of innovative flame-retardant materials, improving composite design and fabrication improvements, and assessing fire performance and environmental impact.

Recovery of cellulose nanocrystal from mixed office wastepaper and the development of bio-based coating matrixes with enhanced water, gas, oil, and grease resistances for packaging

This study on sustainable nanocellulose modifications for various packaging applications is driven by the global social awareness and growing demand for bioproducts to reduce the use of single-use plastics. Mixed office waste (MOW) was used as the raw material to extract cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) via the acid hydrolysis method. The average length and diameter of the CNCs were approximately 104.08 ± 0.1 nm and 9.49 ± 0.3 nm, respectively. The crystallinity index was 87%, as confirmed using transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis. Coating solutions of varying concentrations were prepared by mixing CNCs with collagen hydrolysate and glycerin, and the coatings were applied to the surface of uncoated paper via a rod coating process. FTIR spectra confirmed the presence of CNCs in the coated paper. High-resolution FE-SEM images provided detailed information on the surface morphology of the coated papers. The barrier and mechanical performances of the coated paper were evaluated using the oil and grease resistance KIT, hot oil, water vapor permeability, air permeability, water contact angle, tensile index, burst index, percentage of elongation, and fold tests. All the coated paper samples passed the hot oil test and exhibited the highest KIT rating. The water vapor and air resistance values of the coated paper samples increased 14 times and 250 times, respectively, compared with the uncoated paper samples. The water contact angle of the coated paper samples increased to 99.40° from 60.13°, and the surface roughness decreased from 2.37 μm to 0.85 μm. The presence of coating also increased the tensile and burst indices by 5.28 times and 1.79 times, respectively, compared with the uncoated paper samples. No cytotoxic effects were found in the optimized coated paper, and all the samples were fully degraded within 49 days, as confirmed using the soil biodegradability test. Therefore, the coated paper can be a potential alternative to existing single-use plastics for packaging materials.

Biomass, Phyto-Ash, and Biochar from Beech Wood as Functional Additives for Natural Rubber-Based Elastomer Composites

The growing interest in renewable resource-based materials has driven efforts to develop elastomeric biocomposites using biomass, phyto-ash, and biochar as fillers. These bio-additives, derived from beech wood through various processing methods, were incorporated into natural rubber (NR) at varying weight ratios. The primary objective of this study was to assess how the type and content of each bio-filler influence the structural, processing, and performance properties of the biocomposites. Mechanical properties, including tensile strength and hardness, were evaluated, while crosslink density of the vulcanizates was determined using equilibrium swelling in solvents. Additionally, the composites underwent thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) to determine the decomposition temperature of individual components within the polymer matrix. Bio-fillers influenced rheological and mechanical properties, with phyto-ash reducing viscosity and cross-linking density, and biochar and biomass increasing stiffness and maximum torque. Biochar extended curing time due to the absorption of curing agents, whereas phyto-ash accelerated vulcanization. Mechanical tests showed that all bio-filled composites were stiffer than the reference, with biochar and biomass (30 phr) exhibiting the highest hardness (45.8 °ShA and 49.1 °ShA, respectively) and cross-link density (2.68 × 10-5 mol/cm3 and 2.77 × 10-5 mol/cm3, respectively), contributing to improved tensile strength, in particular in the case of biochar, where the TS was 17.6 MPa. The study also examined the effects of thermal-oxidative aging on the samples, providing insights into the changes in the mechanical properties of the biocomposites under simulated aging conditions.

Cellulose nanocrystal-based synthetic biodegradable biopolymeric composites: A comprehensive review on recent progress

With the worldwide transformation to a circular and low-carbon economy, the demand for sustainable materials has skyrocketed in recent years. Of various methods, sustainable and biodegradable biopolymers derived from renewable bioresources have received significant interest. Synthetic biodegradable biopolymers offer tremendous advantages over natural biodegradable biopolymers due to their stability, flexibility, and a wide range of achievable properties to fit several applications. However, the widespread adoption of synthetic biodegradable polymers in high-performance applications is limited by shortcomings in their functional properties. Researchers are actively working to enhance the properties of these materials. A potential solution to improve the performance of biopolymers is to reinforce them with cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). This review delves into the inclusion of CNCs into synthetic biodegradable biopolymer blends, examining their impact on the mechanical, thermal, morphological, rheological, and barrier properties. Surface modification of CNCs promotes a uniform distribution and strong bonding with the polymer matrix which is pivotal to unlocking their outstanding properties. Moreover, this review highlights the promising potential of CNCs to enhance the performance of synthetic biodegradable composites for a more sustainable future, particularly in packaging applications.

Mucilage-based composites films and coatings for food packaging application: A review

Developing sustainable and eco-friendly packaging solutions has garnered significant interest in recent years. Mucilage-based coatings and composites offer a promising approach due to their biodegradability, renewable nature, and ability to enhance food quality protection. This review paper discusses the impact of mucilage-based composites and coatings on various packaging applications, focusing on their physical, mechanical, morphological, barrier, and functional properties. These materials' adaptability, flexibility, transparency, and compatibility with various food products make them highly suitable for food packaging. The morphological structure of mucilage-based films contributes to improved adhesion, surface roughness, and homogeneity. Enhanced barriers against moisture, oxygen, and other gases extend the shelf life of packaged food while maintaining its quality. Mucilage from different plant sources exhibits functional properties such as antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, which enhance food preservation. These attributes and mucilage's biocompatibility and biodegradability align with the growing demand for environmentally friendly packaging options. The review also addresses cost-effectiveness, regulatory compliance, consumer acceptance, recycling infrastructure compatibility, supply chain considerations, and the need for ongoing innovation. Future advancements in mucilage-based packaging will depend on optimizing performance, scalability, and sustainability. By understanding the effects on physio-mechanical, morphological, barrier, and functional attributes, mucilage-based composites and coatings hold great potential for advancing sustainable food packaging solutions.

Valorizing Bio-Waste and Residuals

The circular bioeconomy connects waste recycling with utilizing organic biomass waste for bioenergy, bio-based materials, and biochemical production. This integration promotes efficient resource utilization, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and sustainable economic growth. Several technologies such as composting, anaerobic digestion, biochar production, gasification, pyrolysis, pelletization, and advanced thermal conversion technologies are utilized to manage agricultural waste efficiently. Waste-to-energy systems and food waste valorization techniques are employed to convert agro-waste into renewable energy sources such as bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas through fermentation, transesterification, and anaerobic digestion. These biofuels offer renewable alternatives to fossil fuels, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on non-renewable resources. Rice husk, a globally abundant agricultural waste, can be utilized for energy production through technologies like direct combustion and fast pyrolysis. Biobutanol, synthesized from acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation of agricultural residues like orange peel, presents a promising fuel option. Agricultural waste can also serve as feedstock for bio-based chemicals like organic acids, solvents, and polymers, reducing reliance on petroleum-based chemicals. Agro-waste materials like grass, garlic peel, and rice bran have shown potential for dye adsorption in wastewater treatment applications. Moreover, agricultural waste can be repurposed as animal feed, contributing to waste reduction and providing sustainable nutrition for livestock. Plant seeds and green biomass offer sustainable protein sources, while residues like straw and sawdust can be used for mushroom cultivation. Agro-waste biopolymers like starch and cellulose can be transformed into biodegradable plastics and biocomposites, offering eco-friendly alternatives. Additionally, agro-waste materials like straw, rice husks, and bamboo can be processed into construction materials, reducing environmental impact in building projects. Extracts from plant residues and fruit pomace can be utilized in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics. Valorizing agro-waste for food, feed, fibers, and fuel offers opportunities to minimize waste and maximize resource efficiency, resulting in high-value products.

