Epsin deficiency impairs endocytosis by stalling the actin-dependent invagination of endocytic clathrin-coated pits

Next-generation small molecule inhibitors of clathrin function acutely inhibit endocytosis

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is the predominant endocytic pathway in eukaryotic cells and a major regulator of cell physiology as it facilitates the internalization of receptors, channels, and transporters and viral entry. The clathrin terminal domain acts as a central protein interaction hub within the endocytic protein network. Previously described inhibitors of CME display off-target activities that result in cytotoxicity, providing limitations to their use. We report the development and characterization of next-generation small molecule inhibitors of clathrin terminal domain function. These compounds termed Pitstop 2c and Pitstop 2d occupy the binding site within the clathrin terminal domain for endocytic protein ligands including epsin, resulting in potent inhibition of receptor-mediated endocytosis and reduced entry of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) with minimal cytotoxic side effects. Next-generation Pitstops thus provide an improved toolset to address clathrin function in cell physiology with potential applications as inhibitors of virus and pathogen entry.

CCDC32 stabilizes clathrin-coated pits and drives their invagination

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis. Previous studies have reported more than 50 CME accessory proteins; however, the mechanism driving the invagination of clathrin-coated pits (CCPs) remains elusive. We show by quantitative live cell imaging that siRNA-mediated knockdown of CCDC32, a poorly characterized endocytic accessory protein, leads to the accumulation of unstable flat clathrin assemblies. CCDC32 interacts with the α-appendage domain (AD) of AP2 in vitro and with full length AP2 complexes in cells. Deletion of aa78-98 in CCDC32, corresponding to a predicted α-helix, abrogates AP2 binding and CCDC32's early function in CME. Furthermore, clinically observed nonsense mutations in CCDC32, which result in C-terminal truncations that lack aa78-98, are linked to the development of cardio-facio-neuro-developmental syndrome (CFNDS). Overall, our data demonstrate the function of a novel endocytic accessory protein, CCDC32, in regulating CCP stabilization and invagination, critical early stages of CME.

Summary

We show that CCDC32, a poorly studied and functionally ambiguous protein, binds to AP2 and regulates CCP stabilization and invagination. Clinically observed mutations in CCDC32 lose their ability to interact with AP2 likely contributing to the development of cardio-facio-neuro-developmental syndrome.

Epsin bioactive coating reduced in-stent intimal hyperplasia by promoting early phase reendothelialization and inhibiting smooth muscle cell proliferation

In recent years, interventional surgery has become a treatment for ischemic stroke due to its low risk of injury. However, the occurrence of restenosis hinders the long-term effectiveness and safety of stent implantation. At present, drug-eluting stents mainly prevent the stenosis of drug-eluting stents by inhibiting the proliferation of smooth muscle cells (SMCs). However, these drugs cause damage to endothelial cells (ECs), prevent timely re endothelialization of blood vessels, and increase the risk of late thrombosis and late restenosis. EPS-15-interacting protein 1 (Epsin1)- EPS-15-interacting protein 2 (Epsin2)-shrna coated stents have the potential to promote early endothelialization and inhibit restenosis, which contributes to the candidate development of novel drug coated stents. We found that the expression of Epsin was elevated in the mouse carotid artery ligation model, and the intimal hyperplasia(IH) could be reduced by intervening Epsin. Epsin in cultured endothelial cells was interfered to study proliferation and migration functions, and its role in cocultured endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells was evaluated. In addition, we explored the potential therapeutic benefits of inhibiting Epsin in a porcine model using scaffolds coated with plasmids containing Epsin short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Our study showed that the expression of Epsin1 and Epsin2 was elevated in the proliferative intima of mice, and the inhibition of Epsin reduced the proliferation of neointima in mice. The inhibition of Epsin led to enhanced proliferation and migration of endothelial cells, and maintained a healthy cell membrane potential. In cocultured cells, inhibition of Epsin resulted in reduced proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells. In a porcine carotid artery model, Epsin shRNA coated scaffolds promoted early re endothelialization and reduced IH. These results suggest that Epsin plays a crucial role in endothelial and smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration functions, and its inhibition may be a potentially effective therapeutic strategy to prevent in stent stenosis.

Epsin1 enforces a condensation-dependent checkpoint for ubiquitylated cargo during clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis internalizes proteins and lipids from the cell surface, supporting nutrient uptake, signaling, and membrane trafficking. Recent work has demonstrated that a flexible, liquid-like network of initiator proteins is responsible for catalyzing assembly of clathrin-coated vesicles in diverse organisms including yeast, mammals, and plants. How do cells regulate the assembly of this dynamic network to produce cargo-loaded vesicles? Here we reveal the ability of an endocytic adaptor protein, Epsin1, to conditionally stabilize the initiator protein network, creating a cargo-dependent checkpoint during clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Epsin1 is known to recruit ubiquitylated transmembrane proteins to endocytic sites. Using in vitro assays, we demonstrate that Epsin1 uses competitive binding and steric repulsion to destabilize condensation of initiator proteins in the absence of ubiquitin. However, when polyubiquitin is present, Epsin1 binds to both ubiquitin and initiator proteins, creating attractive interactions that stabilize condensation. Similarly, in mammalian cells, endocytic dynamics and ligand uptake are disrupted by removal of either ubiquitin or Epsin1. Surprisingly, when Epsin1 and ubiquitin are removed simultaneously, endocytic defects are rescued to near wildtype levels, although endocytic sites lose the ability to distinguish between ubiquitylated and non-ubiquitylated cargos. Taken together, these results suggest that Epsin1 tunes protein condensation to ensure the presence of ubiquitylated cargo during assembly of clathrin-coated vesicles. More broadly, these findings illustrate how a balance of attractive and repulsive molecular interactions controls the stability of liquid-like protein networks, providing dynamic control over key cellular events.

Structural and Evolutionary Aspects of Plant Endocytosis

Endocytosis is an essential eukaryotic process that maintains the homeostasis of the plasma membrane proteome by vesicle-mediated internalization. Its predominant mode of operation utilizes the polymerization of the scaffold protein clathrin forming a coat around the vesicle; therefore, it is termed clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). Throughout evolution, the machinery that mediates CME is marked by losses, multiplications, and innovations. CME employs a limited number of conserved structural domains and folds, whose assembly and connections are species dependent. In plants, many of the domains are grouped into an ancient multimeric complex, the TPLATE complex, which occupies a central position as an interaction hub for the endocytic machinery. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge regarding the structural aspects of plant CME, and we draw comparisons to other model systems. To do so, we have taken advantage of recent developments with respect to artificial intelligence-based protein structure prediction.

Clathrin controls bidirectional communication between T cells and antigen presenting cells

In circulation, T cells are spherical with selectin enriched dynamic microvilli protruding from the surface. Following extravasation, these microvilli serve another role, continuously surveying their environment for antigen in the form of peptide-MHC (pMHC) expressed on the surface of antigen presenting cells (APCs). Upon recognition of their cognate pMHC, the microvilli are initially stabilized and then flatten into F-actin dependent microclusters as the T cell spreads over the APC. Within 1-5 min, clathrin is recruited by the ESCRT-0 component Hrs to mediate release of T cell receptor (TCR) loaded vesicles directly from the plasma membrane by clathrin and ESCRT-mediated ectocytosis (CEME). After 5-10 min, Hrs is displaced by the endocytic clathrin adaptor epsin-1 to induce clathrin-mediated trans-endocytosis (CMTE) of TCR-pMHC conjugates. Here we discuss some of the functional properties of the clathrin machinery which enables it to control these topologically opposite modes of membrane transfer at the immunological synapse, and how this might be regulated during T cell activation.

