Biomimetic nanoreactor for targeted cancer starvation therapy and cascade amplificated chemotherapy

Four-component of double-layer infinite coordination polymer nanocomposites for large tumor trimodal therapy via multi high-efficiency synergies

Multimodal /components tumors synergistic therapy is a crucial approach for enhancing comprehensive efficacy. Our research has identified lots of high efficiency synergies among four suitable components, revealing combinations with remarkably low combination index (CI) values (10-3-10-8). These combinations hold promise for large tumor powerful electrothermal-thermodynamic-multi-chemo trimodal therapy. To implement this approach, we developed four-component of double-layer infinite coordination polymer (ICP) nanocomposites, in which hypoxia-activated AQ4N and thermodynamic agent AIPH coordinated with Cu(Ⅱ) to form initial layer of positively charged ICPs-l NPs, chemotherapeutic agents gossypol-hyaluronic acid (G-HA) and CA4 coordinated with Fe(Ⅲ) to form out layer of negatively charged ICPs-2 NPs, then double-layer infinite coordination polymer nanocomposites (ICPs-1@ICPs-2 CNPs) were fabricated by electrostatic adsorption using ICPs-l NPs and ICPs-2 NPs. Cell experiments have extensively optimized the coordination combinations of the four components and the composition of the two layers. A programmable three-stage therapeutic procedure, assisted by a micro-electrothermal needle (MEN), was developed. Under this procedure the resulting nanocomposites demonstrate the powerful trimodal comprehensive therapeutic outcomes for large tumors using lower components dosage, achieving a tumor inhibition rate nearly reaching 100 % and no recurrence for 60 days. This study offers remarkable potential for tumor multimodal /components synergistic therapy in future.

Gemfibrozil-Platinum(IV) Precursors for New Enhanced-Starvation and Chemotherapy In Vitro and In Vivo

A brand-new enhanced starvation is put forward to trigger sensitized chemotherapy: blocking tumor-relation blood vessel formation and accelerating nutrient degradation and efflux. Following this concept, two cisplatin-like gemfibrozil-derived Pt(IV) prodrugs, GP and GPG, are synthesized. GP and GPG had nanomolar IC50 against A2780 cells and higher selectivity against normal cells than cisplatin. Bioactivity results confirmed that GP and GPG highly accumulated in cells and induced DNA damage, G2-phase arrest, and p53 expression. Besides, they could increase ROS and MDA levels and reduce mitochondrial membrane potential and Bcl-2 expression to promote cell apoptosis. In vivo, GP showed superior antitumor activity in A2780 tumor-bearing mice with no observable tissue damage. Mechanistic studies suggested that highly selective chemotherapy could be due to the new enhanced starvation effect: blocking vasculature formation via inhibiting the CYP2C8/EETs pathway and VEGFR2, NF-κB, and COX-2 expression and cholesterol efflux and degradation acceleration via increasing ABCA1 and PPARα.

Dual Enzyme-Encapsulated Materials for Biological Cascade Chemistry and Synergistic Tumor Starvation

Framework and polymeric nanoreactors (NRs) have distinct advantages in improving chemical reaction efficiency in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Nanoreactor-loaded oxidoreductase enzyme is activated by tumor acidity to produce H2O2 by increasing tumor oxidative stress. High levels of H2O2 induce self-destruction of the vesicles by releasing quinone methide to deplete glutathione and suppress the antioxidant potential of cancer cells. Therefore, the synergistic effect of the enzyme-loaded nanoreactors results in efficient tumor ablation via suppressing cancer-cell metabolism. The main driving force would be to take advantage of the distinct metabolic properties of cancer cells along with the high peroxidase-like activity of metalloenzyme/metalloprotein. A cascade strategy of dual enzymes such as glucose oxidase (GOx) and nitroreductase (NTR) wherein the former acts as an O2-consuming agent such as overexpression of NTR and further amplified NTR-catalyzed release for antitumor therapy. The design of cascade bioreductive hypoxia-responsive drug delivery via GOx regulates NTR upregulation and NTR-responsive nanoparticles. Herein, we discuss tumor hypoxia, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, and the effectiveness of these therapies. Nanoclusters in cascaded enzymes along with chemo-radiotherapy with synergistic therapy are illustrated. Finally, we outline the role of the nanoreactor strategy of cascading enzymes along with self-synergistic tumor therapy.

Cancer cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: a promising anti-tumor bionic platform

Nanoparticle (NP) drug delivery systems have shown promise in tumor therapy. However, limitations such as susceptibility to immune clearance and poor targeting in a complex intercellular environment still exist. Recently, cancer cell membrane-encapsulated nanoparticles (CCM-NPs) constructed using biomimetic nanotechnology have been developed to overcome these problems. Proteins on the membrane surface of cancer cells can provide a wide range of activities for CCM-NPs, including immune escape and homologous cell recognition properties. Meanwhile, the surface of the cancer cell membrane exhibits obvious antigen enrichment, so that CCM-NPs can transmit tumor-specific antigen, activate a downstream immune response, and produce an effective anti-tumor effect. In this review, we first provided an overview of the functions of cancer cell membranes and summarized the preparation techniques and characterization methods of CCM-NPs. Then, we focused on the application of CCM-NPs in tumor therapy. In addition, we summarized the functional modifications of cancer cell membranes and compiled the patent applications related to CCM-NPs in recent years. Finally, we proposed the future challenges and directions of this technology in order to provide guidance for researchers in this field.

Tunable Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-8 Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications

Zeolite imidazole framework-8 (ZIF-8) is the most prestigious one among zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF) with tunable dimensions and unique morphological features. Utilizing its synthetic adjustability and structural regularity, ZIF-8 exhibits enhanced flexibility, allowing for a wide range of functionalities, such as loading of nanoparticle components while preserving biomolecules activity. Extensive efforts are made from investigating synthesis techniques to develop novel applications over decades. In this review, the development and recent progress of various synthesis approaches are briefly summarized. In addition, its interesting properties such as adjustable porosity, excellent thermal, and chemical stabilities are introduced. Further, five representative biomedical applications are highlighted based on above physicochemical properties. Finally, the remaining challenges and offered insights into the future outlook are also discussed. This review aims to understand the co-relationships between structures and biomedical functionalities, offering the opportunity to construct attractive materials with promising characteristics.

Current advances in modulating tumor hypoxia for enhanced therapeutic efficacy

Hypoxia is a common feature of most solid tumors, which promotes the proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance of tumors. Researchers have been developing advanced strategies and nanoplatforms to modulate tumor hypoxia to enhance therapeutic effects. A timely review of this rapidly developing research topic is therefore highly desirable. For this purpose, this review first introduces the impact of hypoxia on tumor development and therapeutic resistance in detail. Current developments in the construction of various nanoplatforms to enhance tumor treatment in response to hypoxia are also systematically summarized, including hypoxia-overcoming, hypoxia-exploiting, and hypoxia-disregarding strategies. We provide a detailed discussion of the rationale and research progress of these strategies. Through a review of current trends, it is hoped that this comprehensive overview can provide new prospects for clinical application in tumor treatment. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: As a common feature of most solid tumors, hypoxia significantly promotes tumor progression. Advanced nanoplatforms have been developed to modulate tumor hypoxia to enhanced therapeutic effects. In this review, we first introduce the impact of hypoxia on tumor progression. Current developments in the construction of various nanoplatforms to enhance tumor treatment in response to hypoxia are systematically summarized, including hypoxia-overcoming, hypoxia-exploiting, and hypoxia-disregarding strategies. We discuss the rationale and research progress of the above strategies in detail, and finally introduce future challenges for treatment of hypoxic tumors. By reviewing the current trends, this comprehensive overview can provide new prospects for clinical translatable tumor therapy.