Advancing Sustainability in Modern Polymer Processing: Strategies for Waste Resource Recovery and Circular Economy Integration

By the late 1970s, plastics had emerged as the most widely used materials globally. The discovery, development, and processing of diverse polymeric materials have profoundly shaped modern life and driven the expansion of numerous industries. Given the widespread interest in the utilization of these materials, it has become increasingly imperative to design their life cycles from the outset. This approach aims to maximize their utility while minimizing their environmental footprint. This review aims to identify and analyze the key challenges in polymer processing applicable to both additive and formative manufacturing methods, emphasizing the relationship between processing and recycling within the framework of sustainability. Modern polymer processing techniques play a crucial role in enhancing the sustainability of polymer products by improving recycling potential (with consideration of polymer type, source, and additives), cost-effectiveness, carbon footprint, and key properties such as durability, lifespan, performance, and environmental impact. It will also explore the concept of the circular economy and its integration into modern processing methods, including extrusion, injection molding, and 3D printing. Additionally, current polymer recycling methods are analyzed with respect to their effectiveness, sustainability, and compatibility with the original materials. Moreover, the discussion emphasizes the benefits of a circular economy compared to a linear one by exploring the concepts of closed-loop and open-loop systems, along with their diverse applications depending on the material and the initial processing method employed. To ensure that humanity continues to benefit from polymer materials while striving for a waste-free environment, it is essential to integrate the principles of sustainable development from the very beginning.

Design, New Materials, and Production Challenges of Bioplastics-Based Food Packaging

This paper outlines the current design trends in food packaging, its main environmentally friendly material alternatives, and industrial processing technologies. In this respect, this important product has undergone several evolutions throughout history. Initially acting as a containment device, it has later evolved into a source of information and even a marketing platform for food companies, always with a view to extending shelf life. However, these functionalities are highly dependent on the materials used and their properties. In this respect, plastics have conquered the food packaging market due to their affordability and flexibility. Nevertheless, environmental concerns have arisen due to their impact on the environment, in addition to the introduction of stricter industry regulations and increased consumer environmental awareness. Therefore, this work found that the current design trends in food packaging are toward sustainability, reducing packaging complexity, with easier recycling, and material selection that combines both sustainability and functionality. In the case of bioplastics as a sustainable alternative, there is still room for improvement in their production, with careful consideration of their raw materials. In addition, their technical performance is generally lower, with challenges in barrier properties and processability, which could be addressed with the adoption of Industry 4.0.

Chemical safety and risk assessment of bio-based and/or biodegradable polymers for food contact: A review

Bio-based and/or biodegradable polymers are being developed and applied as a sustainable and innovative alternative to conventional petroleum-based materials for food packaging applications. From the chemical standpoint, bio-based and/or biodegradable polymers present a complex chemical composition that includes additives, monomers, and other starting substances, but also, oligomers, impurities, degradation products, etc. All these compounds may migrate into the food and can be a hazard to the consumers' health. Thus, identifying potential migrants is crucial to assess the safety of these materials. The analytical methods applied to investigate migrants in bio-based and/or biodegradable polymers are reviewed and commented on. Mostly, gas chromatography or liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and specifically high-resolution mass spectrometry are the techniques of choice. In addition, a summary of recently published migration studies of chemicals from bio-based and/or biodegradable polymers into food simulants and food is provided. Moreover, current approaches to risk assessment of packaging materials are presented and illustrated with examples. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the chemical safety issues raised by biopolymers for food contact applications, that are often overlooked.

Enhancing Radiation Shielding Capabilities with Epoxy-Resin Composites Reinforced with Coral-Derived Calcium Carbonate Fillers

This study investigates the development of epoxy-resin composites reinforced with coral-derived calcium carbonate (CaCO3) fillers for enhanced radiation shielding and mechanical properties. Leveraging the high calcium content and density of coral, composites were prepared with filler weight fractions of 0%, 25%, and 50%. SEM and EDS analyses revealed that higher filler concentrations (50%) increased particle agglomeration, affecting matrix uniformity. Mechanical testing showed that while the tensile and flexural strengths decreased with the increased filler content, the compressive strength significantly improved, reaching 135 MPa at a 50% coral content. Radiation shielding evaluations demonstrated enhanced attenuation with a higher filler content, achieving 39.63% absorption at 60 kVp for the 50% coral composite. However, the shielding efficiency was notably lower compared to lead, which achieves over 99% absorption at similar energy levels. These quantitative comparisons highlight the material's limitations in high-radiation environments but emphasize its suitability for moderate shielding applications. Despite their lower shielding efficiency, the composites provide an environmentally friendly and non-toxic alternative to lead, aligning with sustainability goals. Future work should focus on optimizing filler dispersion, mitigating agglomeration, and exploring hybrid systems to enhance the shielding efficiency and mechanical properties. The further quantitative evaluation of parameters such as Zeff and cross-sections is recommended to comprehensively assess the material's performance.

Natural biopolymers in edible coatings: Applications in food preservation

Edible coatings are revolutionizing food preservation by offering a sustainable and effective solution to key industry challenges. Made from natural biopolymers such as proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids, these coatings form a thin, edible layer on food surfaces. This barrier reduces moisture loss, protects against oxidative damage, and limits microbial growth, thereby extending shelf life while preserving food quality. Enhanced with natural additives like essential oils and antioxidants, these coatings offer antimicrobial benefits and contribute to health. Applications span from fresh produce, where they control respiration and moisture, to meat, dairy, and bakery products, maintaining sensory and nutritional properties. Innovations in coating technologies-such as composite materials, nano-emulsions, and bio-nanocomposites-are improving their mechanical strength, barrier properties, and compatibility with other preservation methods like modified atmosphere packaging. Although challenges remain in cost, consumer acceptance, and regulation, edible coatings represent a significant stride towards sustainable food systems and reduced dependence on synthetic packaging.

Beeswax-poly(vinyl alcohol) composite films for bread packaging

The study aimed to improve the barrier characteristics of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) film by adding beeswax (BW) and glycerin and by heat treatment in order to become a potential suitable material for bread packaging. XRD, FTIR and XPS showed new cross-links between PVA and beeswax demonstrating the composite nature of the film. TGA-DTA showed that glycerin reduced the dehydration and that the beeswax improved theirs thermal stability. The best PVA-beeswax film formula has water vapor permeability (WVP) only 7.5 times higher than that of polyethylene (PE), while PVA is 29 times more permeable. The correlation coefficients, linear (MLR) and stepwise (SR) regression modelling showed a direct correlation between WVP, solubility in food simulants, swelling capacity and biodegradability. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) demonstrated that the analyzed films have different behavior from PE, and among them the most similar is that of the PVA with 2 g of beeswax and no glycerin sample. This film type also showed efficiency in bread packaging.

A Full Green, Sustainable Paper-Based Packaging Material with High-Strength, Water Resistance, and Thermal Insulation

Paper-based packaging materials have gained attention from academia and industry for their outstanding environmental sustainability advantages. However, they still encounter major challenges, such as low mechanical strength and inadequate functionality, hindering the replacement of unsustainable packaging materials. Inspired by the remarkable strength of trees provided by cellulose fibers and the water and heat protection of trees provided by bark, this study developed a new biomass-based packaging material (SNC-C) that combines strength, thermal insulation, and water resistance. The material was created by simply blending straw nanocellulose (SNC) with oak bark (i.e., cork), which naturally provides water-resistant, thermal insulation, and unique regenerative properties. The dense layered structure formed entirely by SNC generates a tensile strength reaching up to 60.93 MPa. With the cork cavity structure, the heat transfer rate of the obtained material is reduced to 2.90-3.01 °C/(cm·min). The combining of the closed-cell structure and the suberin component of the cork results in a low water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of the material of 400.30 g/(m2·24 h). This all-biomass material with excellent performance and low environmental footprint offers a promising solution for the development of sustainable multifunctional packaging materials.