Force redistribution in clathrin-mediated endocytosis revealed by coiled-coil force sensors

Forces are central to countless cellular processes, yet in vivo force measurement at the molecular scale remains difficult if not impossible. During clathrin-mediated endocytosis, forces produced by the actin cytoskeleton are transmitted to the plasma membrane by a multiprotein coat for membrane deformation. However, the magnitudes of these forces remain unknown. Here, we present new in vivo force sensors that induce protein condensation under force. We measured the forces on the fission yeast Huntingtin-Interacting Protein 1 Related (HIP1R) homolog End4p, a protein that links the membrane to the actin cytoskeleton. End4p is under ~19-piconewton force near the actin cytoskeleton, ~11 piconewtons near the clathrin lattice, and ~9 piconewtons near the plasma membrane. Our results demonstrate that forces are collected and redistributed across the endocytic machinery.

Tension-tuned receptors for synthetic mechanotransduction and intercellular force detection

Cells interpret mechanical stimuli from their environments and neighbors, but the ability to engineer customized mechanosensing capabilities has remained a synthetic and mechanobiology challenge. Here we introduce tension-tuned synthetic Notch (SynNotch) receptors to convert extracellular and intercellular forces into specifiable gene expression changes. By elevating the tension requirements of SynNotch activation, in combination with structure-guided mutagenesis, we designed a set of receptors with mechanical sensitivities spanning the physiologically relevant picoNewton range. Cells expressing these receptors can distinguish between varying tensile forces and respond by enacting customizable transcriptional programs. We applied these tools to design a decision-making circuit, through which fibroblasts differentiate into myoblasts upon stimulation with distinct tension magnitudes. We also characterize cell-generated forces transmitted between cells during Notch signaling. Overall, this work provides insight into how mechanically induced changes in protein structure can be used to transduce physical forces into biochemical signals. The system should facilitate the further programming and dissection of force-related phenomena in biological systems.

Membrane compression by synaptic vesicle exocytosis triggers ultrafast endocytosis

Compensatory endocytosis keeps the membrane surface area of secretory cells constant following exocytosis. At chemical synapses, clathrin-independent ultrafast endocytosis maintains such homeostasis. This endocytic pathway is temporally and spatially coupled to exocytosis; it initiates within 50 ms at the region immediately next to the active zone where vesicles fuse. However, the coupling mechanism is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that filamentous actin is organized as a ring, surrounding the active zone at mouse hippocampal synapses. Assuming the membrane area conservation is due to this actin ring, our theoretical model suggests that flattening of fused vesicles exerts lateral compression in the plasma membrane, resulting in rapid formation of endocytic pits at the border between the active zone and the surrounding actin-enriched region. Consistent with model predictions, our data show that ultrafast endocytosis requires sufficient compression by exocytosis of multiple vesicles and does not initiate when actin organization is disrupted, either pharmacologically or by ablation of the actin-binding protein Epsin1. Our work suggests that membrane mechanics underlie the rapid coupling of exocytosis to endocytosis at synapses.

Generation of nanoscopic membrane curvature for membrane trafficking

Curved membranes are key features of intracellular organelles, and their generation involves dynamic protein complexes. Here we describe the fundamental mechanisms such as the hydrophobic insertion, scaffolding and crowding mechanisms these proteins use to produce membrane curvatures and complex shapes required to form intracellular organelles and vesicular structures involved in endocytosis and secretion. For each mechanism, we discuss its cellular functions as well as the underlying physical principles and the specific membrane properties required for the mechanism to be feasible. We propose that the integration of individual mechanisms into a highly controlled, robust process of curvature generation often relies on the assembly of proteins into coats. How cells unify and organize the curvature-generating factors at the nanoscale is presented for three ubiquitous coats central for membrane trafficking in eukaryotes: clathrin-coated pits, caveolae, and COPI and COPII coats. The emerging theme is that these coats arrange and coordinate curvature-generating factors in time and space to dynamically shape membranes to accomplish membrane trafficking within cells.

Stiff matrix induced srGAP2 tension gradients control migration direction in triple-negative breast cancer

Rationale: Cells migrating through interstitial matrix enables stiffening of the tumor micro-environment. To overcome the stiff resistance of extracellular matrix, aggressive cells require the extracellular mechanosensory activation and intracellular tension response. Mechanotransduction linker srGAP2 can synergistically control the mechanical-biochemical process of malignant cell migration. Methods: To mimic the tumor micro-environment containing abundant collagen fibers and moving durotaxis of triple-negative breast cancer cells, the stiff-directed matrix was established. The newly designed srGAP2 tension probe was used to real-time supervise srGAP2 tension in living cells. The phosphorylation sites responsible for srGAP2 tension were identified by phosphorylated mutagenesis. Transwell assays and Xenograft mouse model were performed to evaluate TNBC cells invasiveness in vitro and in vivo. Fluorescence staining and membrane protein isolation were used to detect protein localization. Results: The present study shows srGAP2 serves as a linker to transmit the mechanical signals among cytoskeleton and membrane. SrGAP2 exhibits tension gradients among different parts in the stiff-directionally migrating triple-negative breast cancer cells. Cells showing the polarized tension that increased in the leading edge move faster, particularly guided by the stiff interstitial matrix. The srGAP2 tension-directed cell migration results from the upstream events of PKCα-mediated phosphorylation at Ser²⁰⁶ in the F-bar domain of srGAP2. In addition, Syndecan-4 (SDC4), a transmembrane mechanoreceptor protein, drives PKCα regional recruit on the area of membrane trending deformation, which requires the distinct extent of extracellular mechanics. Conclusion: SDC4-PKCα polarized distribution leads to the intracellular tension gradient of srGAP2, presenting the extra- and intracellular physiochemical integration and essential for persistent cell migration in stiff matrix and caner progression. Targeting the srGAP2-related physicochemical signaling could be developed into the therapeutic strategies of inhibiting breast cancer cell invasion and durotaxis.

Transcriptomic-Guided Phosphonate Utilization Analysis Unveils Evidence of Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis and Phospholipid Synthesis in the Model Diatom, Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Phosphonates are important components of marine organic phosphorus, but their bioavailability and catabolism by eukaryotic phytoplankton remain enigmatic. Here, diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum was used to investigate the bioavailability of phosphonates and describe the underlying molecular mechanism. The results showed that 2-aminoethylphosphonic acid (2-AEP) can be utilized as an alternative phosphorus source. Comparative transcriptomics revealed that the utilization of 2-AEP comprised 2 steps, including molecular uptake through clathrin-mediated endocytosis and incorporation into the membrane phospholipids in the form of diacylglyceryl-2-AEP (DAG-2-AEP). In the global ocean, we found the prevalence and dynamic expression pattern of key genes that are responsible for vesicle formation (CLTC, AP-2) and DAG-AEP synthesis (PCYT2, EPT1) in diatom assemblages. This study elucidates a distinctive mechanism of phosphonate utilization by diatoms, and discusses the ecological implications. IMPORTANCE Phosphonates contribute ~25% of total dissolved organic phosphorus in the ocean, and are found to be important for marine phosphorus biogeochemical cycle. As a type of biogenic phosphonate produced by microorganisms, 2-aminoethylphosphonic acid (2-AEP) widely exists in the ocean. It is well known that 2-AEP can be cleaved and utilized by prokaryotes, but its ability to support the growth of eukaryotic phytoplankton remains unclear. Our research identified the bioavailability of 2-AEP for the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum, and proposed a distinctive metabolic pathway of 2-AEP utilization. Different from the enzymatic hydrolysis of phosphonates, the results suggested that P. tricornutum utilizes 2-AEP by incorporating it into phospholipid instead of cleaving the C-P bond. Moreover, the ubiquitous distribution of associated representative gene transcripts in the environmental assemblages and the higher gene transcript abundance in the cold regions were observed, which suggests the possible environmental adaption of 2-AEP utilization by diatoms.