Advancing Cancer Treatment: Enhanced Combination Therapy through Functionalized Porous Nanoparticles

Cancer remains a major global health challenge, necessitating the development of innovative treatment strategies. This review focuses on the functionalization of porous nanoparticles for combination therapy, a promising approach to enhance cancer treatment efficacy while mitigating the limitations associated with conventional methods. Combination therapy, integrating multiple treatment modalities such as chemotherapy, phototherapy, immunotherapy, and others, has emerged as an effective strategy to address the shortcomings of individual treatments. The unique properties of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) and other porous materials, like nanoparticles coated with mesoporous silica (NP@MS), metal-organic frameworks (MOF), mesoporous platinum nanoparticles (mesoPt), and carbon dots (CDs), are being explored for drug solubility, bioavailability, targeted delivery, and controlled drug release. Recent advancements in the functionalization of mesoporous nanoparticles with ligands, biomaterials, and polymers are reviewed here, highlighting their role in enhancing the efficacy of combination therapy. Various research has demonstrated the effectiveness of these nanoparticles in co-delivering drugs and photosensitizers, achieving targeted delivery, and responding to multiple stimuli for controlled drug release. This review introduces the synthesis and functionalization methods of these porous nanoparticles, along with their applications in combination therapy.

Liposome-coated nanoparticle triggers prostate cancer ferroptosis through synergetic chemodynamic-gas therapy

Ferroptosis has attracted much attention for tumor treatment. It has been recently identified that castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is vulnerable to ferroptosis inducers. Notably, chemodynamic therapy (CDT), triggered by metal ions, could easily induce ferroptosis via a Fenton/Fenton-like reaction, but its efficiency was highly dependent on the intracellular H2O2 concentration, posing significant changes for its clinical translation. Herein, we attached glucose oxidase (GOx) onto the surface of manganese sulfide (MnS) and developed therapeutic nanocomposites (Lpo@MnS-GOx) after encapsulating with liposome. Upon internalization by cancer cells, the released GOx could transform glucose into gluconic acid (GA) and H2O2. Notably, the generated GA stimulates the degradation of MnS, followed by the promotion of the release of H2S and Mn2+, whereas the produced H2O2 can amplify the Fenton-like response initiated by Mn2+. The enhanced CDT combined with the gas therapy effect could simultaneously promote the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and finally induce ferroptosis and exhibit an excellent anti-tumor effect. Consequently, these Lpo@MnS-GOx NPs with enhanced ferroptosis-induced effect will find great potential for CRPC cancer treatment.

Core-Shell Reactor Partitioning Enzyme and Prodrug by ZIF-8 for NADPH-Sensitive In Situ Prodrug Activation

Enzyme-prodrug therapies have shown unique advantages in efficiency, selectivity, and specificity of in vivo prodrug activation. However, precise spatiotemporal control of both the enzyme and its substrate at the target site, preservation of enzyme activity, and in situ substrate depletion due to low prodrug delivery efficiency continue to be great challenges. Here, we propose a novel core-shell reactor partitioning enzyme and prodrug by ZIF-8, which integrates an enzyme with its substrate and increases the drug loading capacity (DLC) using a prodrug as the building ligand to form a Zn-prodrug shell. Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) is immobilized in ZIF-8, and the antitumor drug dacarbazine (DTIC) is coordinated and deposited in its outer layer with a high DLC of 43.6±0.8 %. With this configuration, a much higher prodrug conversion efficiency of CYP450 (36.5±1.5 %) and lower IC50 value (26.3±2.6 μg/mL) are measured for B16-F10 cells with a higher NADPH concentration than those of L02 cells and HUVECs. With the tumor targeting ability of hyaluronic acid, this core-shell enzyme reactor shows a high tumor suppression rate of 96.6±1.9 % and provides a simple and versatile strategy for enabling in vivo biocatalysis to be more efficient, selective, and safer.

Multifunctional nano MOF drug delivery platform in combination therapy

Recent preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated that for cancer treatment, combination therapies are more effective than monotherapies in reducing drug-related toxicity, decreasing drug resistance, and improving therapeutic efficacy. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, the combination of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and multi-mode therapy offers a realistic possibility to further improve the shortcomings of cancer treatment. This article focuses on the latest developments, achievements, and treatment strategies of representative multifunctional MOF combination therapies for cancer treatment in recent years, which include not only bimodal combination therapies, but also multi-modal synergistic therapies, further demonstrating the effectiveness and superiority of the MOF drug delivery systems in cancer treatment.

Recent advances in cancer cell bionic nanoparticles for tumour therapy

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have found extensive use in delivering oncology therapeutics; however, some delivery vehicles still exhibit rapid immune clearance, lack of biocompatibility and insufficient targeting. In recent years, bionanoparticles constructed from tumour cell membranes have gained momentum as tumour-targeting therapeutic agents. Cancer cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CCMCNPs) typically consist of a drug-loaded nanoparticle core coated with cancer cell membrane. CCMCNPs retain homologous tumour cell surface antigens, receptors and proteins, and it has been shown that the modified nanoparticles exhibit better homologous targeting, immune escape and biocompatibility. CCMCNPs are now widely used in a variety of cancer treatments, including photothermal, photodynamic and sonodynamic therapies, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, chemodynamical therapy or other combination therapies. This article presents different therapeutic approaches using multimodal antitumour therapy-combination of two or more therapies that treat tumours synergistically-based on tumour cell membrane systems. The advantages of CCMCNPs in different cancer treatments in recent years are summarised, thus, providing new strategies for cancer treatment research.

Multifunctional AuPt Nanoparticles for Synergistic Photothermal and Radiation Therapy

Background

Photothermal therapy (PTT) has gained considerable interest as an emerging modality for cancer treatment in recent years. Radiation therapy (RT) has been widely used in the clinic as a traditional treatment method. However, RT and PTT treatments are limited by side effects and penetration depth, respectively. In addition, hypoxia within the tumor can lead to increased resistance to treatment.

Methods

We synthesized multiple sizes of AuPt by modulating the reaction conditions. The smallest size of AuPt was selected and modified with folic acid (FA) for PTT and RT synergy therapy. Various methods including transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FITR) are used to determine the structure and composition of AuPt-FA (AF). In addition, we researched the photothermal properties of AF with IR cameras and infrared lasers. Flow cytometry, colony formation assays, CCK8, and fluorescent staining for probing the treatment effect in vitro. Also, we explored the targeting of AF by TEM and In Vivo Imaging Systems (IVIS). In vivo experiments, we record changes in tumor volume and weight as well as staining of tumor sections (ROS, Ki67, and hematoxylin and eosin).

Results

The AuPt with particle size of 16 nm endows it with remarkably high photothermal conversion efficiency (46.84%) and catalase activity compared to other sizes of AuPt (30 nm and 100 nm). AF alleviates hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment, leading to the production of more reactive oxygen species (ROS) during the treatment. In addition, the therapeutic effect was significantly enhanced by combining RT and PTT, with an apoptosis rate of 81.1% in vitro and an in vivo tumor volume reduction rate of 94.0% in vivo.

Conclusion

These results demonstrate that AF potentiates the synergistic effect of PTT and RT and has the potential for clinical translation.