Production of Starch-Based Flexible Food Packaging in Developing Countries: Analysis of the Processes, Challenges, and Requirements

Biodegradable packaging offers an affordable and sustainable solution to global pollution, particularly in developing countries with limited recycling infrastructure. Starch is well suited to develop biodegradable packages for foods due to its wide availability and simple, low-tech production process. Although the development of starch-based packaging is well documented, most studies focus on the laboratory stages of formulation and plasticization, leaving gaps in understanding key phases such as raw material conditioning, industrial-scale molding, post-production processes, and storage. This work evaluates the value chain of starch-based packaging in developing countries. It addresses the challenges, equipment, and process conditions at each stage, highlighting the critical role of moisture resistance in the final product's functionality. A particular focus is placed on replacing single-use plastic packaging, which dominates food industries in regions with agricultural economies and rich biodiversity. A comprehensive analysis of starch-based packaging production, with a detailed understanding of each stage and the overall process, should contribute to the development of more sustainable and scalable solutions, particularly for the replacement of single-use packages, helping to protect vulnerable biodiverse regions from the growing impact of plastic waste.

Applications and environmental impact of biodegradable polymers in textile industry: A review

With the increasing global population, the disposal of waste has risen, especially over the last century. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that 11 million tons of textile-related waste were landfilled in the USA in 2018, and this amount is projected to increase to 4.5 billion tons by 2040. Bio-based polymers have gained attention due to their remarkable properties. The most important biodegradable polymers include PLA, PHA, PHB, PCL, PBS, bamboo fibers, and banana fibers. Global biopolymer production capacity is expected to rise significantly, from around 2.18 million tons in 2023 to approximately 7.43 million tons by 2028. In the textile industry, the linear waste model presents numerous challenges, such as environmental damage and resource shortages. Shifting from a linear to a circular economy is essential to address these issues. Reducing, reusing, and recycling are the three key actions and strategies that form the foundation of the circular economy. This paper presents the current state of knowledge and technological advancements in biodegradable polymers in the textile industry, along with their products and applications. The study explores the cost-effectiveness, limitations, opportunities, and advancements in their manufacturing technologies. Biodegradable polymers in the textile sector are regarded as green alternatives to non-biodegradable polymers.

Synergistic Integration of α-Ag2WO4 into PLA/PBAT for the Development of Electrospun Membranes: Advancing Structural Integrity and Antimicrobial Efficacy

The rising resistance of various pathogens and the demand for materials that prevent infections drive the need to develop broad-spectrum antimicrobial membranes capable of combating a range of microorganisms, thereby enhancing safety in biomedical and industrial applications. Herein, we introduce a simple and efficient technique to engineer membranes composed of polylactic acid (PLA) and polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) biopolymers and α-Ag2WO4 particles using an electrospinning technique. The corresponding structural, thermal, mechanical, and antimicrobial properties were characterized. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns confirmed the integration of crystalline α-Ag2WO4 within the polymer matrix. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Raman confocal microscopy revealed uniformly dispersed α-Ag2WO4 particles in the electrospun fibers, influencing their diameter and surface roughness. Thermal analysis indicated adjustments in the thermal stability and crystallinity of the composites with an increasing α-Ag2WO4 content. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) highlighted variations in storage modulus and glass transition temperatures due to interactions between α-Ag2WO4 and polymer chains, with tensile tests showing an increase in elastic modulus and ultimate tensile strength as the α-Ag2WO4 content increased. Antimicrobial assessments revealed that PLA/PBAT membranes with α-Ag2WO4 showed pronounced antibacterial activity, forming inhibition halos across all samples against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and Mycobacterium smegmatis (a surrogate for Mycobacterium tuberculosis). These membranes also exhibited potent antiviral activity against bacteriophage phi 6, a surrogate for SARS-CoV-2, suggesting potential applications in combating infections caused by enveloped viruses. The antimicrobial activities are attributed to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the controlled release of Ag+ ions. This work underscores the multifaceted capabilities of α-Ag2WO4-enhanced PLA/PBAT membranes in combating bacterial and viral growth, where both durability and microbial resistance are critical. Taken together, our findings provide a solution for obtaining advanced materials to be applied in a wide range of industrial applications, such as filtration systems, food preservation, antimicrobial coatings, protective textiles, and cleaning products.

Starch-based biodegradable films amended with nano-starch and tannic acid-coated nano-starch exhibit enhanced mechanical and functional attributes with antimicrobial activity

Starch-based biofilms are biodegradable, but their application is limited by lower mechanical strength and absence of antimicrobial properties. In this context, the present study attempted to unleash the potential of nanotechnology for synthesizing nano-starch (NS) and tannic acid-coated nano-starch (T-NS) for augmenting the tensile strength and antimicrobial properties of starch-based biofilms. Moreover, this study reports one of the first such attempts to improve the commercial viability of starch extracted from the corms of Amorphophallus paeoniifolius. In this study, NS and T-NS samples were first synthesized by the physical and chemical modification of the native starch (S) molecules. The NS and T-NS samples showed significantly smaller granule size, lower moisture content, and swelling power. Further, amendments with NS and T-NS samples (25 % and 50 %) to the native starch molecules were performed to obtain biofilm samples. The NSB (NS amended) and T-NSB (T-NS amended) biofilms showed comparatively higher tensile strength than SB films (100 % starch-based). The T-NSB showed greater antimicrobial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. All the biofilms showed almost complete biodegradation in soil (in 10 days). Therefore, it can be concluded that additives like NS and T-NS can improve starch-based biofilms' mechanical strength and antimicrobial properties with considerable biodegradability.

The Development of Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)-Based Blends and Modification Strategies: Methods of Improving Key Properties towards Technical Applications-Review

The widespread use of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) from packaging to engineering applications seems to follow the current global trend. The development of high-performance PLA-based blends has led to the commercial introduction of various PLA-based resins with excellent thermomechanical properties. The reason for this is the progress in the field of major PLA limitations such as low thermal resistance and poor impact strength. The main purpose of using biobased polymers in polymer blends is to increase the share of renewable raw materials in the final product rather than its possible biodegradation. However, in the case of engineering applications, the focus is on achieving the required properties rather than maximizing the percentage of biopolymer. The presented review article discusses the current strategies to optimize the balance of the key features such as stiffness, toughness, and heat resistance of PLA-based blends. Improving of these properties requires molecular structural changes, which together with morphology, crystallinity, and the influence of the processing conditions are the main subjects of this article. The latest research in this field clearly indicates the high potential of using PLA-based materials in highly demanding applications. In the case of impact strength modification, it is possible to obtain values close to 800 J/m, which is a value comparable to polycarbonate. Significant improvement can also be confirmed for thermal resistance results, where heat deflection temperatures for selected types of PLA blends can reach even 130 °C after modification. The modification strategies discussed in this article confirm that a properly conducted process of selecting the blend components and the conditions of the processing technique allows for revealing the potential of PLA as an engineering plastic.