The actin cytoskeleton: Morphological changes in pre- and fully developed lung cancer

Actin, a primary component of the cell cytoskeleton can have multiple isoforms, each of which can have specific properties uniquely suited for their purpose. These monomers are then bound together to form polymeric filaments utilizing adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis as a source of energy. Proteins, such as Arp2/3, VASP, formin, profilin, and cofilin, serve important roles in the polymerization process. These filaments can further be linked to form stress fibers by proteins called actin-binding proteins, such as α-actinin, myosin, fascin, filamin, zyxin, and epsin. These stress fibers are responsible for mechanotransduction, maintaining cell shape, cell motility, and intracellular cargo transport. Cancer metastasis, specifically epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is one of the key steps of the process, is accompanied by the formation of thick stress fibers through the Rho-associated protein kinase, MAPK/ERK, and Wnt pathways. Recently, with the advent of "field cancerization," pre-malignant cells have also been demonstrated to possess stress fibers and related cytoskeletal features. Analytical methods ranging from western blot and RNA-sequencing to cryo-EM and fluorescent imaging have been employed to understand the structure and dynamics of actin and related proteins including polymerization/depolymerization. More recent methods involve quantifying properties of the actin cytoskeleton from fluorescent images and utilizing them to study biological processes, such as EMT. These image analysis approaches exploit the fact that filaments have a unique structure (curvilinear) compared to the noise or other artifacts to separate them. Line segments are extracted from these filament images that have assigned lengths and orientations. Coupling such methods with statistical analysis has resulted in development of a new reporter for EMT in lung cancer cells as well as their drug responses.

Actin polymerization promotes invagination of flat clathrin-coated lattices in mammalian cells by pushing at lattice edges

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) requires energy input from actin polymerization in mechanically challenging conditions. The roles of actin in CME are poorly understood due to inadequate knowledge of actin organization at clathrin-coated structures (CCSs). Using platinum replica electron microscopy of mammalian cells, we show that Arp2/3 complex-dependent branched actin networks, which often emerge from microtubule tips, assemble along the CCS perimeter, lack interaction with the apical clathrin lattice, and have barbed ends oriented toward the CCS. This structure is hardly compatible with the widely held "apical pulling" model describing actin functions in CME. Arp2/3 complex inhibition or epsin knockout produce large flat non-dynamic CCSs, which split into invaginating subdomains upon recovery from Arp2/3 inhibition. Moreover, epsin localization to CCSs depends on Arp2/3 activity. We propose an "edge pushing" model for CME, wherein branched actin polymerization promotes severing and invagination of flat CCSs in an epsin-dependent manner by pushing at the CCS boundary, thus releasing forces opposing the intrinsic curvature of clathrin lattices.

The endocytic protein machinery as an actin-driven membrane-remodeling machine

In clathrin-mediated endocytosis, a principal membrane trafficking route of all eukaryotic cells, forces are applied to invaginate the plasma membrane and form endocytic vesicles. These forces are provided by specific endocytic proteins and the polymerizing actin cytoskeleton. One of the best-studied endocytic systems is endocytosis in yeast, known for its simplicity, experimental amenability, and overall similarity to human endocytosis. Importantly, the yeast endocytic protein machinery generates and transmits tremendous force to bend the plasma membrane, making this system beneficial for mechanistic studies of cellular force-driven membrane reshaping. This review summarizes important protein players, molecular functions, applied forces, and open questions and perspectives of this robust, actin-powered membrane-remodeling protein machine.

Load adaptation by endocytic actin networks

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) robustness under elevated membrane tension is maintained by actin assembly-mediated force generation. However, whether more actin assembles at endocytic sites in response to increased load has not previously been investigated. Here actin network ultrastructure at CME sites was examined under low and high membrane tension. Actin and N-WASP spatial organization indicate that actin polymerization initiates at the base of clathrin-coated pits and that the network then grows away from the plasma membrane. Actin network height at individual CME sites was not coupled to coat shape, raising the possibility that local differences in mechanical load feed back on assembly. By manipulating membrane tension and Arp2/3 complex activity, we tested the hypothesis that actin assembly at CME sites increases in response to elevated load. Indeed, in response to elevated membrane tension, actin grew higher, resulting in greater coverage of the clathrin coat, and CME slowed. When membrane tension was elevated and the Arp2/3 complex was inhibited, shallow clathrin-coated pits accumulated, indicating that this adaptive mechanism is especially crucial for coat curvature generation. We propose that actin assembly increases in response to increased load to ensure CME robustness over a range of plasma membrane tensions.

Membrane trafficking functions of the ANTH/ENTH/VHS domain-containing proteins in plants

Subcellular localization of proteins acting on the endomembrane system is primarily regulated via membrane trafficking. To obtain and maintain the correct protein composition of the plasma membrane and membrane-bound organelles, the loading of selected cargos into transport vesicles is critically regulated at donor compartments by adaptor proteins binding to the donor membrane, the cargo molecules, and the coat-protein complexes, including the clathrin coat. The ANTH/ENTH/VHS domain-containing protein superfamily generally comprises a structurally related ENTH, ANTH, or VHS domain in the N-terminal region and a variable C-terminal region, which is thought to act as an adaptor during transport vesicle formation. This protein family is involved in various plant processes, including pollen tube growth, abiotic stress response, and development. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent findings on ANTH/ENTH/VHS domain-containing proteins in plants.

ENTREP/FAM189A2 encodes a new ITCH ubiquitin ligase activator that is downregulated in breast cancer

The HECT-type ubiquitin E3 ligases including ITCH regulate many aspects of cellular function through ubiquitinating various substrates. These ligases are known to be allosterically autoinhibited and to require an activator protein to fully achieve the ubiquitination of their substrates. Here we demonstrate that FAM189A2, a downregulated gene in breast cancer, encodes a new type of ITCH activator. FAM189A2 is a transmembrane protein harboring PPxY motifs, and the motifs mediate its association with and ubiquitination by ITCH. FAM189A2 also associates with Epsin and accumulates in early and late endosomes along with ITCH. Intriguingly, FAM189A2 facilitates the association of a chemokine receptor CXCR4 with ITCH and enhances ITCH-mediated ubiquitination of CXCR4. FAM189A2-knockout prohibits CXCL12-induced endocytosis of CXCR4, thereby enhancing the effects of CXCL12 on the chemotaxis and mammosphere formation of breast cancer cells. In comparison to other activators or adaptors known in the previous studies, FAM189A2 is a unique activator for ITCH to desensitize CXCR4 activity, and we here propose that FAM189A2 be renamed as ENdosomal TRansmembrane binding with EPsin (ENTREP).