Cascade strategy for glucose oxidase-based synergistic cancer therapy using nanomaterials

Nanomaterial-based cancer therapy faces significant limitations due to the complex nature of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Starvation therapy is an emerging therapeutic approach that targets tumor cell metabolism using glucose oxidase (GOx). Importantly, it can provide a material or environmental foundation for other diverse therapeutic methods by manipulating the properties of the TME, such as acidity, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) levels, and hypoxia degree. In recent years, this cascade strategy has been extensively applied in nanoplatforms for ongoing synergetic therapy and still holds undeniable potential. However, only a few review articles comprehensively elucidate the rational designs of nanoplatforms for synergetic therapeutic regimens revolving around the conception of the cascade strategy. Therefore, this review focuses on innovative cascade strategies for GOx-based synergetic therapy from representative paradigms to state-of-the-art reports to provide an instructive, comprehensive, and insightful reference for readers. Thereafter, we discuss the remaining challenges and offer a critical perspective on the further advancement of GOx-facilitated cancer treatment toward clinical translation.

pH/GSH dual-responsive supramolecular nanomedicine for hypoxia-activated combination therapy

Moderate oxygen (O2) supply and uneven distribution of oxygen at the tumor site usually hinder the therapeutic efficacy of hypoxia-activated prodrugs. In this report, we designed a ferrocene-containing supramolecular nanomedicine (PFC/GOD-TPZ) with the PEG corona and disulfide-bond cross-linked core to co-encapsulate 4-di-N-oxide tirapazamine (TPZ) and glucose oxidase (GOD). The PEG corona of PFC/GOD-TPZ could be weakly acidic tumor pH-responsively detached for an enhanced cellular internalization, while the disulfide-bond cross-linked core could be cleavaged by intracellular glutathione (GSH) to present a GSH-triggered drug-release behavior. Subsequently, the cascade reactions, including catalytic reactions among the released GOD, glucose, and O2 to generate H2O2 and the subsequent Fenton reaction between ferrocene and H2O2, occurred. With the depletion of O2, the non-toxic TPZ was activated and converted into the cytotoxic therapeutic agent benzotriazinyl (BTZ) radical under the exacerbated hypoxic microenvironment. Collectively, the PFC/GOD-TPZ provides a promising strategy for effective combination therapy of GOD-mediated starvation therapy, chemodynamic therapy (CDT), and hypoxia-activated chemotherapy (CT).

Tumor cell membrane-coated continuous electrochemical sensor for GLUT1 inhibitor screening

Glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) overexpression in tumor cells is a potential target for drug therapy, but few studies have reported screening GLUT1 inhibitors from natural or synthetic compounds. With current analysis techniques, it is difficult to accurately monitor the GLUT1 inhibitory effect of drug molecules in real-time. We developed a cell membrane-based glucose sensor (CMGS) that integrated a hydrogel electrode with tumor cell membranes to monitor GLUT1 transmembrane transport and screen for GLUT1 inhibitors in traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). CMGS is compatible with cell membranes of various origins, including different types of tumors and cell lines with GLUT1 expression knocked down by small interfering RNA or small molecules. Based on CMGS continuous monitoring technique, we investigated the glucose transport kinetics of cell membranes with varying levels of GLUT1 expression. We used CMGS to determine the GLUT1-inhibitory effects of drug monomers with similar structures from Scutellaria baicalensis and catechins families. Results were consistent with those of the cellular glucose uptake test and molecular-docking simulation. CMGS could accurately screen drug molecules in TCMs that inhibit GLUT1, providing a new strategy for studying transmembrane protein-receptor interactions.

Synergistic ferroptosis-starvation therapy for bladder cancer based on hyaluronic acid modified metal-organic frameworks

Bladder cancer (BCa) is one of the most common malignancies of the urinary tract. Metastasis and recurrence of BCa are the leading causes of poor prognosis, and only a few patients can benefit from current first-line treatments such as chemotherapy and immunotherapy. It is urgent to develop more effective therapeutic method with low side effects. Here, a cascade nanoreactor, ZIF-8/PdCuAu/GOx@HA (ZPG@H), is proposed for starvation therapy and ferroptosis of BCa. The ZPG@H nanoreactor was constructed by co-encapsulation of PdCuAu nanoparticles and glucose oxidase into zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) modified by hyaluronic acid. The vitro results indicated that ZPG@H enhanced intracellular reactive oxygen species levels and reduced mitochondrial depolarization in the tumor microenvironment. Therefore, the integrated advantages of starvation therapy and chemodynamic therapy endow ZPG@H with a perfect ferroptosis inducing ability. This effectiveness, combined with its excellent biocompatibility and biosafety, means that ZPG@H could make a critical contribution to the development of novel BCa treatments.

Prussian Blue-Derived Nanoplatform for In Situ Amplified Photothermal/Chemodynamic/Starvation Therapy

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) is an emerging tumor treatment; however, it is hindered by insufficient endogenous hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and high glutathione (GSH) concentrations in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Furthermore, CDT has limited therapeutic efficacy as a monotherapy. To overcome these limitations, in this study, a nanoplatform is designed and constructed from Cu-doped mesoporous Prussian blue (CMPB)-encapsulated glucose oxidase (GOx) with a coating of hyaluronic acid (HA) modified with a nitric oxide donor (HN). In the proposed GOx@CMPB-HN nanoparticles, the dopant Cu²⁺ ions are crucial to combining and mutually promoting multiple therapeutic approaches, namely, CDT, photothermal therapy (PTT), and starvation therapy. The dopant Cu²⁺ ions in CMPB protect against reactive oxygen species to deplete the intracellular GSH in the TME. Additionally, the byproduct Cu⁺ ions act as a substrate for a Fenton-like reaction that activates CDT. Moreover, H₂O₂, which is another important substrate, is produced in large quantities through intracellular glucose depletion caused by the nanoparticle-loaded GOx, and the gluconic acid produced in this reaction further enhances the TME acidity and creates a better catalytic environment for CDT. In addition, Cu²⁺ doping greatly improves the mesoporous Prussian blue (MPB) photothermal conversion performance, and the resultant increase in temperature accelerates CDT catalysis. Finally, the HN coating enables the nanoparticles to actively target CD44 receptors in cancer cells and also enhances vascular permeability. Therefore, this coating has multiple effects, such as facilitating enhanced permeability and retention and deep laser penetration. In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrate that the proposed GOx@CMPB-HN nanoplatform significantly inhibits tumor growth with the help of in situ enhanced synergistic therapies based on the properties of the TME. The developed nanoplatform has the potential to be applied to cancer treatment and introduces new avenues for tumor treatment research.

Navigating zinc-involved nanomedicine in oncotherapy

Zinc (Zn), extolled as "the flower of life" in modern medicine, has been extensively highlighted with its physiological functions to maintain growth, development, and metabolism homeostasis. Driven by the substantial advancement of nanotechnology and oncology, Zn-involved nanomedicines integrating the intrinsic bioactivity of Zn species and the physiochemical attributes of Zn-composed nanosystems have blazed a highly efficient and relatively biosafe antineoplastic path. In this review, we aim to highlight and discuss the recent representative modalities of emerging Zn-involved oncology nanomedicine, mainly emphasizing the rational design, biological effect and biosafety, and therapeutic strategies. In addition, we provide the underlying critical obstacles and future perspectives of Zn-involved oncology nanomedicines, primarily focusing on the chances and challenges of clinical translation. Furthermore, we hope the review can give rise to opportunities within oncology nanomedicine and other biomedical fields, promoting the prosperity and progress of the "Zincic Age".