Comprehensive analysis of bioplastics: life cycle assessment, waste management, biodiversity impact, and sustainable mitigation strategies

Bioplastics are emerging as a promising alternative to traditional plastics, driven by the need for more sustainable options. This review article offers an in-depth analysis of the entire life cycle of bioplastics, from raw material cultivation to manufacturing and disposal, with a focus on environmental impacts at each stage. It emphasizes the significance of adopting sustainable agricultural practices and selecting appropriate feedstock to improve environmental outcomes. The review highlights the detrimental effects of unsustainable farming methods, such as pesticide use and deforestation, which can lead to soil erosion, water pollution, habitat destruction, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. To address these challenges, the article advocates for the use of efficient extraction techniques and renewable energy sources, prioritizing environmental considerations throughout the production process. Furthermore, the methods for reducing energy consumption, water usage, and chemical inputs during manufacturing by implementing eco-friendly technologies. It stresses the importance of developing robust disposal systems for biodegradable materials and supports recycling initiatives to minimize the need for new resources. The holistic approach to sustainability, including responsible feedstock cultivation, efficient production practices, and effective end-of-life management. It underscores the need to evaluate the potential of bioplastics to reduce plastic pollution, considering technological advancements, infrastructure development, and increased consumer awareness. Future research should focus on enhancing production sustainability, understanding long-term ecological impacts, and advancing bioplastics technology for better performance and environmental compatibility. This comprehensive analysis of bioplastics' ecological footprint highlights the urgent need for sustainable solutions in plastic production.

Biodegradable, Strong, and Hydrophobic Regenerated Cellulose Films Enriched with Esterified Lignin Nanoparticles

The scientific community is pursuing significant efforts worldwide to develop environmentally viable film materials from biomass, particularly transparent, high-performance regenerated cellulose (RC) films, to replace traditional plastics. However, the inferior mechanical performance and hydrophilic nature of RC films are generally not suitable for use as a substitute for plastics in practical applications. Herein, lignin homogenization is used to synthesize high-performance composite films. The esterified lignin nanoparticles (ELNPs) with dispersible and binding advantages are prepared through esterification and nanometrization. In the presence of ELNPs, RC films exhibit a higher tensile strength (110.4 MPa), hydrophobic nature (103.6° water contact angle, 36.6% water absorption at 120 min, and 1.127 × 10-12 g cm cm-2 s-1 Pa-1 water vapor permeability), and exciting optical properties (high visible and low ultraviolet transmittance). The films further display antioxidant activity, oxygen barrier ability, and thermostability. The films completely biodegrade at 12 and 30% soil moisture. Overall, this study offers new insights into lignin valorization and regenerated cellulose composite films as novel bioplastic materials.

Deterioration of bio-based polylactic acid plastic teabags under environmental conditions and their associated effects on earthworms

In response to the plastic waste crisis, teabag producers have substituted the petrochemical-plastic content of their products with bio-based, biodegradable polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA). Despite widespread use, the degradation rate of PLA/PLA-blended materials in natural soil and their effects on soil biota are poorly understood. This study examined the percentage mass deterioration of teabags with differing cellulose:PLA compositions following burial (-10 cm depth) in an arable field margin for 7-months, using a suite of analytical techniques, such as size exclusion chromatography, 1H nuclear magnetic resonance, dynamic scanning calorimetry, and scanning electron microscopy. The effect of 28-d exposure to teabag discs at environmentally relevant concentrations (0.02 %, 0.04 % and 0.07 % w/w) on the survival, growth and reproduction (OECD TG 222 protocol) of the key soil detritivore Eisenia fetida was assessed in laboratory trials. After 7-month burial, Tbag-A (2.4:1 blend) and Tbag-B (3.5:1 cellulose:PLA blend) lost 66 ± 5 % and 78 ± 4 % of their total mass, primarily attributed to degradation of cellulose as identified by FTIR spectroscopy and a reduction in the cellulose:PLA mass ratio, while Tbag-C (PLA) remained unchanged. There were clear treatment and dose-specific effects on the growth and reproductive output of E. fetida. At 0.07 % w/w of Tbag-A adult mortality marginally increased (15 %) and both the quantity of egg cocoons and the average mass of juveniles also increased, while at concentrations ≥0.04 % w/w of Tbag-C, the quantity of cocoons was suppressed. Adverse effects are comparable to those reported for non-biodegradable petrochemical-based plastic, demonstrating that bio-based PLA does not offer a more 'environmentally friendly' alternative. Our study emphasises the necessity to better understand the environmental fate and ecotoxicity of PLA/PLA-blends to ensure interventions developed through the UN Plastic Pollution Treaty to use alternatives and substitutes to conventional plastics do not result in unintended negative consequences.

Formulation and application of poly lactic acid, gum, and cellulose-based ternary bioplastic for smart food packaging: A review

In future, global demand for low-cost-sustainable materials possessing good strength is going to increase tremendously, to replace synthetic plastic materials, thus motivating scientists towards green composites. The PLA has been the most promising sustainable bio composites, due to its inherent antibacterial property, biodegradability, eco-friendliness, and good thermal and mechanical characteristics. However, PLA has certain demerits such as poor water and gas barrier properties, and low glass transition temperature, which restricts its use in food packaging applications. To overcome this, PLA is blended with polysaccharides such as gum and cellulose to enhance the water barrier, thermal, crystallization, degradability, and mechanical properties. Moreover, the addition of these polysaccharides not only reduces the production cost but also helps in manufacturing packaging material with superior quality. Hence this review focuses on various fabrication techniques, degradation of the ternary composite, and its application in the food sector. Moreover, this review discusses the enhanced barrier and mechanical properties of the ternary blend packaging material. Incorporation of gum enhanced flexibility, while the reinforcement of cellulose improved the structural integrity of the ternary composite. The unique properties of this ternary composite make it suitable for extending the shelf life of food packaging, specifically for fruits, vegetables, and fried products. Future studies must be conducted to investigate the optimization of formulations for specific food types, explore scalability for industrial applications, and integrate these composites with emerging technologies (3D/4D printing).

Revolutionizing tropical fruits preservation: Emerging edible coating technologies

Tropical fruits, predominantly cultivated in Southeast Asia, are esteemed for their nutritional richness, distinctive taste, aroma, and visual appeal when consumed fresh. However, postharvest challenges have led to substantial global wastage, nearly 50 %. The advent of edible biopolymeric nanoparticles presents a novel solution to preserve the fruits' overall freshness. These nanoparticles, being edible, readily available, biodegradable, antimicrobial, antioxidant, Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS), and non-toxic, are commonly prepared via ionic gelation owing to the method's physical crosslinking, simplicity, and affordability. The resulting biopolymeric nanoparticles, with or without additives, can be employed in basic formulations or as composite blends with other materials. This study aims to review the capabilities of biopolymeric nanoparticles in enhancing the physical and sensory aspects of tropical fruits, inhibiting microbial growth, and prolonging shelf life. Material selection for formulation is crucial, considering coating materials, the fruit's epidermal properties, internal and external factors. A variety of application techniques are covered such as spraying, and layer-by-layer among others, including their advantages, and disadvantages. Finally, the study addresses safety measures, legislation, current challenges, and industrial perspectives concerning fruit edible coating films.