Loss of E-Cadherin Leads to Druggable Vulnerabilities in Sphingolipid Metabolism and Vesicle Trafficking

Simple Summary

Germline loss of the CDH1 gene is the primary genetic basis for hereditary diffuse gastric cancer, a disease resulting in elevated risk of both diffuse gastric cancer and lobular breast cancer. Current preventative treatment consists of prophylactic total gastrectomy, a therapy with several associated long-term morbidities. To address the lack of targeted molecular therapies for hereditary diffuse gastric cancer, we have utilized a synthetic lethal approach to identify candidate compounds that can specifically kill CDH1-null cells. Inhibitors of sphingolipid metabolism and vesicle trafficking pathways were identified as promising candidate compounds in a cell line model of CDH1 loss, then further validated in murine-derived organoid models of hereditary diffuse gastric cancer. With further research, these findings may lead to the development of novel chemoprevention strategies for the treatment of hereditary diffuse gastric cancer.

Abstract

Germline inactivating variants of CDH1 are causative of hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC), a cancer syndrome characterized by an increased risk of both diffuse gastric cancer and lobular breast cancer. Because loss of function mutations are difficult to target therapeutically, we have taken a synthetic lethal approach to identify targetable vulnerabilities in CDH1-null cells. We have previously observed that CDH1-null MCF10A cells exhibit a reduced rate of endocytosis relative to wildtype MCF10A cells. To determine whether this deficiency is associated with wider vulnerabilities in vesicle trafficking, we screened isogenic MCF10A cell lines with known inhibitors of autophagy, endocytosis, and sphingolipid metabolism. Relative to wildtype MCF10A cells, CDH1^−/− MCF10A cells showed significantly greater sensitivity to several drugs targeting these processes, including the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine, the endocytosis inhibitors chlorpromazine and PP1, and the sphingosine kinase 1 inhibitor PF-543. Synthetic lethality was confirmed in both gastric and mammary organoid models of CDH1 loss, derived from CD44-Cre/Cdh1^fl/fl/tdTomato mice. Collectively, these results suggest that both sphingolipid metabolism and vesicle trafficking represent previously unrecognised druggable vulnerabilities in CDH1-null cells and may lead to the development of new therapies for HDGC.

ANTH domains within CALM, HIP1R, and Sla2 recognize ubiquitin internalization signals

Attachment of ubiquitin (Ub) to cell surface proteins serves as a signal for internalization via clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). How ubiquitinated membrane proteins engage the internalization apparatus remains unclear. The internalization apparatus contains proteins such as Epsin and Eps15, which bind Ub, potentially acting as adaptors for Ub-based internalization signals. Here, we show that additional components of the endocytic machinery including CALM, HIP1R, and Sla2 bind Ub via their N-terminal ANTH domain, a domain belonging to the superfamily of ENTH and VHS domains. Structural studies revealed that Ub binds with µM affinity to a unique C-terminal region within the ANTH domain not found in ENTH domains. Functional studies showed that combined loss of Ub-binding by ANTH-domain proteins and other Ub-binding domains within the yeast internalization apparatus caused defects in the Ub-dependent internalization of the GPCR Ste2 that was engineered to rely exclusively on Ub as an internalization signal. In contrast, these mutations had no effect on the internalization of Ste2 engineered to use an alternate Ub-independent internalization signal. These studies define new components of the internalization machinery that work collectively with Epsin and Eps15 to specify recognition of Ub as an internalization signal.

Involvement of adaptor proteins in clathrin-mediated endocytosis of virus entry

The first step in the initiation of effective viral infection is breaking through the cytomembrane to enter the cell. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is a key vesicular trafficking process in which a variety of cargo molecules are transported from the outside to the inside of the cell. This process is hijacked by numerous families of enveloped or non-enveloped viruses, which use it to enter host cells, followed by trafficking to their replicating sites. Various adaptor proteins that assist in cargo selection, coat assembly, and clathrin-coated bud maturation are important in this process. Research data documented on the involvement of adaptor proteins, such as AP-2, Eps-15, Epsin1, and AP180/CALM, in the invasion of viruses via the clathrin-mediated endocytosis have provided novel insights into understanding the viral life cycle and have led to the development of novel therapeutics. Here, we summarize the latest discoveries on the role of these adaptor proteins in clathrin-mediated endocytosis of virus entry and also discuss the future trends in this field.

Actin-generated force applied during endocytosis measured by Sla2-based FRET tension sensors

Mechanical forces are integral to many cellular processes, including clathrin-mediated endocytosis, a principal membrane trafficking route into the cell. During endocytosis, forces provided by endocytic proteins and the polymerizing actin cytoskeleton reshape the plasma membrane into a vesicle. Assessing force requirements of endocytic membrane remodeling is essential for understanding endocytosis. Here, we determined actin-generated force applied during endocytosis using FRET-based tension sensors inserted into the major force-transmitting protein Sla2 in yeast. We measured at least 8 pN force transmitted over Sla2 molecule, hence possibly more than 300-880 pN applied during endocytic vesicle formation. Importantly, decreasing cell turgor pressure and plasma membrane tension reduced force transmitted over the Sla2. The measurements in hypotonic conditions and mutants lacking BAR-domain membrane scaffolds then showed the limits of the endocytic force-transmitting machinery. Our study provides force values and force profiles critical for understanding the mechanics of endocytosis and potentially other key cellular membrane-remodeling processes.

Targeting Pin1 renders pancreatic cancer eradicable by synergizing with immunochemotherapy

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by notorious resistance to current therapies attributed to inherent tumor heterogeneity and highly desmoplastic and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Unique proline isomerase Pin1 regulates multiple cancer pathways, but its role in the TME and cancer immunotherapy is unknown. Here, we find that Pin1 is overexpressed both in cancer cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and correlates with poor survival in PDAC patients. Targeting Pin1 using clinically available drugs induces complete elimination or sustained remissions of aggressive PDAC by synergizing with anti-PD-1 and gemcitabine in diverse model systems. Mechanistically, Pin1 drives the desmoplastic and immunosuppressive TME by acting on CAFs and induces lysosomal degradation of the PD-1 ligand PD-L1 and the gemcitabine transporter ENT1 in cancer cells, besides activating multiple cancer pathways. Thus, Pin1 inhibition simultaneously blocks multiple cancer pathways, disrupts the desmoplastic and immunosuppressive TME, and upregulates PD-L1 and ENT1, rendering PDAC eradicable by immunochemotherapy.

Clathrin: the molecular shape shifter

Clathrin is best known for its contribution to clathrin-mediated endocytosis yet it also participates to a diverse range of cellular functions. Key to this is clathrin's ability to assemble into polyhedral lattices that include curved football or basket shapes, flat lattices or even tubular structures. In this review, we discuss clathrin structure and coated vesicle formation, how clathrin is utilised within different cellular processes including synaptic vesicle recycling, hormone desensitisation, spermiogenesis, cell migration and mitosis, and how clathrin's remarkable 'shapeshifting' ability to form diverse lattice structures might contribute to its multiple cellular functions.