A Cascade Nanoreactor of Metal-Protein-Polyphenol Capsule for Oxygen-Mediated Synergistic Tumor Starvation and Chemodynamic Therapy

Starvation therapy kills tumor cells via consuming glucose to cut off their energy supply. However, since glucose oxidase (GOx)-mediated glycolysis is oxygen-dependent, the cascade reaction based on GOx faces the challenge of a hypoxic tumor microenvironment. By decomposition of glycolysis production of H₂ O₂ into O₂ , starvation therapy can be enhanced, but chemodynamic therapy is limited. Here, a close-loop strategy for on demand H₂ O₂ and O₂ delivery, release, and recycling is proposed. The nanoreactor (metal-protein-polyphenol capsule) is designed by incorporating two native proteins, GOx and hemoglobin (Hb), in polyphenol networks with zeolitic imidazolate framework as sacrificial templates. Glycolysis occurs in the presence of GOx with O₂ consumption and the produced H₂ O₂ reacts with Hb to produce highly cytotoxic hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and methemoglobin (MHb) (Fenton reaction). Benefiting from the different oxygen carrying capacities of Hb and MHb, oxygen on Hb is rapidly released to supplement its consumption during glycolysis. Glycolysis and Fenton reactions are mutually reinforced by oxygen supply, consuming more glucose and producing more hydroxyl radicals and ultimately enhancing both starvation therapy and chemodynamic therapy. This cascade nanoreactor exhibits high efficiency for tumor suppression and provides an effective strategy for oxygen-mediated synergistic starvation therapy and chemodynamic therapy.

Erythrocyte Membrane-Camouflaged Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanoparticles for Fetal Intestinal Maturation Assessment

Assessment of fetal maturity is essential for timely termination of pregnancy, especially in pregnant women with pregnancy complications. However, there is a lack of methods to assess the maturity of fetal intestinal function. Here, we constructed erythrocyte membrane-camouflaged aggregation-induced emission (AIE) nanoparticles. Nanocore is formed using a hollow mesoporous silicon nanobox (HMSN) of different particle sizes loaded with AIE luminogens -PyTPA (P), which are then co-extruded with erythrocyte membranes (M) to construct M@HMSN@P. The 100 nm M@HMSN@P has a more effective cellular uptake efficiency in vitro and in vivo. Swallowing and intestinal function in fetal mice mature with the increase in gestational age. After intrauterine injection of M@HMSN@P, they were swallowed and absorbed by fetal mice, and their swallowed and absorbed amount was positively correlated with the gestational age with a correlation coefficient of 0.9625. Using the M@HMSN@P (fluorescence intensity) in fetal mice, the gestational age can be imputed, and the difference between this imputed gestational age and the actual gestational age is less than 1 day. Importantly, M@HMSN@P has no side effect on the health status of pregnant and fetal mice, showing good biocompatibility. In conclusion, we constructed M@HMSN@P nanoparticles with different particle sizes and confirmed that the smaller size M@HMSN@P has more efficient absorption efficiency and it can assess fetal intestinal maturity by the intensity of the fluorescence signal.

Harnessing bioactive nanomaterials in modulating tumor glycolysis-associated metabolism

Glycolytic reprogramming is emerging as a hallmark of various cancers and a promising therapeutic target. Nanotechnology is revolutionizing the anti-tumor therapeutic approaches associated with glycolysis. Finely controlled chemical composition and nanostructure provide nanomaterials unique advantages, enabling an excellent platform for integrated drug delivery, biochemical modulation and combination therapy. Recent studies have shown promising potential of nanotherapeutic strategies in modulating tumor glycolytic metabolism alone or in combination with other treatments such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy and immunotherapy. To foster more innovation in this cutting-edge and interdisciplinary field, this review summarizes recent understandings of the origin and development of tumor glycolysis, then provides the latest advances in how nanomaterials modulate tumor glycolysis-related metabolism. The interplay of nanochemistry, metabolism and immunity is highlighted. Ultimately, the challenges and opportunities are presented.

Synthesis of dual-stimuli responsive metal organic framework-coated iridium oxide nanocomposite functionalized with tumor targeting albumin-folate for synergistic photodynamic/photothermal cancer therapy

The synergistic effects of photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) has attracted considerable attention in the field of cancer therapy because of its excellent anti-tumor effect. This work provides a novel pH/NIR responsive therapeutic nanoplatform, IrO₂@ZIF-8/BSA-FA (Ce6), producing a synergistic effect of PTT-PDT in the treatment of osteosarcoma. Iridium dioxide nanoparticles (IrO₂ NPs) with exceptional catalase-like activity and PTT effects were synthesized by a hydrolysis method and decorated with zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) shell layer to promote the physical absorption of Chlorin e6 (Ce6), and further functionalized with bovine serum albumin-folate acid (BSA-FA) for targeting tumor cells. The IrO₂@ZIF-8/BSA-FA nanocomposite indicated an outstanding photothermal heating conversion efficiency of 62.1% upon laser irradiation. In addition, the Ce6 loading endows nanoplatform with the capability to induce cell apoptosis under 660 nm near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation through a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated mechanism. It was further testified that IrO₂@ZIF-8/BSA-FA can function as a catalase and convert the endogenous hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) into oxygen (O₂) to improve the local oxygen pressure under the acidic tumor microenvironment (TME), which could subsequently amplified PDT-mediated ROS cell-killing performance via relieving hypoxia microenvironment of tumor. Both in vitro and in vivo experimental results indicated that the nanomaterials were good biocompatibility, and could remarkably achieve tumor-specific and enhanced combination therapy outcomes as compared with the corresponding PTT or PDT monotherapy. Taken together, this work holds great potential to design an intelligent multifunctional therapeutic nanoplatform for cancer therapy.

Nanozyme-laden intelligent macrophage EXPRESS amplifying cancer photothermal-starvation therapy by responsive stimulation

Precise delivery and responsive activation of therapeutic agents are critical for tumor precise therapy. Herein, inspired by intelligent express, a nanozyme-laden intelligent macrophage express was fabricated based on IR 820-macrophage loaded with GOx nanozymes for tumor-targeted photothermal-amplified starvation therapy with fluorescence imaging guidance. The nanozyme-laden intelligent macrophage express exerted precise delivery through cargo loading, conveying and unloading. For efficient cargo loading, H₂O₂-sensitive GOx nanozymes with blocked enzymatic activity were packaged on macrophage expresses with excellent phagocytic ability. Due to the inherent tumor tropism, the therapeutic agents-laden macrophage expresses naturally accumulated at tumor site with fluorescence navigation to track the conveying process. The spatiotemporal unpacking of the laden therapeutic agents at tumor site was triggered by the external laser for the macrophage express photothermal property. The released special tumor-microenvironment responsive GOx nanozymes were activated by H₂O₂ in tumor to start starvation therapy. Photothermal therapy generated mild hyperthermia and starvation therapy produced H₂O₂ further increased the nanozymes enzymatic activity, enhancing GOx-mediated starvation therapy. The nanozyme-laden intelligent macrophage express integrated laser-induce drug release and activation, tumor microenvironment-responsiveness, and circular amplification property, achieving the synergistic effects of PTT and starvation therapy in vitro and in vivo.