Enhanced emulsification performance and interfacial properties of Janus-like rapeseed cruciferin through asymmetric acylation modification

Plant protein emulsifiers, particularly rapeseed protein isolate with its superior amino acid composition and predominantly globular protein, have captured significant interest in the food industry. Nonetheless, the application of these proteins has been stymied by their lackluster emulsification properties. Addressing this challenge, our study implements an innovative asymmetric acylation technique to modify the surface of rapeseed cruciferin (RC), morphing it into a structure resembling Janus nanoparticles. This alteration amplifies the emulsification prowess of RC by a remarkable 2.7 times compared to its natural form, and 1.43 times over its conventionally acylated counterpart. The asymmetrically acylated RC, marked by a distinctive three-phase contact angle of 90.4°, manifests an outstanding amphiphilic character. Moreover, it surpasses both the natural and conventionally acylated RC in terms of diffusion, penetration, and rearrangement rates, as well as protein concentration at the oil-water interface. Compared to commonly used emulsifiers in the food industry, such as lecithin and soy protein, the asymmetrically acylated RC stands out, stabilizing emulsions with the tiniest particle size and effectively staving off emulsion stratification over a longer duration. This study underscores that asymmetric acylation serves as a reliable methodology for producing efficient plant protein emulsifiers, considerably amplifying their utility in the food industry.

Sustainable reclamation of synthetic materials as automotive parts replacement: effects of environmental response on natural fiber vulnerabilities

Sustaining the resilience of the environment against climate change volatilities is fast becoming a herculean task considering the vulnerabilities of the ecosystem and disruption of the global value chain. Environmental crisis emanating from improper containment of synthetic materials is a major impediment facing the world today, and the situation could get worse if urgent measures are not devised to mitigate the quantity of waste synthetic materials that find its ways to the environment. These wastes are released in the form of toxins, posing danger to the environments, causing biodiversity loss and the degradation of already battered-climate. In this paper, the authors apprise existing containment measures of synthetic waste materials taking a preliminary and on-the-spot assessment of their impacts and effectiveness of their application leading to their operation. The prospect of waste glass fiber in automotive part replacement is given utmost interest in this paper, in which, a significant quantity of glass fiber could be used as part of automotive materials to reduce their overbearing environmental carnage. By this approach, the emerging automotive parts may have their strength and durability enhanced against impact and corrosion. Mindful of the non-biodegradable properties of glass fibers, the paper captures how effective these fibers could be used as automotive parts against the traditional materials. This paper also reflects on the response of the natural fiber in terms of their sustainability, as natural forest faces severe extinction occasioned by anthropogenic activities.

Preparation and characterization of gelatin/chitosan nanocomposite reinforced by NiO nanoparticles as an active food packaging

Food packaging with antibacterial properties has attracted much attention recently. In this study, nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiONPs) were synthesized by co-precipitation and then gelatin/chitosan polymer films (GEL/CS) with different percentages of NiONPs, bio-nanocomposites, were prepared by casting. Morphology, crystal microstructure, molecular interactions and thermal stabilities of the NPs and the composite films were characterized by FESEM, XRD, FTIR and TGA, respectively. The bio-nanocomposite films exhibited excellent barrier, thermal and mechanical properties by addition of an optimized content of NPs. For example, the tensile strength (TS) of the GEL/CS film without NPs was 23.83 MPa and increased to 30.13 MPa by incorporation of 1% NPs. The antibacterial properties and toxicity of the films were investigated. These films show good antibacterial behavior against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria compared to Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria. Furthermore, the films were found to be non-toxic to fibroblast cells that came into contact with the films, with a survival rate of more than 88%. Therefore, these films can be applied for food packaging due to their excellent mechanical, barrier, and antibacterial properties.

Innovative Biobased and Sustainable Polymer Packaging Solutions for Extending Bread Shelf Life: A Review

Sustainable packaging has been steadily gaining prominence within the food industry, with biobased materials emerging as a promising substitute for conventional petroleum-derived plastics. This review is dedicated to the examination of innovative biobased materials in the context of bread packaging. It aims to furnish a comprehensive survey of recent discoveries, fundamental properties, and potential applications. Commencing with an examination of the challenges posed by various bread types and the imperative of extending shelf life, the review underscores the beneficial role of biopolymers as internal coatings or external layers in preserving product freshness while upholding structural integrity. Furthermore, the introduction of biocomposites, resulting from the amalgamation of biopolymers with active biomolecules, fortifies barrier properties, thus shielding bread from moisture, oxygen, and external influences. The review also addresses the associated challenges and opportunities in utilizing biobased materials for bread packaging, accentuating the ongoing requirement for research and innovation to create advanced materials that ensure product integrity while diminishing the environmental footprint.

Biobased Biodegradable Copolyesters from 2,5-Thiophenedicarboxylic Acid: Effect of Aliphatic Diols on Barrier Properties and Degradation

The demand for sustainable development has led to increasing attention in biobased polyesters due to their adjustable thermal and mechanical properties and biodegradability. In this study, we used a novel bioderived aromatic diacid, 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid (TDCA) to synthesize a list of novel aromatic-aliphatic poly(alkylene adipate-co-thiophenedicarboxylate) (PAATh) copolyesters through a facile melt polycondensation method. PAAThs are random copolyesters with weight-average molecular weights of 58400 to 84200 g·mol-1 and intrinsic viscosities of 0.80 to 1.27 dL·g-1. All PAAThs exhibit sufficiently high thermal stability as well as the highest tensile strength of 6.2 MPa and the best gas barrier performances against CO2 and O2, 4.3- and 3.3-fold better than those of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT). The biodegradability of PAAThs was fully evaluated through a degradation experiment and various experimental parameters, including residue weights, surface morphology, and molecular compositions. The state-of-the-art molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were applied to elucidate the different enzymatic degradation behaviors of PAAThs due to the effect of diols with different chain structures. The sterically hindered carbonyl carbon of the PHATh-enzyme complex was more susceptible to nucleophilic attack and exhibited a higher tendency to enter a prereaction state. This study has introduced a group of novel biobased copolyesters with their structure-property relationships investigated thoroughly, and the effect of diol components on the enzymatic degradation was revealed by computational analysis. These findings may lay the foundation for the development of promising substitutes for commercial biodegradable polyesters and shed light on their complicated degradation mechanisms.

Biomass waste-derived carbon materials for sustainable remediation of polluted environment: A comprehensive review

In response to the growing global concern over environmental pollution, the exploration of sustainable and eco-friendly materials derived from biomass waste has gained significant traction. This comprehensive review seeks to provide a holistic perspective on the utilization of biomass waste as a renewable carbon source, offering insights into the production of environmentally benign and cost-effective carbon-based materials. These materials, including biochar, carbon nanotubes, and graphene, have shown immense promise in the remediation of polluted soils, industrial wastewater, and contaminated groundwater. The review commences by elucidating the intricate processes involved in the synthesis and functionalization of biomass-derived carbon materials, emphasizing their scalability and economic viability. With their distinctive structural attributes, such as high surface areas, porous architectures, and tunable surface functionalities, these materials emerge as versatile tools in addressing environmental challenges. One of the central themes explored in this review is the pivotal role that carbon materials play in adsorption processes, which represent a green and sustainable technology for the removal of a diverse array of pollutants. These encompass noxious organic compounds, heavy metals, and organic matter, encompassing pollutants found in soils, groundwater, and industrial wastewater. The discussion extends to the underlying mechanisms governing adsorption, shedding light on the efficacy and selectivity of carbon-based materials in different environmental contexts. Furthermore, this review delves into multifaceted considerations, spanning the spectrum from biomass and biowaste resources to the properties and applications of carbon materials. This holistic approach aims to equip researchers and practitioners with a comprehensive understanding of the synergistic utilization of these materials, ultimately facilitating effective and affordable strategies for combatting industrial wastewater pollution, soil contamination, and groundwater impurities.