Recent developments in membrane curvature sensing and induction by proteins

BACKGROUND

Membrane-bound intracellular organelles have characteristic shapes attributed to different local membrane curvatures, and these attributes are conserved across species. Over the past decade, it has been confirmed that specific proteins control the large curvatures of the membrane, whereas many others due to their specific structural features can sense the curvatures and bind to the specific geometrical cues. Elucidating the interplay between sensing and induction is indispensable to understand the mechanisms behind various biological processes such as vesicular trafficking and budding.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

We provide an overview of major classes of membrane proteins and the mechanisms of curvature sensing and induction. We then discuss the importance of membrane elastic characteristics to induce the membrane shapes similar to intracellular organelles. Finally, we survey recently available assays developed for studying the curvature sensing and induction by many proteins.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Recent theoretical/computational modeling along with experimental studies have uncovered fascinating connections between lipid membrane and protein interactions. However, the phenomena of protein localization and synchronization to generate spatiotemporal dynamics in membrane morphology are yet to be fully understood.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

The understanding of protein-membrane interactions is essential to shed light on various biological processes. This further enables the technological applications of many natural proteins/peptides in therapeutic treatments. The studies of membrane dynamic shapes help to understand the fundamental functions of membranes, while the medicinal roles of various macromolecules (such as proteins, peptides, etc.) are being increasingly investigated.

The Exocytosis Associated SNAP25-Type Protein, SlSNAP33, Increases Salt Stress Tolerance by Modulating Endocytosis in Tomato

In plants, vesicular trafficking is crucial for the response and survival to environmental challenges. The active trafficking of vesicles is essential to maintain cell homeostasis during salt stress. Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) are regulatory proteins of vesicular trafficking. They mediate membrane fusion and guarantee cargo delivery to the correct cellular compartments. SNAREs from the Qbc subfamily are the best-characterized plasma membrane SNAREs, where they control exocytosis during cell division and defense response. The Solanum lycopersicum gene SlSNAP33.2 encodes a Qbc-SNARE protein and is induced under salt stress conditions. SlSNAP33.2 localizes on the plasma membrane of root cells of Arabidopsis thaliana. In order to study its role in endocytosis and salt stress response, we overexpressed the SlSNAP33.2 cDNA in a tomato cultivar. Constitutive overexpression promoted endocytosis along with the accumulation of sodium (Na⁺) in the vacuoles. It also protected the plant from cell damage by decreasing the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in the cytoplasm of stressed root cells. Subsequently, the higher level of SlSNAP33.2 conferred tolerance to salt stress in tomato plants. The analysis of physiological and biochemical parameters such as relative water content, the efficiency of the photosystem II, performance index, chlorophyll, and MDA contents showed that tomato plants overexpressing SlSNAP33.2 displayed a better performance under salt stress than wild type plants. These results reveal a role for SlSNAP33.2 in the endocytosis pathway involved in plant response to salt stress. This research shows that SlSNAP33.2 can be an effective tool for the genetic improvement of crop plants.

The role of ligand endocytosis in notch signalling

The Notch signalling receptor is a mechanoreceptor that is activated by force. This force elicits a conformational change in Notch that results in the release of its intracellular domain into the cytosol by two consecutive proteolytic cleavages. In most cases, the force is generated by pulling of the ligands on the receptor upon their endocytosis. In this review, we summarise recent work that shed a more detailed light on the role of endocytosis during ligand-dependent Notch activation and discuss the role of ubiquitylation of the ligands during this process.

Structure of the endocytic adaptor complex reveals the basis for efficient membrane anchoring during clathrin-mediated endocytosis

During clathrin-mediated endocytosis, a complex and dynamic network of protein-membrane interactions cooperate to achieve membrane invagination. Throughout this process in yeast, endocytic coat adaptors, Sla2 and Ent1, must remain attached to the plasma membrane to transmit force from the actin cytoskeleton required for successful membrane invagination. Here, we present a cryo-EM structure of a 16-mer complex of the ANTH and ENTH membrane-binding domains from Sla2 and Ent1 bound to PIP₂ that constitutes the anchor to the plasma membrane. Detailed in vitro and in vivo mutagenesis of the complex interfaces delineate the key interactions for complex formation and deficient cell growth phenotypes demonstrate its biological relevance. A hetero-tetrameric unit binds PIP₂ molecules at the ANTH-ENTH interfaces and can form larger assemblies to contribute to membrane remodeling. Finally, a time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering study of the interaction of these adaptor domains in vitro suggests that ANTH and ENTH domains have evolved to achieve a fast subsecond timescale assembly in the presence of PIP₂ and do not require further proteins to form a stable complex. Together, these findings provide a molecular understanding of an essential piece in the molecular puzzle of clathrin-coated endocytic sites.

Synaptic AP2 CCV life cycle regulation by the Eps15, ITSN1, Sgip1/AP2, synaptojanin1 interactome

The AP1/σ1B knockout causes impaired synaptic vesicle recycling and enhanced protein sorting into endosomes, leading to severe intellectual disability. These disturbances in synaptic protein sorting induce as a secondary phenotype the upregulation of AP2 CCV mediated endocytosis. Synapses contain canonical AP2 CCV and AP2 CCV with a more stable coat and thus extended life time. In AP1/σ1B knockout synapses, pool sizes of both CCV classes are doubled. Additionally, stable CCV of the knockout are more stabilised than stable wt CCV. One mechanism responsible for enhanced CCV stabilisation is the reduction of synaptojanin1 CCV levels, the PI-4,5-P2 phosphatase essential for AP2 membrane dissociation. To identify mechanisms regulating synaptojanin1 recruitment, we compared synaptojanin1 CCV protein interactome levels and CCV protein interactions between both CCV classes from wt and knockout mice. We show that ITSN1 determines synaptojanin1 CCV levels. Sgip1/AP2 excess hinders synaptojanin1 binding to ITSN1, further lowering its levels. ITSN1 levels are determined by Eps15, not Eps15L1. In addition, the data reveal that reduced amounts of pacsin1 can be counter balanced by its enhanced activation. These data exemplify the complexity of CCV life cycle regulation and indicate how cargo proteins determine the life cycle of their CCV.

Giant ankyrin-G regulates cardiac function

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the most common cause of adult morbidity and mortality in developed nations. As a result, predisposition for CVD is increasingly important to understand. Ankyrins are intracellular proteins required for the maintenance of membrane domains. Canonical ankyrin-G (AnkG) has been shown to be vital for normal cardiac function, specifically cardiac excitability, via targeting and regulation of the cardiac voltage-gated sodium channel. Noncanonical (giant) AnkG isoforms play a key role in neuronal membrane biogenesis and excitability, with evidence for human neurologic disease when aberrant. However, the role of giant AnkG in cardiovascular tissue has yet to be explored. Here, we identify giant AnkG in the myocardium and identify that it is enriched in 1-week-old mice. Using a new mouse model lacking giant AnkG expression in myocytes, we identify that young mice displayed a dilated cardiomyopathy phenotype with aberrant electrical conduction and enhanced arrhythmogenicity. Structural and electrical dysfunction occurred at 1 week of age, when giant AnkG was highly expressed and did not appreciably change in adulthood until advanced age. At a cellular level, loss of giant AnkG results in delayed and early afterdepolarizations. However, surprisingly, giant AnkG cKO myocytes display normal I_Na, but abnormal myocyte contractility, suggesting unique roles of the large isoform in the heart. Finally, transcript analysis provided evidence for unique pathways that may contribute to the structural and electrical findings shown in giant AnkG cKO animals. In summary, we identify a critical role for giant AnkG that adds to the diversity of ankyrin function in the heart.