An Enzyme-Engineered Nonporous Copper(I) Coordination Polymer Nanoplatform for Cuproptosis-Based Synergistic Cancer Therapy

Cuproptosis, a newly identified form of regulated cell death that is copper-dependent, offers great opportunities for exploring the use of copper-based nanomaterials inducing cuproptosis for cancer treatment. Here, a glucose oxidase (GOx)-engineered nonporous copper(I) 1,2,4-triazolate ([Cu(tz)]) coordination polymer (CP) nanoplatform, denoted as GOx@[Cu(tz)], for starvation-augmented cuproptosis and photodynamic synergistic therapy is developed. Importantly, the catalytic activity of GOx is shielded in the nonporous scaffold but can be "turned on" for efficient glucose depletion only upon glutathione (GSH) stimulation in cancer cells, thereby proceeding cancer starvation therapy. The depletion of glucose and GSH sensitizes cancer cells to the GOx@[Cu(tz)]-mediated cuproptosis, producing aggregation of lipoylated mitochondrial proteins, the target of copper-induced toxicity. The increased intracellular hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ) levels, due to the oxidation of glucose, activates the type I photodynamic therapy (PDT) efficacy of GOx@[Cu(tz)]. The in vivo experimental results indicate that GOx@[Cu(tz)] produces negligible systemic toxicity and inhibits tumor growth by 92.4% in athymic mice bearing 5637 bladder tumors. This is thought to be the first report of a cupreous nanomaterial capable of inducing cuproptosis and cuproptosis-based synergistic therapy in bladder cancer, which should invigorate studies pursuing rational design of efficacious cancer therapy strategies based on cuproptosis.

Sequentially Activatable Polypeptide Nanoparticles for Combinatory Photodynamic Chemotherapy of Breast Cancer

Stimuli-activatable nanomaterials hold significant promise for tumor-specific drug delivery by recognizing the internal or external stimulus. Herein, we reported a dual-responsive and biodegradable polypeptide nanoparticle (PPTP@PTX₂ NP) for combinatory chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) of breast cancer. The NPs were engineered by encapsulating diselenide bond linked dimeric prodrug of paclitaxel (PTX₂) in an intracellular acidity-activatable polypeptide micelle. Specifically, the acid-responsive polypeptide was synthesized by grafting a tetraphenyl porphyrin (TPP) photosensitizer and N,N-diisopropylethylenediamine (DPA) onto the poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(glutamic acid) diblock copolymer by the amidation reaction, which self-assembled into micellar NPs and was activated inside the acidic endocytic vesicles to perform PDT. The paclitaxel dimer can be stably loaded into the polypeptide NPs and be restored by PDT inside the tumor cells. The formed PPTP@PTX₂ NPs remained inert during blood circulation and passively accumulated in the tumor foci, which could be activated within the endocytic vesicles via acid-triggered protonation of DPA groups to generate fluorescence signal and release PTX₂ in 4T1 murine breast tumor cells. Upon 660 nm laser irradiation, the activated NPs carried out PDT via TPP and chemotherapy via PTX to induce apoptosis of 4T1 cells and thereby efficiently inhibited 4T1 tumor growth and prevented metastasis of tumor cells.

Nanoscale Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework (ZIF)–8 in Cancer Theranostics: Current Challenges and Prospects

Simple Summary

The biomedical application of metal–organic frameworks in cancer theranostics has become a research hotspot with rapid progress. As a typical representative, ZIF–8 attracts increasing interest from researchers due to its good performance and potential. In this review, we updated recent discoveries on the ZIF–8–based nanoplatforms for cancer, discussed the problems in current research and the obstacles for clinical translation of ZIF–8, and also proposed an outlook on its future development.

Abstract

Cancer severely threatens human health and has remained the leading cause of disease–related death for decades. With the rapid advancement of nanomedicine, nanoscale metal–organic frameworks are believed to be potentially applied in the treatment and biomedical imaging for various tumors. Zeolite imidazole framework (ZIF)–8 attracts increasing attention due to its high porosity, large specific surface area, and pH–responsiveness. The designs and modifications of ZIF–8 nanoparticles, as well as the strategy of drug loading, demand a multifaceted and comprehensive understanding of nanomaterial features and tumor characteristics. We searched for studies on ZIF–8–based nanoplatforms in tumor theranostics on Web of Science from 2015 to 2022, mainly focused on the research published in the past 3 years, summarized the progress of their applications in tumor imaging and treatment, and discussed the favorable aspects of ZIF–8 nanoparticles for tumor theranostics as well as the future opportunities and potential challenges. As a kind of metal–organic framework material full of potential, ZIF–8 can be expected to be combined with more therapeutic systems in the future and continue to contribute to all aspects of tumor therapy and diagnosis.

Confining enzymes in porous organic frameworks: from synthetic strategy and characterization to healthcare applications

Enzymes are a class of natural catalysts with high efficiency, specificity, and selectivity unmatched by their synthetic counterparts and dictate a myriad of reactions that constitute various cascades in living cells. The development of suitable supports is significant for the immobilization of structurally flexible enzymes, enabling biomimetic transformation in the extracellular environment. Accordingly, porous organic frameworks, including metal organic frameworks (MOFs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs) and hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs), have emerged as ideal supports for the immobilization of enzymes because of their structural features including ultrahigh surface area, tailorable porosity, and versatile framework compositions. Specially, organic framework-encased enzymes have shown significant enhancement in stability and reusability, and their tailorable pore opening provides a gatekeeper-like effect for guest sieving, which is beneficial for mimicking intracellular biocatalysis processes. This immobilization technique brings new insight into the development of next-generation enzyme materials and shows huge potential in healthcare applications, such as biomarker diagnosis, biostorage, and cancer and antibacterial therapies. In this review, we describe the state-of-the-art strategies for the structural immobilization of enzymes using the well-explored MOFs and burgeoning COFs and HOFs as scaffolds, with special emphasis on how these porous framework-confined technologies can provide a favorable microenvironment for mimicking natural biocatalysis. Subsequently, advanced characterization techniques for enzyme conformation, the effect of the confined microenvironment on the activity of enzymes, and the emerging healthcare applications will be surveyed.

GOx-Functionalized Platelet Membranes-Camouflaging Nanoreactors for Enhanced Multimodal Tumor Treatment

Background

Glucose oxidase (GOx)-based starvation therapy is a new cancer treatment strategy. However, the characteristics such as limited curative effect and hypoxic tumor environment hinder its further application seriously.

Methods

Herein, doxorubicin (DOX) loaded in hollow mesoporous copper sulfide (HMCuS) nanoparticles assembled with manganese dioxide (HMMD) as nanoshell was prepared. We developed a targeted enhanced cancer treatment method to camouflage HMMD by GOx-functionalized platelet (PLT) membranes (HMMD@PG).

Results

GOx can be specially transported to the tumor site with PLT membrane for effective starvation treatment. Glucose and oxygen (O₂) in the tumor were converted to H₂O₂ under the catalysis of GOx. HMMD can catalyze H₂O₂ to produce O₂ and consume glutathione (GSH) in time, which regulates the tumor microenvironment (TME) and improves the adverse conditions of anti-tumor. In addition, DOX encapsulated in HMCuS-MnO₂ release was accelerated from the nanoparticles after the “gatekeeper” MnO₂ is consumed. The study of anti-tumor mechanism shows that the remarkable tumor suppressive ability of HMMD@PG comes from the three peaks synergy of starvation treatment, photothermal treatment (PTT), and chemotherapy. This nanoplatform disguised by PLT membrane has significant tumor inhibition ability, good biocompatibility and almost has no side effects in main organs.

Conclusion

This work broadens the application mode of GOx and shows the new development of a multi-mode collaborative processing system of nanoplatforms based on cell membrane camouflage.