Effect of Biobased Cling Films on Cheese Quality: Color and Aroma Analysis for Sustainable Food Packaging

Biobased and biodegradable polymeric materials are a sustainable alternative to the conventional plastics used in food packaging. This study investigated the possible effect of biobased cling films derived from renewable and circular and sustainable sources on key cheese sensory parameters (appearance and odor) able to influence consumer acceptance or rejection of a food product over time. For this purpose, a semi-hard cheese was selected as food model and stored for 14 days at 5 °C wrapped with five cling films: two bio-plastic materials from renewable circular and sustainable sources (R-BP1 and R-BP2), one bio-plastic film from a non-renewable source (NR-BP), and two conventional cling films (LDPE and PVC). Three analytical approaches (image analysis, electronic nose, and sensory test) were applied to evaluate the variation and the acceptability in terms of appearance and odor of the cheese. In preserving cheese color, the R-BP1 and RBP2 films were comparable to LDPE film, while NR-BP film was comparable to PVC film. In terms of odor preservation, R-BP2 film was comparable to LDPE and PVC. The consumer test showed that appearance and odor scores were higher for cheeses stored in R-BP1 and R-BP2 films than NR-BP film. Moreover, in terms of odor, R-BP1 film performed better than conventional films. This study shows how biodegradable cling films from renewable circular and sustainable resources could have comparable performance to conventional plastics (LDPE and PVC) used in the food sector.

Influence of Bentonite Particles on the Mechanical Properties of Polyester-Sisal Fiber Composites

As a part of the mission to create materials that are more environmentally friendly, we present the following proposal, in which a study of the mechanical properties of composite materials comprising a polyester resin with sisal fiber and bentonite particles was conducted. Sisal fiber was added to a matrix in percentages ranging from 5% to 45% in relation to the polyester resin weight, while bentonite remained fixed at 7% in relation to the polyester resin weight. The specimens were manufactured by compression molding. The mechanical properties were analyzed by tensile, bending, impact, stepped creep, and relaxation tests. In addition, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy analyses were carried out to analyze the composition and heterogeneity of the structure of the composite material. The results obtained showed that 7% of bentonite added to the matrix affects the tensile strength. Flexural strength increased by up to 21% in the specimens with a 20% addition of sisal fiber, while the elastic modulus increased by up to 43% in the case of a 20% addition of sisal fiber. The viscoelastic behavior was improved, while the relaxation stress was affected.

Fabrication, performance, and potential environmental impacts of polysaccharide-based food packaging materials incorporated with phytochemicals: A review

Although food packaging preserves food's quality, it unfortunately contributes to global climate change since the considerable carbon emissions associated with its entire life cycle. Polysaccharide-based packaging materials (PPMs) are promising options to preserve foods, potentially helping the food industry reduce its carbon footprint. PPMs incorporated with phytochemicals hold promise to address this critical issue, keep food fresh and prolong the shelf life. However, phytochemicals' health benefits are impacted by their distinct chemical structures thus the phytochemicals-incorporated PPMs generally exhibit differential performances. PPMs must be thoughtfully formulated to possess adequate physicochemical properties to meet commercial standards. Given this, this review first-time provides a comprehensive review of recent advances in the fabrication of phytochemicals incorporated PPMs. The application performances of phytochemicals-incorporated PPMs for preserving foods, as well as the intelligent monitoring of food quality, are thoroughly introduced. The possible associated environmental impacts and scalability challenges for the commercial application of these PPMs are also methodically assessed. This review seeks to provide comprehensive insights into exploring new avenues to achieve a greener and safer food industry via innovative food packaging materials. This is paramount to preserve not only food shelf life but also the environment, facilitating the eco-friendly development of the food industry.

Biopolymer-Based Sustainable Food Packaging Materials: Challenges, Solutions, and Applications

Biopolymer-based packaging materials have become of greater interest to the world due to their biodegradability, renewability, and biocompatibility. In recent years, numerous biopolymers-such as starch, chitosan, carrageenan, polylactic acid, etc.-have been investigated for their potential application in food packaging. Reinforcement agents such as nanofillers and active agents improve the properties of the biopolymers, making them suitable for active and intelligent packaging. Some of the packaging materials, e.g., cellulose, starch, polylactic acid, and polybutylene adipate terephthalate, are currently used in the packaging industry. The trend of using biopolymers in the packaging industry has increased immensely; therefore, many legislations have been approved by various organizations. This review article describes various challenges and possible solutions associated with food packaging materials. It covers a wide range of biopolymers used in food packaging and the limitations of using them in their pure form. Finally, a SWOT analysis is presented for biopolymers, and the future trends are discussed. Biopolymers are eco-friendly, biodegradable, nontoxic, renewable, and biocompatible alternatives to synthetic packaging materials. Research shows that biopolymer-based packaging materials are of great essence in combined form, and further studies are needed for them to be used as an alternative packaging material.

Development of Chitosan Green Composites Reinforced with Hemp Fibers: Study of Mechanical and Barrier Properties for Packaging Application

The use of bioresourced packaging materials is an interesting solution for ecological issues. This work aimed to develop novel chitosan-based packaging materials reinforced with hemp fibers (HF). For this purpose, chitosan (CH) films were filled with 15%, 30%, and 50% (w/w) of two kinds of HF: Untreated fibers cut to 1 mm (UHF) and steam exploded fibers (SEHF). The effect of HF addition and HF treatments on chitosan composites was studied in terms of mechanical properties (tensile strength (TS), elongation at break (EB), and Young's modulus (YM)), barrier properties (water vapor (WVP) and oxygen permeabilities), and thermal properties (glass transition (Tg) and melting temperatures (Tm)). The addition of HF, whether untreated or steam exploded, increased the TS of chitosan composites by 34-65%. WVP was significantly reduced by the addition of HF but no significant change was observed for O2 barrier property, which was in the range between 0.44 and 0.68 cm3·mm/m2·d. Tm of the composite films increased from 133 °C for CH films to 171 °C for films filled with 15% SEHF. However, no significant modification was observed for Tg (105-107 °C). The present study showed that the developed biocomposites had improved properties, mainly the mechanical resistance. Their use in food packaging will help industrials the move toward a sustainable development and circular economy.

The degradation of single-use plastics and commercially viable bioplastics in the environment: A review

Plastics have become an integral part of human life. Single-use plastics (SUPs) are disposable plastics designed to be used once then promptly discarded or recycled. This SUPs range from packaging and takeaway containers to disposable razors and hotel toiletries. Synthetic plastics, which are made of non-renewable petroleum and natural gas resources, require decades to perpetually disintegrate in nature thus contribute to plastic pollution worldwide, especially in marine environments. In response to these problems, bioplastics or bio-based and biodegradable polymers from renewable sources has been considered as an alternative. Understanding the mechanisms behind the degradation of conventional SUPs and biodegradability of their greener counterpart, bioplastics, is crucial for appropriate material selection in the future. This review aims to provide insights into the degradation or disintegration of conventional single-use plastics and the biodegradability of the different types of greener-counterparts, bioplastics, their mechanisms, and conditions. This review highlights on the biodegradation in the environments including composting systems. Here, the various types of alternative biodegradable polymers, such as bacterially biosynthesised bioplastics, natural fibre-reinforced plastics, starch-, cellulose-, lignin-, and soy-based polymers were explored. Review of past literature revealed that although bioplastics are relatively eco-friendly, their natural compositions and properties are inconsistent. Furthermore, the global plastic market for biodegradable plastics remains relatively small and require further research and commercialization efforts, especially considering the urgency of plastic and microplastic pollution as currently critical global issue. Biodegradable plastics have potential to replace conventional plastics as they show biodegradation ability under real environments, and thus intensive research on the various biodegradable plastics is needed to inform stakeholders and policy makers on the appropriate response to the gradually emerging biodegradable plastics.