ENTH domain-dependent membrane remodelling

Cellular membranes are anything but flat structures. They display a wide variety of complex and beautiful shapes, most of which have evolved for a particular physiological reason and are adapted to accommodate certain cellular demands. In membrane trafficking events, the dynamic remodelling of cellular membranes is apparent. In clathrin-mediated endocytosis for example, the plasma membrane undergoes heavy deformation to generate and internalize a highly curved clathrin-coated vesicle. This process has become a model system to study proteins with the ability to sense and induce membrane curvature and over the last two decades numerous membrane remodelling molecules and molecular mechanisms have been identified in this process. In this review, we discuss the interaction of epsin1 ENTH domain with membranes, which is one of the best-studied examples of a peripheral and transiently membrane bending protein important for clathrin-mediated endocytosis.

Specialised endocytic proteins regulate diverse internalisation mechanisms and signalling outputs in physiology and cancer

Although endocytosis was first described as the process mediating macromolecule or nutrient uptake through the plasma membrane, it is now recognised as a critical component of the cellular infrastructure involved in numerous processes, ranging from receptor signalling, proliferation and migration to polarity and stem cell regulation. To realise these varying roles, endocytosis needs to be finely regulated. Accordingly, multiple endocytic mechanisms exist that require specialised molecular machineries and an array of endocytic adaptor proteins with cell-specific functions. This review provides some examples of specialised functions of endocytic adaptors and other components of the endocytic machinery in different cell physiological processes, and how the alteration of these functions is linked to cancer. In particular, we focus on: (i) cargo selection and endocytic mechanisms linked to different adaptors; (ii) specialised functions in clathrin-mediated versus non-clathrin endocytosis; (iii) differential regulation of endocytic mechanisms by post-translational modification of endocytic proteins; (iv) cell context-dependent expression and function of endocytic proteins. As cases in point, we describe two endocytic protein families, dynamins and epsins. Finally, we discuss how dysregulation of the physiological role of these specialised endocytic proteins is exploited by cancer cells to increase cell proliferation, migration and invasion, leading to anti-apoptotic or pro-metastatic behaviours.

Complimentary action of structured and unstructured domains of epsin supports clathrin-mediated endocytosis at high tension

Membrane tension plays an inhibitory role in clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) by impeding the transition of flat plasma membrane to hemispherical clathrin-coated structures (CCSs). Membrane tension also impedes the transition of hemispherical domes to omega-shaped CCSs. However, CME is not completely halted in cells under high tension conditions. Here we find that epsin, a membrane bending protein which inserts its N-terminus H0 helix into lipid bilayer, supports flat-to-dome transition of a CCS and stabilizes its curvature at high tension. This discovery is supported by molecular dynamic simulation of the epsin N-terminal homology (ENTH) domain that becomes more structured when embedded in a lipid bilayer. In addition, epsin has an intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) C-terminus domain which induces membrane curvature via steric repulsion. Insertion of H0 helix into lipid bilayer is not sufficient for stable epsin recruitment. Epsin's binding to adaptor protein 2 and clathrin is critical for epsin's association with CCSs under high tension conditions, supporting the importance of multivalent interactions in CCSs. Together, our results support a model where the ENTH and unstructured IDP region of epsin have complementary roles to ensure CME initiation and CCS maturation are unimpeded under high tension environments.

Murine Epsins Play an Integral Role in Podocyte Function

BACKGROUND

Epsins, a family of evolutionarily conserved membrane proteins, play an essential role in endocytosis and signaling in podocytes.

METHODS

Podocyte-specific Epn1, Epn2, Epn3 triple-knockout mice were generated to examine downstream regulation of serum response factor (SRF) by cell division control protein 42 homolog (Cdc42).

RESULTS

Podocyte-specific loss of epsins resulted in increased albuminuria and foot process effacement. Primary podocytes isolated from these knockout mice exhibited abnormalities in cell adhesion and spreading, which may be attributed to reduced activation of cell division control protein Cdc42 and SRF, resulting in diminished β1 integrin expression. In addition, podocyte-specific loss of Srf resulted in severe albuminuria and foot process effacement, and defects in cell adhesion and spreading, along with decreased β1 integrin expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Epsins play an indispensable role in maintaining properly functioning podocytes through the regulation of Cdc42 and SRF-dependent β1 integrin expression.

Cooperativity of membrane-protein and protein-protein interactions control membrane remodeling by epsin 1 and affects clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Membrane remodeling is a critical process for many membrane trafficking events, including clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Several molecular mechanisms for protein-induced membrane curvature have been described in some detail. Contrary, the effect that the physico-chemical properties of the membrane have on these processes is far less well understood. Here, we show that the membrane binding and curvature-inducing ENTH domain of epsin1 is regulated by phosphatidylserine (PS). ENTH binds to membranes in a PI(4,5)P₂-dependent manner but only induces curvature in the presence of PS. On PS-containing membranes, the ENTH domain forms rigid homo-oligomers and assembles into clusters. Membrane binding and membrane remodeling can be separated by structure-to-function mutants. Such oligomerization mutants bind to membranes but do not show membrane remodeling activity. In vivo, they are not able to rescue defects in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) endocytosis in epsin knock-down cells. Together, these data show that the membrane lipid composition is important for the regulation of protein-dependent membrane deformation during clathrin-mediated endocytosis.

EPSIN1 and MTV1 define functionally overlapping but molecularly distinct trans-Golgi network subdomains in Arabidopsis

The plant trans-Golgi network (TGN) is a central trafficking hub where secretory, vacuolar, recycling, and endocytic pathways merge. Among currently known molecular players involved in TGN transport, three different adaptor protein (AP) complexes promote vesicle generation at the TGN with different cargo specificity and destination. Yet, it remains unresolved how sorting into diverging vesicular routes is spatially organized. Here, we study the family of Arabidopsis thaliana Epsin-like proteins, which are accessory proteins to APs facilitating vesicle biogenesis. By comprehensive molecular, cellular, and genetic analysis of the EPSIN gene family, we identify EPSIN1 and MODIFIED TRANSPORT TO THE VACUOLE1 (MTV1) as its only TGN-associated members. Despite their large phylogenetic distance, they perform overlapping functions in vacuolar and secretory transport. By probing their relationship with AP complexes, we find that they define two molecularly independent pathways: While EPSIN1 associates with AP-1, MTV1 interacts with AP-4, whose function is required for MTV1 recruitment. Although both EPSIN1/AP-1 and MTV1/AP-4 pairs reside at the TGN, high-resolution microscopy reveals them as spatially separate entities. Our results strongly support the hypothesis of molecularly, functionally, and spatially distinct subdomains of the plant TGN and suggest that functional redundancy can be achieved through parallelization of molecularly distinct but functionally overlapping pathways.

Epsin-mediated degradation of IP3R1 fuels atherosclerosis

The epsin family of endocytic adapter proteins are widely expressed, and interact with both proteins and lipids to regulate a variety of cell functions. However, the role of epsins in atherosclerosis is poorly understood. Here, we show that deletion of endothelial epsin proteins reduces inflammation and attenuates atherosclerosis using both cell culture and mouse models of this disease. In atherogenic cholesterol-treated murine aortic endothelial cells, epsins interact with the ubiquitinated endoplasmic reticulum protein inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 (IP3R1), which triggers proteasomal degradation of this calcium release channel. Epsins potentiate its degradation via this interaction. Genetic reduction of endothelial IP3R1 accelerates atherosclerosis, whereas deletion of endothelial epsins stabilizes IP3R1 and mitigates inflammation. Reduction of IP3R1 in epsin-deficient mice restores atherosclerotic progression. Taken together, epsin-mediated degradation of IP3R1 represents a previously undiscovered biological role for epsin proteins and may provide new therapeutic targets for the treatment of atherosclerosis and other diseases.