Starvation, Ferroptosis, and Prodrug Therapy Synergistically Enabled by a Cytochrome c Oxidase like Nanozyme

Nanozymes, which are inorganic nanomaterials mimicking natural enzyme activities, are bringing enormous opportunities to theranostics. Herein, a cytochrome c oxidase-like nanozyme (copper-silver alloy nanoparticle, Cu-Ag NP) is demonstrated for nanocatalytic cancer therapy. Loaded with bioreductive predrug (AQ4N), this Cu-Ag nanozyme unprecedentedly enables simultaneous starvation, ferroptosis, and chemical therapy with high specificity, and is able to totally eliminate tumor and greatly prolong the survival rate for 4T1-tumor-bearing mice. The underlying working mechanism is revealed both experimentally and theoretically.

Cascade nanozymes based on the "butterfly effect" for enhanced starvation therapy through the regulation of autophagy

Although tumor starvation therapy has been proven to be an excellent method for tumor therapy, its efficiency may be weakened by autophagy, a self-protection mechanism exerted by tumors under starvation stress. Interestingly, over-activated autophagy not only improves the efficacy of starvation therapy, but also induces autophagic death. Herein, we report cascade nanozymes for enhanced starvation therapy by inducing over-activated autophagy. First, glucose oxidase (GOx) modified metal-organic frameworks (NH₂-MIL88, MOF) were constructed (MOF-GOx). After loading with curcumin (Cur), Cur@MOF-GOx was further decorated with tumor-targeting hyaluronic acid (HA) to obtain Cur@MOF-GOx/HA nanozymes. GOx can catalyze glucose into H₂O₂ and gluconic acid, which not only leads to tumor starvation, but also provides reactants for the Fenton reaction mediated by the MOF to generate hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) for chemo-dynamic therapy. Most importantly, protective autophagy caused by tumor starvation can be over-activated by Cur to convert autophagy from pro-survival to pro-death, realizing augmented anticancer therapy efficacy. With these cascade reactions, the synergistic action of starvation, autophagy and chemo-dynamic therapy was realized. Generally, the introduction of Cur@MOF-GOx/HA into tumor cells leads to a "butterfly effect", which induces enhanced starvation therapy through subsequent autophagic cell death to completely break the self-protective mechanism of cancer cells, and generate ˙OH for chemo-dynamic therapy. Precise design allows for the use of cascade nanozymes to realize efficient cancer treatment and restrain metastasis.

The strategy of precise targeting and in situ oxygenating for enhanced triple-negative breast cancer chemophototherapy

The absence of effective therapeutic targets and tumor hypoxia are the main causes of failure in the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Biomimetic nanotechnology and tumor microenvironment (TME) responsiveness bring hope and opportunity to address this problem. Here, we develop a core membrane nanoplatform (HM/D-I-BL) using hollow mesoporous manganese dioxide (HM) coated with a biomimetic cancer cell membrane for enhanced chemotherapy/phototherapy via the strategy of precise drug delivery and hypoxia amelioration. Cancer cell membrane modification endows HM/D-I-BL with excellent homologous targeting and immune escape performance. Cellular uptake and fluorescence imaging studies confirmed that HM/D-I-BL can be accurately delivered to tumor sites. HM/D-I-BL also features efficient in situ O₂ generation in tumors upon laser irradiation, and subsequently enhanced chemotherapy/phototherapy, pointing to its usefulness as a TME-responsive nanozyme to alleviate tumor hypoxia in the presence of H₂O₂. In addition, HM/D-I-BL showed good fluorescence and magnetic resonance imaging performances, which offers a reliable multimodal image-guided combination tumor therapy for precision theranostics in the future. In general, this intelligent biomimetic nanoplatform with its homotypic tumor targeting, in situ alleviation of tumor hypoxia and synergetic chemophototherapy would open up a new dimension for the precision treatment of TNBC.

Tumor metabolism destruction via metformin-based glycolysis inhibition and glucose oxidase-mediated glucose deprivation for enhanced cancer therapy

Cancer cells rely on glycolysis to support a high proliferation rate. Metformin (Met) is a promising drug for tumor treatment that targets hexokinase 2 (HK2) to block the glycolytic process, thereby further disrupting the metabolism of cancer cells. Herein, an intelligent nanomedicine based on glucose deprivation and glycolysis inhibition is creatively constructed for enhanced cancer synergistic treatment. In brief, Met and glucose oxidase (GOx) was encapsulated into histidine/zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (His/ZIF-8), which was followed by coating with Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) peptides to obtain the desired nanomedicine (Met/GOx@His/ZIF-8∼RGD). This smart nanomedicine presents the controllable Met and GOx release behavior in an acidic responsive manner. The liberated Met blocks the glycolysis process via suppressing the activity of HK2 and impairing ATP production, which activates the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway and p53 pathway and damages the Warburg effect, eventually leading to cells apoptosis. And the GOx boosts the glucose shortage for starvation therapy by depleting accumulated glucose. According to in vitro and in vivo assays, the combination of glycolysis inhibition and starvation therapy demonstrates efficient cancer cells growth suppression and superior antitumor properties compared to the Met based or GOx-mediated monotherapy. This work provides an advanced therapeutic strategy via disrupting cellular metabolism against cancer. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The obtained nanomedicine (Met/GOx@His/ZIF-8∼RGD) presents the controllable Met and glucose oxidase (GOx) release behavior in an acidic responsive manner. The liberated Met blocks the glycolysis process via suppressing the activity of HK2 and impairing ATP production, which activates the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway and p53 pathway and damages the Warburg effect, eventually leading to cells apoptosis. And the GOx boosts the glucose shortage for starvation therapy by depleting accumulated glucose. The combination of glycolysis inhibition and starvation therapy demonstrate the efficient suppression of cancer cells growth and the superior antitumor properties when compared to the Met based or GOx-mediated monotherapy.

Gold Nanocluster-Based Fluorometric Banoxantrone Assay Enabled by Photoinduced Electron Transfer

Monitoring the blood concentration of banoxantrone (AQ4N) is important to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy and side effects of this new anticancer prodrug during its clinical applications. Herein, we report a fluorescence method for AQ4N detection through the modulation of the molecule-like photoinduced electron transfer (PET) behavior of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs). AQ4N can electrostatically bind to the surface of carboxylated chitosan (CC) and dithiothreitol (DTT) co-stabilized AuNCs and quench their fluorescence via a Coulomb interaction-accelerated PET process. Under optimized experimental conditions, the linear range of AQ4N is from 25 to 200 nM and the limit of detection is as low as 5 nM. In addition, this assay is confirmed to be reliable based on its successful use in AQ4N determination in mouse plasma samples. This work offers an effective strategy for AQ4N sensing based on fluorescent AuNCs and widens the application of AuNCs in clinical diagnosis and pharmaceutical analysis.

Enhanced Cancer Starvation Therapy Enabled by an Autophagy Inhibitors-Encapsulated Biomimetic ZIF-8 Nanodrug: Disrupting and Harnessing Dual Pro-Survival Autophagic Responses

Autophagy is an important protective mechanism in maintaining or restoring cell homeostasis under physiological and pathological conditions. Nanoparticles (NPs) with certain components and morphologies can induce autophagic responses in cancer cells, providing a new perspective for establishing cancer therapy strategies. Herein, a novel nanodrug system, cell membranes-coated zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) NPs encapsulating chloroquine (CQ) and glucose oxidase (GOx) (defined as mCG@ZIF), is designed to achieve an enhanced anticancer effect with the combination of starvation therapy and an autophagy regulation strategy. It is found that ZIF-8 as a nanocarrier can induce autophagy to promote survival of cancer cells via the upstream Zn²⁺-stimulated mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) so that the anticancer effect is directly achieved by inhibiting this pro-survival autophagy using CQ released from mCG@ZIF under a tumor acidic microenvironment. Moreover, a cancer cell under starvation caused by GOx harnesses autophagy to maintain intracellular ATP levels and resist starvation therapy. The released CQ further inhibits the starvation-induced pro-survival autophagy and cuts off the protective pathway of cancer cells, enhancing the anticancer efficiency of GOx-based starvation therapy. Significantly, the cell membrane coating endows mCG@ZIF with excellent in vivo homotypic targeting ability. Both in vitro and in vivo results have confirmed the enhanced anticancer effect achieved by mCG@ZIF with a negligible side effect.