Biobased and Compostable Multiblock Copolymer of Poly(l-lactic acid) Containing 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid for Sustainable Food Packaging: The Role of Parent Homopolymers in the Composting Kinetics and Mechanism

In the last years, the exponential growth in the demand of petroleum-based plastic materials, besides the extreme exploitation of nonrenewable resources, lead to the mismanagement of their disposal and to serious ecological issues related to their dispersion in the environment. Among the possible practical solutions, the design of biobased and biodegradable polymers represents one of the most innovative challenges. In such a context, the eco-design of an aromatic-aliphatic multiblock copolymer based on poly(lactic acid) and containing 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid was carried out with the aim of improving the properties of poly(l-lactic acid) for sustainable packaging applications. The synthetic method followed a novel top-down approach, starting from industrial high-molecular-weight poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA), which was reacted with 1,5-pentanediol to get hydroxyl-terminated PLLA and then chain-extended with hydroxyl-terminated poly(pentamethylene furanoate) (PPeF-OH). The final copolymer, called P(LLA50PeF50)-CE, was subjected to molecular, structural, and thermal characterization. Tensile and gas permeability tests were also carried out. According to the results obtained, PLLA thermal stability was improved, being the range of processing temperatures widened, and its stiffness and brittleness were decreased, making the new material suitable for the realization of films for flexible packaging. The oxygen permeability of PLLA was decreased by 40% and a similar improvement was measured also for carbon dioxide. P(LLA50PeF50)-CE was found to be completely biodegraded within 60 days of composting treatment. In terms of mechanism, the blocks of PPeF and PLLA were demonstrated to undergo surface erosion and bulk hydrolysis, respectively. In terms of kinetics, PPeF blocks degraded slower than PLLA ones.

Bio-Based Polyurethane Foams for the Removal of Petroleum-Derived Pollutants: Sorption in Batch and in Continuous-Flow

In this paper, we evaluated the potential of two synthesized bio-based polyurethane foams, PU1 and PU2, for the removal of diesel and gasoline from water mixtures. We started the investigation with the experiment in batch. The total sorption capacity S (g/g) for the diesel/water system was slightly higher with respect to gasoline/water, with a value of 62 g/g for PU1 and 65 g/g for PU2. We found that the sorption follows a pseudo second-order kinetic model for both the materials. The experimental data showed that the best isotherm models were obtained with Langmuir and Redlich–Peterson models. In addition, to provide an idea of the process scalability for future industrial applications, we tested the sorption capacity of the foams using a continuous-flow of the same oil/water mixtures and we obtained performances even better with respect to the batch test. The regeneration can be performed up to 50 times by centrifuge, without losing efficacy.

Reprocessing of side-streams towards obtaining valuable bacterial metabolites

Every year, all over the world, the industry generates huge amounts of residues. Side-streams are most often used as feed, landfilled, incinerated, or discharged into sewage. These disposal methods are far from perfect. Taking into account the composition of the side-streams, it seems that they should be used as raw materials for further processing, in accordance with the zero-waste policy and sustainable development. The article describes the latest achievements in biotechnology in the context of bacterial reprocessing of residues with the simultaneous acquisition of their metabolites. The article focuses on four metabolites - bacterial cellulose, propionic acid, vitamin B12 and PHAs. Taking into account global trends (e.g. food, packaging, medicine), it seems that in the near future there will be a sharp increase in demand for this type of compounds. In order for their production to be profitable and commercialised, cheap methods of its obtaining must be developed. The article, in addition to obtaining these bacterial metabolites from side-streams, also discusses e.g. factors affecting their production, metabolic pathways and potential and current applications. The presented chapters provide a complete overview of the current knowledge on above metabolites, which can be helpful for the academic and scientific communities and the several industries. KEY POINTS: • The industry generates millions of tons of organic side-streams each year. • Generated residues burden the natural environment. • A good and cost-effective method of side-streams management seems to be biotechnology - reprocessing with the use of bacteria. • Biotechnological disposal of side-streams gives the opportunity to obtain valuable compounds in cheaper ways: BC, PA, vitmain B12, PHAs.

Physical, Mechanical, and Structural Properties of the Polylactide and Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate (PBAT)-Based Biodegradable Polymer during Compost Storage

Today, packaging is an integral part of any food product, preserving its quality and safety. The use of biodegradable packaging as an alternative to conventional polymers reduces the consumption of synthetic polymers and their negative impacts on the environment. The purpose of this study was to analyze the properties of a biodegradable compound based on polylactide (PLA) and polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT). Test samples were made by blown extrusion. The structural, physical, and mechanical properties of the PLA/PBAT material were studied. The property variations during compost storage in the lab were monitored for 365 days. The physical and mechanical properties were measured in accordance with the GOST 14236-2017 (ISO 527-2:2012) standard. We measured the tensile strength and elongation at rupture. We used attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared microscopy (ATR-FTIR) to analyze the changes in the material structure. This paper presents a comparative analysis of the strengths of a biodegradable material and grade H polyethylene film (manufactured to GOST 10354-82). PLA/PBAT's longitudinal and transverse tensile strengths are 14.08% and 32.59% lower than those of LDPE, respectively. Nevertheless, the results indicate that, given its physical and mechanical properties, the PLA/PBAT material can be an alternative to conventional PE film food packaging. The structural study results are in good agreement with the physical and mechanical tests. Micrographs clearly show the surface deformations of the biodegradable material. They increase with the compost storage duration. The scanning microscopy (SEM) surface analysis of the original PLA/PBAT films indicated that the PLA structure is similar to that of a multilayer shell or sponge, which is visible at medium and especially high magnification. We conclude that PLA/PBAT-based biodegradable materials are potential substitutes for conventional PE polymer films.

Influence of Process Parameters on the Characteristics of Additively Manufactured Parts Made from Advanced Biopolymers

Over the past few decades, additive manufacturing (AM) has become a reliable tool for prototyping and low-volume production. In recent years, the market share of such products has increased rapidly as these manufacturing concepts allow for greater part complexity compared to conventional manufacturing technologies. Furthermore, as recyclability and biocompatibility have become more important in material selection, biopolymers have also become widely used in AM. This article provides an overview of AM with advanced biopolymers in fields from medicine to food packaging. Various AM technologies are presented, focusing on the biopolymers used, selected part fabrication strategies, and influential parameters of the technologies presented. It should be emphasized that inkjet bioprinting, stereolithography, selective laser sintering, fused deposition modeling, extrusion-based bioprinting, and scaffold-free printing are the most commonly used AM technologies for the production of parts from advanced biopolymers. Achievable part complexity will be discussed with emphasis on manufacturable features, layer thickness, production accuracy, materials applied, and part strength in correlation with key AM technologies and their parameters crucial for producing representative examples, anatomical models, specialized medical instruments, medical implants, time-dependent prosthetic features, etc. Future trends of advanced biopolymers focused on establishing target-time-dependent part properties through 4D additive manufacturing are also discussed.

The development of recycling methods for bio-based materials - A challenge in the implementation of a circular economy: A review

This review focuses on the characteristics of the most widely used biopolymers that contain starch, polylactic acid, cellulose and/or polybutylene succinate. Because worldwide production of bio-based materials has grown dynamically, their waste is increasingly found in the existing waste treatment plants. The development of recycling methods for bio-based materials remains a challenge in the implementation of a circular economy. This article summarizes the recycling methods for bio-based materials, which, in the hierarchy of waste management, is much more desirable than landfilling. Several methods of recycling are available for the end-of-life management of bio-based products, which include mechanical (reuse of waste as a valuable raw material for further processing), chemical (feedstock recycling) and organic (anaerobic digestion or composting) ones. The use of chemical or mechanical recycling is less favourable, more costly and requires the improvement of systems for separation of bio-based materials from the rest of the waste stream. Organic recycling can be a sustainable alternative to those two methods. In organic recycling, bio-based materials can be biologically treated under aerobic or anaerobic conditions, depending on the characteristics of the materials. The choice of the recycling method to be implemented depends on the economic situation and on the properties of the bio-based products and their susceptibility to degradation. Thus, it is necessary to label the products to indicate which method of recycling is most appropriate.