Application of advances in endocytosis and membrane trafficking to drug delivery

Multidisciplinary research efforts in the field of drug delivery have led to the development of a variety of drug delivery systems (DDS) designed for site-specific delivery of diagnostic and therapeutic agents. Since efficient uptake of drug carriers into target cells is central to effective drug delivery, a comprehensive understanding of the biological pathways for cellular internalization of DDS can facilitate the development of DDS capable of precise tissue targeting and enhanced therapeutic outcomes. Diverse methods have been applied to study the internalization mechanisms responsible for endocytotic uptake of extracellular materials, which are also the principal pathways exploited by many DDS. Chemical inhibitors remain the most commonly used method to explore endocytotic internalization mechanisms, although genetic methods are increasingly accessible and may constitute more specific approaches. This review highlights the molecular basis of internalization pathways most relevant to internalization of DDS, and the principal methods used to study each route. This review also showcases examples of DDS that are internalized by each route, and reviews the general effects of biophysical properties of DDS on the internalization efficiency. Finally, options for intracellular trafficking and targeting of internalized DDS are briefly reviewed, representing an additional opportunity for multi-level targeting to achieve further specificity and therapeutic efficacy.

A self-sustaining endocytic-based loop promotes breast cancer plasticity leading to aggressiveness and pro-metastatic behavior

The subversion of endocytic routes leads to malignant transformation and has been implicated in human cancers. However, there is scarce evidence for genetic alterations of endocytic proteins as causative in high incidence human cancers. Here, we report that Epsin 3 (EPN3) is an oncogene with prognostic and therapeutic relevance in breast cancer. Mechanistically, EPN3 drives breast tumorigenesis by increasing E-cadherin endocytosis, followed by the activation of a β-catenin/TCF4-dependent partial epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), followed by the establishment of a TGFβ-dependent autocrine loop that sustains EMT. EPN3-induced partial EMT is instrumental for the transition from in situ to invasive breast carcinoma, and, accordingly, high EPN3 levels are detected at the invasive front of human breast cancers and independently predict metastatic rather than loco-regional recurrence. Thus, we uncover an endocytic-based mechanism able to generate TGFβ-dependent regulatory loops conferring cellular plasticity and invasive behavior.

Endocytosis and the internalization of pathogenic organisms: focus on phosphoinositides

Despite their comparatively low abundance in biological membranes, phosphoinositides are key to the regulation of a diverse array of signaling pathways and direct membrane traffic. The role of phosphoinositides in the initiation and progression of endocytic pathways has been studied in considerable depth. Recent advances have revealed that distinct phosphoinositide species feature prominently in clathrin-dependent and -independent endocytosis as well as in phagocytosis and macropinocytosis. Moreover, a variety of intracellular and cell-associated pathogens have developed strategies to commandeer host cell phosphoinositide metabolism to gain entry and/or metabolic advantage, thereby promoting their survival and proliferation. Here, we briefly survey the current knowledge on the involvement of phosphoinositides in endocytosis, phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis and highlight several examples of molecular mimicry employed by pathogens to either “hitch a ride” on endocytic pathways endogenous to the host or create an entry path of their own.

The protein architecture of the endocytic coat analyzed by FRET microscopy

Endocytosis is a fundamental cellular trafficking pathway, which requires an organized assembly of the multiprotein endocytic coat to pull the plasma membrane into the cell. Although the protein composition of the endocytic coat is known, its functional architecture is not well understood. Here, we determine the nanoscale organization of the endocytic coat by FRET microscopy in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We assessed pairwise proximities of 18 conserved coat-associated proteins and used clathrin subunits and protein truncations as molecular rulers to obtain a high-resolution protein map of the coat. Furthermore, we followed rearrangements of coat proteins during membrane invagination and their binding dynamics at the endocytic site. We show that the endocytic coat proteins are not confined inside the clathrin lattice, but form distinct functional layers above and below the lattice. Importantly, key endocytic proteins transverse the clathrin lattice deeply into the cytoplasm connecting thus the membrane and cytoplasmic parts of the coat. We propose that this design enables an efficient and regulated function of the endocytic coat during endocytic vesicle formation.

Listeria monocytogenes Exploits Host Caveolin for Cell-to-Cell Spreading

Listeria monocytogenes moves from one cell to another using actin-rich membrane protrusions that propel the bacterium toward neighboring cells. Despite cholesterol being required for this transfer process, the precise host internalization mechanism remains elusive. Here, we show that caveolin endocytosis is key to this event as bacterial cell-to-cell transfer is severely impaired when cells are depleted of caveolin-1. Only a subset of additional caveolar components (cavin-2 and EHD2) are present at sites of bacterial transfer, and although clathrin and the clathrin-associated proteins Eps15 and AP2 are absent from the bacterial invaginations, efficient L. monocytogenes spreading requires the clathrin-interacting protein epsin-1. We also directly demonstrated that isolated L. monocytogenes membrane protrusions can trigger the recruitment of caveolar proteins in a neighboring cell. The engulfment of these bacterial and cytoskeletal structures through a caveolin-based mechanism demonstrates that the classical nanometer-scale theoretical size limit for this internalization pathway is exceeded by these bacterial pathogens.IMPORTANCEListeria monocytogenes moves from one cell to another as it disseminates within tissues. This bacterial transfer process depends on the host actin cytoskeleton as the bacterium forms motile actin-rich membranous protrusions that propel the bacteria into neighboring cells, thus forming corresponding membrane invaginations. Here, we examine these membrane invaginations and demonstrate that caveolin-1-based endocytosis is crucial for efficient bacterial cell-to-cell spreading. We show that only a subset of caveolin-associated proteins (cavin-2 and EHD2) are involved in this process. Despite the absence of clathrin at the invaginations, the classical clathrin-associated protein epsin-1 is also required for efficient bacterial spreading. Using isolated L. monocytogenes protrusions added onto naive host cells, we demonstrate that actin-based propulsion is dispensable for caveolin-1 endocytosis as the presence of the protrusion/invagination interaction alone triggers caveolin-1 recruitment in the recipient cells. Finally, we provide a model of how this caveolin-1-based internalization event can exceed the theoretical size limit for this endocytic pathway.

Principles of self-organization and load adaptation by the actin cytoskeleton during clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Force generation by actin assembly shapes cellular membranes. An experimentally constrained multiscale model shows that a minimal branched actin network is sufficient to internalize endocytic pits against membrane tension. Around 200 activated Arp2/3 complexes are required for robust internalization. A newly developed molecule-counting method determined that ~200 Arp2/3 complexes assemble at sites of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in human cells. Simulations predict that actin self-organizes into a radial branched array with growing ends oriented toward the base of the pit. Long actin filaments bend between attachment sites in the coat and the base of the pit. Elastic energy stored in bent filaments, whose presence was confirmed by cryo-electron tomography, contributes to endocytic internalization. Elevated membrane tension directs more growing filaments toward the base of the pit, increasing actin nucleation and bending for increased force production. Thus, spatially constrained actin filament assembly utilizes an adaptive mechanism enabling endocytosis under varying physical constraints.

The outer membrane of a cell is a tight but elastic barrier that controls what enters or leaves the cell. Large molecules typically cannot cross this membrane unaided. Instead, to enter the cell, they must be packaged into a pocket of the membrane that is then pulled inside. This process, called endocytosis, shuttles material into a cell hundreds of times a minute.