Mild-Temperature Photothermal Effect Enhanced by Functional Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles through Enzyme-Mediated Starvation

Mild-temperature photothermal therapy (PTT) is being extensively explored because it causes less injury to normal cells. However, the effect of mild-temperature PTT is decreased because of heat shock protein (HSP) overexpression. To solve this problem, we designed functional conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs-G) that enhance the mild-temperature photothermal effect. Upon near-infrared (NIR) light irradiation, CPNs-G generate local heat to realize the photothermal effect. Meanwhile, the increased temperature enhances the catalytic activity of GOx, thus impeding the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and inhibiting HSP expression. Therefore, this work provides a strategy for overcoming thermoresistance through an enzyme-mediated starvation effect regulated by NIR light.

Current status of cancer starvation therapy

Conventional therapies for malignant tumors have limitations and disadvantages. In recent years, the cancer starvation therapy has emerged which intends to deprive cancer cells of nutritional supply. There are several approaches to"starve" cancer cells: to intervene tumor angiogenesis by targeted inhibition of angiogenic factors or their receptors and integrins; to block the blood supply of cancer cells by embolizing or compressing blood vessels; to intervene metabolic process of cancer cells by inhibition of the signal pathways of mitochondrial serine-glycine-one earbon metabolism, glycolysis and amino acid metabolism; cancer starvation therapy can be employed with oxidation therapy, chemotherapy, sonodynamic therapy, anti-autophagy therapy or other therapies to achieve synergistic effects. This article reviews the research progress of cancer starvation therapy in recent years and discusses the existing problems.

Explaining chemical clues of metal organic framework-nanozyme nano-/micro-motors in targeted treatment of cancers: benchmarks and challenges

Nowadays, nano-/micro-motors are considered as powerful tools in different areas ranging from cleaning all types of contaminants, to development of Targeted drug delivery systems and diagnostic activities. Therefore, the development and application of nano-/micro-motors based on metal–organic frameworks with nanozyme activity (abbreviated as: MOF-NZs) in biomedical activities have received much interest recently. Therefore, after investigating the catalytic properties and applications of MOF-NZs in the treatment of cancer, this study intends to point out their key role in the production of biocompatible nano-/micro-motors. Since reducing the toxicity of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors can pave the way for medical activities, this article examines the methods of making biocompatible nanomotors to address the benefits and drawbacks of the required propellants. In the following, an analysis of the amplified directional motion of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors under physiological conditions is presented, which can improve the motor behaviors in the propulsion function, conductivity, targeting, drug release, and possible elimination. Meanwhile, by explaining the use of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors in the treatment of cancer through the possible synergy of nanomotors with different therapies, it was revealed that MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors can be effective in the treatment of cancer. Ultimately, by analyzing the potential challenges of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors in the treatment of cancers, we hope to encourage researchers to develop MOF-NZs-based nanomotors, in addition to opening up new ideas to address ongoing problems.

Lanthanide europium MOF nanocomposite as the theranostic nanoplatform for microwave thermo-chemotherapy and fluorescence imaging

Backgrounds

Microwave sensitization nanoplatform, integrating multiple functional units for improving tumor selectivity, is of great significance for clinical tumor microwave treatment. Lanthanide europium metal organic framework (EuMOF) is expected to be a theranostic nanoplatform owing to its unique luminescent and microwave sensitization properties. However, it is difficult to be applied to complicated biological systems for EuMOF due to its rapid degradation induced by the solvent molecular and ionic environment. In this work, a luminescent EuMOF nanocomposite (EuMOF@ZIF/AP-PEG, named EZAP) was designed, which brought the multifunctional characteristics of microwave sensitization, fluorescence imaging and drug loading.

Results

Lamellar EuMOF was synthesized by a hydrothermal method. Through the charge adsorption mechanism, the zeolite imidazole framework (ZIF) structure was intensively assembled on the surface of EuMOF to realize the protection. Then, through in-situ Apatinib drug loading and PEG modification, EZAP nanocomposite was finally obtained. Apatinib (AP) was a kind of chemotherapy drug approved by Food and Drug Administration for targeted therapy of tumors. PEG modification increased long-term circulation of EZAP nanocomposite. The physical and chemical structure and properties of EuMOF@ZIF (EZ) were systematically represented, indicating the successful synthesis of the nanocomposite. The toxic and side effects were negligible at a safe dose. The growth of human liver cancer cells and murine liver cancer cells in vitro was significantly inhibited, and the combined microwave-thermal therapy and chemotherapy in vivo achieved high anti-cancer efficacy. Moreover, EZAP nanocomposite possessed bright red fluorescence, which can be applied for tumor imaging in tumor-bearing mice in vivo.

Conclusion

Therefore, EZAP nanocomposite showed high microwave sensitization, excellent fluorescence properties and outstanding drug loading capacity, establishing a promising theranostic nanoplatform for tumor therapy and fluorescence imaging. This work proposes a unique strategy to design for the first time a multifunctional nanoplatform with lanthanide metal organic frameworks for biological applications in tumor therapy and diagnosis.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-022-01335-7.

Biomineralized Cascade Enzyme-Encapsulated ZIF-8 Nanoparticles Combined with Antisense Oligonucleotides for Drug-Resistant Bacteria Treatment

The unrestrained use of antibiotics accelerates the development of drug-resistant bacteria and leads to an increasing threat to human health. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore novel and effective strategies for the treatment of bacterial infections. Herein, zeolite imidazole framework-8 (ZIF-8) material was utilized to construct biomineralized nanomaterial (GOx&HRP@ZIF-8/ASO) by encapsulating biological cascade enzymes and combining with antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), which achieved effective and synergistic antidrug-resistant bacteria therapy. Various in vitro assays confirmed that GOx&HRP@ZIF-8/ASO exhibited excellent antibacterial properties against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) during catalysis of glucose (Glu), especially the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against MRSA was only 16 μg/mL. Compared with simple ZIF-8 (32.85%) and ftsZ ASO (58.65%), GOx&HRP@ZIF-8/ASO+Glu exhibited superb biofilm destruction ability, and the bacteria removal efficiency of the MRSA biofilm could be as high as 88.2%, indicating that the reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by the cascade enzyme reaction imparted the main synergistic antibacterial capability, and simultaneously, ftsZ ASO significantly enhanced the antibacterial effect by inhibiting the expression of the ftsZ gene. In vivo anti-infection treatment experiments revealed that GOx&HRP@ZIF-8/ASO exhibited the best wound repairing performance and excellent biocompatibility in the presence of Glu. These findings suggested that GOx&HRP@ZIF-8/ASO has favorably realized high-efficiency treatment of MRSA infection and filled the gap in the antibacterial application of biological enzymes.