An Overview on Wood Waste Valorization as Biopolymers and Biocomposites: Definition, Classification, Production, Properties and Applications

Bio-based polymers, obtained from natural biomass, are nowadays considered good candidates for the replacement of traditional fossil-derived plastics. The need for substituting traditional synthetic plastics is mainly driven by many concerns about their detrimental effects on the environment and human health. The most innovative way to produce bioplastics involves the use of raw materials derived from wastes. Raw materials are of vital importance for human and animal health and due to their economic and environmental benefits. Among these, wood waste is gaining popularity as an innovative raw material for biopolymer manufacturing. On the other hand, the use of wastes as a source to produce biopolymers and biocomposites is still under development and the processing methods are currently being studied in order to reach a high reproducibility and thus increase the yield of production. This study therefore aimed to cover the current developments in the classification, manufacturing, performances and fields of application of bio-based polymers, especially focusing on wood waste sources. The work was carried out using both a descriptive and an analytical methodology: first, a description of the state of art as it exists at present was reported, then the available information was analyzed to make a critical evaluation of the results. A second way to employ wood scraps involves their use as bio-reinforcements for composites; therefore, the increase in the mechanical response obtained by the addition of wood waste in different bio-based matrices was explored in this work. Results showed an increase in Young's modulus up to 9 GPa for wood-reinforced PLA and up to 6 GPa for wood-reinforced PHA.

Trends and challenges in the development of bio-based barrier coating materials for paper/cardboard food packaging; a review

Currently, petroleum-based synthetic plastics are used as a key barrier material in the paper-based packaging of several food and nonfood goods. This widespread usage of plastic as a barrier lining is not only harmful to human and marine health, but it is also polluting the ecosystem. Researchers and food manufacturers are focused on biobased alternatives because of its numerous advantages, including biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and structural flexibility. When used alone or in composites/multilayers, these biobased alternatives provide strong barrier qualities against grease, oxygen, microbes, air, and water. According to the most recent literature reports, biobased polymers for barrier coatings are having difficulty breaking into the business. Technological breakthroughs in the field of bioplastic production and application are rapidly evolving, proffering new options for academics and industry to collaborate and develop sustainable packaging solutions. Existing techniques, such as multilayer coating of nanocomposites, can be improved further by designing them in a more systematic manner to attain the best barrier qualities. Modified nanocellulose, lignin nanoparticles, and bio-polyester are among the most promising future candidates for nanocomposite-based packaging films with high barrier qualities. In this review, the state-of-art and research advancements made in biobased polymeric alternatives such as paper and board barrier coating are summarized. Finally, the existing limitations and potential future development prospects for these biobased polymers as barrier materials are reviewed.

Need for Sustainable Packaging: An Overview

Packaging materials are a significant part of our lives due to their daily usage at grocery stores, supermarkets, restaurants, pharmaceuticals, etc. Packaging plays an important role in ensuring that the products are preserved during handling, transporting, and storage. Similarly, it helps to maintain and prolong the shelf life of products. These materials are used for packaging meats, poultry and seafood products, food and beverages, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products. Several applications of packaging materials have been discussed extensively, with little discussion on their end of life and continuous availability without impacting the environment. This study presents the need for sustainable packaging as a result of growing demands and the environmental impact of packaging materials after use. This study also presents the importance, types, and applications of packaging materials. Based on the findings of this study, sustainable packaging is made possible by using bio-based and recyclable materials. These materials contribute a great deal to protecting and ensuring a sustainable environment.

Double-interpenetrating nanostructured networks of marine polysaccharides possessing properties comparable to synthetic polymers

Sustainable circular economy requires materials that possess a property profile comparable to synthetic polymers and, additionally, processing and sourcing of raw materials that have a small environmental footprint. Here, we present a paradigm for processing marine biopolymers into materials that possess both elastic and plastic behavior within a single system involving a double-interpenetrating polymer network comprising the elastic phase of dynamic physical cross-links and stress-dissipating ionically cross-linked domains. As a proof of principle, films possessing more than twofold higher elastic modulus, ultimate tensile strength, and yield stress than those of polylactic acid were realized by blending two water-soluble marine polysaccharides, namely alginic acid (Alg) with physically cross-linkable carboxylated agarose (CA) followed by ionic cross-linking with a divalent cation. Dried CAAlg films showed homogeneous nano-micro-scale domains, with yield stress and size of the domains scaling inversely with calcium concentration. Through surface activation/cross-linking using calcium, CAAlg films could be further processed using wet bonding to yield laminated structures with interfacial failure loads (13.2 ± 0.81 N) similar to the ultimate loads of unlaminated films (10.09 ± 1.47 N). Toward the engineering of wood-marine biopolymer composites, an array of lines of CAAlg were printed on wood veneers (panels), dried, and then bonded following activation with calcium to yield fully bonded wood two-ply laminate. The system presented herein provides a blueprint for the adoption of marine algae-derived polysaccharides in the development of sustainable high-performance materials.

Bioplastics for Food Packaging: Environmental Impact, Trends and Regulatory Aspects

The demand to develop and produce eco-friendly alternatives for food packaging is increasing. The huge negative impact that the disposal of so-called "single-use plastics" has on the environment is propelling the market to search for new solutions, and requires initiatives to drive faster responses from the scientific community, the industry, and governmental bodies for the adoption and implementation of new materials. Bioplastics are an alternative group of materials that are partly or entirely produced from renewable sources. Some bioplastics are biodegradable or even compostable under the right conditions. This review presents the different properties of these materials, mechanisms of biodegradation, and their environmental impact, but also presents a holistic overview of the most important bioplastics available in the market and their potential application for food packaging, consumer perception of the bioplastics, regulatory aspects, and future challenges.

Packaging Weight, Filling Ratio and Filling Efficiency of Yogurt and Relevant Packagings Depending on Commercial Packaging Design, Material, Packaging Type and Filling Quantity

Yogurt is a diverse dairy product category. It is available in different packaging designs made of different materials. To identify potential for improvement for these packagings, a better understanding about used materials and packaging efficiencies is necessary. For this study, 150 dairy products and some yogurt relevant desserts were bought from various supermarkets, street markets and discounters in the Munich region (Germany) in spring 2022. Commercial types of packaging are cups, buckets, pouches, bottles, glass packagings and bricks. The filling ratio of most packagings is above 70%, the rest of the volume is headspace. Poly(1-methylethylene) (PP) and poly(1-phenylethene) (PS) dominate as main materials for the different types of packaging. For bottle packagings, poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and polyethene high-density (PE-HD) are used. Interestingly, poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is not found. Closures (caps) are responsible for 5 to 30% of the total packaging weight. Typical filling efficiencies are 20 to 40 g food product packaged in one gram of packaging material. For glass packagings, the values are 1.5 to 2 g food product packaged in one gram of packaging material. Therefore, plastic packaging results in an at least ten-times lower packaging use per unit of food, at single use packagings. With increasing product weights, we observe a tendency towards higher packaging efficiencies. By using paper/carton wrapping at cups, plastic use is reduced for the whole packaging.