Endocytosis relies on molecular machines that assemble and disassemble at the membrane as required. One component, a protein called actin, self-assembles near the membrane into long filaments with many repeated subunits. These filaments grow against the membrane, pulling it inwards. But it was not clear how actin filaments organize in such a way that allows them to pull on the membrane with enough force – and without a template to follow.

Akamatsu et al. set about identifying how actin operates during endocytosis by using computer simulations that were informed by measurements made in living cells. The simulations included information about the location of actin and other essential molecules, along with the details of how these molecules work individually and together. Akamatsu et al. also developed a method to count the numbers of molecules of a key protein at individual sites of endocytosis. High-resolution imaging was then used to create 3D pictures of actin and endocytosis in action in human cells grown in the laboratory.

The analysis showed the way actin filaments arrange themselves depends on the starting positions of a few key molecules that connect to actin. Imaging confirmed that, like a pole-vaulting pole, the flexible actin filaments bend to store energy and then release it to pull the membrane inwards during endocytosis. Finally, the simulations predicted that the collection of filaments adapts its shape and size in response to the resistance of the elastic membrane. This makes the system opportunistic and adaptable to the unpredictable environment within cells.

Further insights from structural mass spectrometry into endocytosis adaptor protein assemblies

As a fundament in many biologically relevant processes, endocytosis in its different guises has been arousing interest for decades and still does so. This is true for the actual transport and its initiation alike. In clathrin-mediated endocytosis, a comparatively well understood endocytic pathway, a set of adaptor proteins bind specific lipids in the plasma membrane, subsequently assemble and thus form a crucial bridge from clathrin to actin for the ongoing process. These adaptor proteins are highly interesting themselves and the subject of this manuscript. Using many of the instruments that are available now in the mass spectrometry toolbox, we added some facets to the picture of how these minimal assemblies may look, how they form, and what influences the structure. Especially, lipids in the adaptor protein complexes result in reduced charging of a normal sized complex due to their specific binding position. The results further support our structural model of a double ring structure with interfacial lipids.

At the intersection of exocytosis and endocytosis in plants

Vesicle exocytosis and endocytosis control the activities and turnover of plasma membrane proteins required for signaling triggering or attenuating at the cell surface. In recent years, the diverse exocytic and endocytic trafficking pathways have been uncovered in plants. The balance between conventional and unconventional protein secretion provides an efficient strategy to respond to stress conditions. Similarly, clathrin-dependent and -independent endocytosis cooperatively regulate the dynamics of membrane proteins in response to environmental cues. In fact, many aspects of plant growth and development, such as tip growth, immune response, and protein polarity establishment, involve the tight deployment of exo-endocytic trafficking. However, our understanding of their intersection is limited. Here, we discuss recent advances in the molecular factors coupling plant exo-endocytic trafficking and the biological significance of balance between exocytosis and endocytosis in plants.

Clathrin light chain A drives selective myosin VI recruitment to clathrin-coated pits under membrane tension

Clathrin light chains (CLCa and CLCb) are major constituents of clathrin-coated vesicles. Unique functions for these evolutionary conserved paralogs remain elusive, and their role in clathrin-mediated endocytosis in mammalian cells is debated. Here, we find and structurally characterize a direct and selective interaction between CLCa and the long isoform of the actin motor protein myosin VI, which is expressed exclusively in highly polarized tissues. Using genetically-reconstituted Caco-2 cysts as proxy for polarized epithelia, we provide evidence for coordinated action of myosin VI and CLCa at the apical surface where these proteins are essential for fission of clathrin-coated pits. We further find that myosin VI and Huntingtin-interacting protein 1-related protein (Hip1R) are mutually exclusive interactors with CLCa, and suggest a model for the sequential function of myosin VI and Hip1R in actin-mediated clathrin-coated vesicle budding.

Endocytic Adaptor Proteins in Health and Disease: Lessons from Model Organisms and Human Mutations

Cells need to exchange material and information with their environment. This is largely achieved via cell-surface receptors which mediate processes ranging from nutrient uptake to signaling responses. Consequently, their surface levels have to be dynamically controlled. Endocytosis constitutes a powerful mechanism to regulate the surface proteome and to recycle vesicular transmembrane proteins that strand at the plasma membrane after exocytosis. For efficient internalization, the cargo proteins need to be linked to the endocytic machinery via adaptor proteins such as the heterotetrameric endocytic adaptor complex AP-2 and a variety of mostly monomeric endocytic adaptors. In line with the importance of endocytosis for nutrient uptake, cell signaling and neurotransmission, animal models and human mutations have revealed that defects in these adaptors are associated with several diseases ranging from metabolic disorders to encephalopathies. This review will discuss the physiological functions of the so far known adaptor proteins and will provide a comprehensive overview of their links to human diseases.

Endocytosis of flavivirus NS1 is required for NS1-mediated endothelial hyperpermeability and is abolished by a single N-glycosylation site mutation

Arthropod-borne flaviviruses cause life-threatening diseases associated with endothelial hyperpermeability and vascular leak. We recently found that vascular leak can be triggered by dengue virus (DENV) non-structural protein 1 (NS1) via the disruption of the endothelial glycocalyx-like layer (EGL). However, the molecular determinants of NS1 required to trigger EGL disruption and the cellular pathway(s) involved remain unknown. Here we report that mutation of a single glycosylated residue of NS1 (N207Q) abolishes the ability of NS1 to trigger EGL disruption and induce endothelial hyperpermeability. Intriguingly, while this mutant bound to the surface of endothelial cells comparably to wild-type NS1, it was no longer internalized, suggesting that NS1 binding and internalization are distinct steps. Using endocytic pathway inhibitors and gene-specific siRNAs, we determined that NS1 was endocytosed into endothelial cells in a dynamin- and clathrin-dependent manner, which was required to trigger endothelial dysfunction in vitro and vascular leak in vivo. Finally, we found that the N207 glycosylation site is highly conserved among flaviviruses and is also essential for West Nile and Zika virus NS1 to trigger endothelial hyperpermeability via clathrin-mediated endocytosis. These data provide critical mechanistic insight into flavivirus NS1-induced pathogenesis, presenting novel therapeutic and vaccine targets for flaviviral diseases.

Vascular leak is a hallmark of severe dengue disease. Recently, our group revealed a critical role for NS1 in induction of endothelial hyperpermeability and vascular leakage in an endothelial cell-intrinsic manner. However, the upstream pathway triggered by NS1, as well as the molecular determinants of NS1 required for this phenomenon, remain obscure. Gaining insight into this endothelial cell-intrinsic pathway is critical for understanding dengue pathogenesis, developing novel antiviral therapies, and developing NS1-based vaccine approaches that pose a minimal risk of antibody-dependent enhancement. Our current study expands our knowledge of this novel pathway not only by identifying the requirement of internalization of secreted NS1 via clathrin-mediated endocytosis, but also by pinpointing the NS1 molecular determinant (N207) required to trigger vascular leak. Further, our work identifies N207 as a residue conserved among multiple flaviviruses (Zika virus and West Nile virus, in addition to DENV), which is critical for NS1-mediated vascular leak in biologically relevant human endothelial cells modeling interstitial compartments in the lung or the blood-brain barrier. Thus, our study identifies endocytosis and a single amino acid (N207) of the NS1 viral toxin as critical for pan-flavivirus pathogenesis, representing a novel target for anti-flaviviral therapy and vaccine development.