Triple-synergistic MOF-nanozyme for efficient antibacterial treatment

The abuse of antibiotics makes bacterial infection an increasingly serious global health threat. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are the ideal alternative antibacterial approach for quick and effective sterilization. Although various antibacterial strategies based on ROS have been developed, many of them are still limited by insufficient antibacterial efficiency. Here, we have developed an acid-enhanced dual-modal antibacterial strategy based on zeolitic imidazolate frameworks-8 (ZIF8) -derived nanozyme. ZIF8, which can release Zn²⁺, is chosen as the carrier to integrate glucose oxidase (GOx) and gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) which can produce ROS via a cascade catalytic reaction. Thus, the bactericidal capability of ROS and Zn²⁺ have been integrated. More importantly, gluconic acid, a “by-product” of the catalytic reaction, can generate an acidic environment to promote both the ROS-producing and Zn²⁺-releasing, enhancing the overall antibacterial performance further. This triple-synergistic strategy exhibits extraordinary bactericidal ability at a low dosage of 4 μg/mL (for S. aureus) and 8 μg/mL (for E. coli), which shows a great potential of MOF-derived nanozyme for efficient bacterial eradication and diverse biomedical applications.

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A triple-synergistic MOF-nanozyme has been designed for efficient bacterial eradication.

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The as-designed nanozyme (ZAG NPs) exhibited an acid-reliance Zn²⁺-releasing and ROS-producing behavior.

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ZAG NPs demonstrated excellent bactericidal performance in vitro and in vivo.

Nanomedicine-enabled chemotherapy-based synergetic cancer treatments

Chemotherapy remains one of the most prevailing regimens hitherto in the fight against cancer, but its development has been being suffering from various fatal side effects associated with the non-specific toxicity of common chemical drugs. Advances in biomedical application of nanomedicine have been providing alternative but promising approaches for cancer therapy, by leveraging its excellent intrinsic physicochemical properties to address these critical concerns. In particular, nanomedicine-enabled chemotherapy has been established as a safer and promising therapeutic modality, especially the recently proposed nanocatalytic medicine featuring the capabilities to generate toxic substances by initiating diverse catalytic reactions within the tumor without directly relying on highly toxic but non-selective chemotherapeutic agents. Of special note, under exogenous/endogenous stimulations, nanomedicine can serve as a versatile platform that allows additional therapeutic modalities (photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), chemodynamic therapy (CDT), etc.) to be seamlessly integrated with chemotherapy for efficacious synergistic treatments of tumors. Here, we comprehensively review and summarize the representative studies of multimodal synergistic cancer treatments derived from nanomedicine and nanocatalytic medicine-enabled chemotherapy in recent years, and their underlying mechanisms are also presented in detail. A number of existing challenges and further perspectives for nanomedicine-synergized chemotherapy for malignant solid tumor treatments are also highlighted for understanding this booming research area as comprehensively as possible.

Autocatalytic oncotherapy nanosystem with glucose depletion for cascade amplification of hypoxia-activated chemotherapy and H2O2-dependent chemodynamic therapy

Hypoxia-activated prodrug is an appealing oncotherapy strategy, but limited by insufficient tumor hypoxia. Moreover, standalone prodrug fails to treat tumor satisfactorily due to tumor complexity. Herein, a nanosystem (TPZ@FeMSN-GOX) was...

Biomimetic Nanomaterials Triggered Ferroptosis for Cancer Theranostics

Ferroptosis, as a recently discovered non-apoptotic programmed cell death with an iron-dependent form, has attracted great attention in the field of cancer nanomedicine. However, many ferroptosis-related nano-inducers encountered unexpected limitations such as immune exposure, low circulation time, and ineffective tumor targeting. Biomimetic nanomaterials possess some unique physicochemical properties which can achieve immune escape and effective tumor targeting. Especially, certain components of biomimetic nanomaterials can further enhance ferroptosis. Therefore, this review will provide a comprehensive overview on recent developments of biomimetic nanomaterials in ferroptosis-related cancer nanomedicine. First, the definition and character of ferroptosis and its current applications associated with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy for enhancing cancer theranostics were briefly discussed. Subsequently, the advantages and limitations of some representative biomimetic nanomedicines, including biomembranes, proteins, amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and biomineralization-based ferroptosis nano-inducers, were further spotlighted. This review would therefore help the spectrum of advanced and novice researchers who are interested in this area to quickly zoom in the essential information and glean some provoking ideas to advance this subfield in cancer nanomedicine.

A Novel H2O2 Generator for Tumor Chemotherapy-Enhanced CO Gas Therapy

Carbon monoxide (CO) gas therapy is a promising cancer treatment. However, gas delivery to the tumor site remains problematic. Proper tunable control of CO release in tumors is crucial to increasing the efficiency of CO treatment and reducing the risk of CO poisoning. To overcome such challenges, we designed ZCM, a novel stable nanotechnology delivery system comprising manganese carbonyl (MnCO) combined with anticancer drug camptothecin (CPT) loaded onto a zeolitic imidazole framework-8 (ZIF-8). After intravenous injection, ZCM gradually accumulates in cancerous tissues, decomposing in the acidic tumor microenvironment, releasing CPT and MnCO. CPT acts as a chemotherapy agent destroying tumors and producing copious H2O2. MnCO can react with the H2O2 to generate CO, powerfully damaging the tumor. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments indicate that the ZCM system is both safe and has excellent tumor inhibition properties. ZCM is a novel system for CO controlled release, with significant potential to improve future cancer therapy.

A tumor-cell biomimetic nanoplatform embedding biological enzymes for enhanced metabolic therapy

A tumor cell membrane-camouflaged therapeutic system was fabricated to eliminate tumors by embedding apyrase and glucose oxidase (GOx) into zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) nanoparticles for tumor-targeted metabolic therapy. Experimental results demonstrated that these functional nanoparticles could disturb the energy supply of tumor cells by depleting ATP and glucose and efficiently induce tumor cell death.

Biomimetic Zirconia with Cactus-Inspired Meso-Scale Spikes and Nano-Trabeculae for Enhanced Bone Integration

Biomimetic design provides novel opportunities for enhancing and functionalizing biomaterials. Here we created a zirconia surface with cactus-inspired meso-scale spikes and bone-inspired nano-scale trabecular architecture and examined its biological activity in bone generation and integration. Crisscrossing laser etching successfully engraved 60 μm wide, cactus-inspired spikes on yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (Y-TZP) with 200–300 nm trabecular bone-inspired interwoven structures on the entire surface. The height of the spikes was varied from 20 to 80 μm for optimization. Average roughness (Sa) increased from 0.10 μm (polished smooth surface) to 18.14 μm (80 μm-high spikes), while the surface area increased by up to 4.43 times. The measured dimensions of the spikes almost perfectly correlated with their estimated dimensions (R² = 0.998). The dimensional error of forming the architecture was 1% as a coefficient of variation. Bone marrow-derived osteoblasts were cultured on a polished surface and on meso- and nano-scale hybrid textured surfaces with different spike heights. The osteoblastic differentiation was significantly promoted on the hybrid-textured surfaces compared with the polished surface, and among them the hybrid-textured surface with 40 μm-high spikes showed unparalleled performance. In vivo bone-implant integration also peaked when the hybrid-textured surface had 40 μm-high spikes. The relationships between the spike height and measures of osteoblast differentiation and the strength of bone and implant integration were non-linear. The controllable creation of meso- and nano-scale hybrid biomimetic surfaces established in this study may provide a novel technological platform and design strategy for future development of biomaterial surfaces to improve bone integration and regeneration.