Urinary metabonomic study of the surface layer of Poria cocos as an effective treatment for chronic renal injury in rats

Mitogenomic and Phylogenetic Analysis of the Entomopathogenic Fungus Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis and Comparative Analysis with Other Ophiocordyceps Species

Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis (O. lanpingensis) belongs to the genus Ophiocordyceps, which is often found in Yunnan Province, China. This species is pharmacologically important for the treatment of renal disorders induced by oxidative stress and an inadequate immune response. In the present study, the mitogenome of O. lanpingensis was determined to be a circular molecule 117,560 bp in length, and to have 31% G + C content and 69% A + T content. This mitogenome comprised 82% of the whole genome that codes for significant genes. The protein-coding regions of the O. lanpingensis mitogenome, containing 24 protein-coding genes, were associated with respiratory chain complexes, such as 3 ATP-synthase complex F0 subunits (atp6, atp8, and atp9), 2 complex IV subunits/cytochrome c oxidases (cox2 and cox3), 1 complex III subunit (cob), 4 electron transport complex I subunits/NADH dehydrogenase complex subunits (nad1, nad4, nad5, and nad6), 2 ribosomal RNAs (rns, rnl), and 11 hypothetical/predicted proteins, i.e., orf609, orf495, orf815, orf47, orf150, orf147, orf292, orf127, orf349, orf452, and orf100. It was noted that all genes were positioned on the same strand. Further, 13 mitochondrial genes with respiratory chain complexes, which presented maximum similarity with other fungal species of Ophiocordyceps, were investigated. O. lanpingensis was compared with previously sequenced species within Ophiocordycepitaceae. Comparative analysis indicated that O. lanpingensis was more closely related to O. sinensis, which is one of the most remarkable and expensive herbs due to its limited availability and the fact that it is difficult to culture. Therefore, O. lanpingensis is an important medicinal resource that can be effectively used for medicinal purposes. More extensive metabolomics research is recommended for O. lanpingensis.

TGF-β/Smad Signaling Pathway in Tubulointerstitial Fibrosis

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) was a major public health problem worldwide. Renal fibrosis, especially tubulointerstitial fibrosis, is final manifestation of CKD. Many studies have demonstrated that TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway plays a crucial role in renal fibrosis. Therefore, targeted inhibition of TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway can be used as a potential therapeutic measure for tubulointerstitial fibrosis. At present, a variety of targeting TGF-β1 and its downstream Smad proteins have attracted attention. Natural products used as potential therapeutic strategies for tubulointerstitial fibrosis have the characteristics of acting on multiple targets by multiple components and few side effects. With the continuous research and technique development, more and more molecular mechanisms of natural products have been revealed, and there are many natural products that inhibited tubulointerstitial fibrosis via TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway. This review summarized the role of TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway in tubulointerstitial fibrosis and natural products against tubulointerstitial fibrosis by targeting TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway. Additionally, many challenges and opportunities are presented for inhibiting renal fibrosis in the future.

Targeting the Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway as a Potential Therapeutic Strategy in Renal Tubulointerstitial Fibrosis

The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway plays important roles in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. Wnt signaling is induced, and β-catenin is activated, associated with the development and progression of renal fibrosis. Wnt/β-catenin controls the expression of various downstream mediators such as snail1, twist, matrix metalloproteinase-7, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, transient receptor potential canonical 6, and renin-angiotensin system components in epithelial cells, fibroblast, and macrophages. In addition, Wnt/β-catenin is usually intertwined with other signaling pathways to promote renal interstitial fibrosis. Actually, given the crucial of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in renal fibrogenesis, blocking this signaling may benefit renal interstitial fibrosis. There are several antagonists of Wnt signaling that negatively control Wnt activation, and these include soluble Fzd-related proteins, the family of Dickkopf 1 proteins, Klotho and Wnt inhibitory factor-1. Furthermore, numerous emerging small-molecule β-catenin inhibitors cannot be ignored to prevent and treat renal fibrosis. Moreover, we reviewed the knowledge focusing on anti-fibrotic effects of natural products commonly used in kidney disease by inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Therefore, in this review, we summarize recent advances in the regulation, downstream targets, role, and mechanisms of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in renal fibrosis pathogenesis. We also discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting this pathway to treat renal fibrosis; this may shed new insights into effective treatment strategies to prevent and treat renal fibrosis.

Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis polysaccharides alleviate chronic kidney disease through MAPK/NF-κB pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis (O. lanpingensis) is a traditional ethno-medicine distributed in Eastern Himalayas, which has been used by local minorities to prevent and treat urinary diseases for hundreds of years. However, the corresponding active components and related pharmacological mechanism of such medication are not clear yet.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

This study was performed to investigate the effects and potential mechanisms of O. lanpingensis polysaccharides (OLP) in the treatment of chronic kidney disease (CKD) based on our previous research results.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Methylation analysis was used to investigate the monosaccharide composition and glycosidic linkages in OLP. The animals were divided into the control group, CKD model group, losartan group and three different doses of OLP groups. The CKD mouse model was established by the adenine gavage. The histological changes of renal tissue were observed by Hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining. Biochemical indicators, including blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine (Scr), serum phosphorus (P), plasma calcium (Ca), reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured to evaluate the alleviation of CKD by OLP. Moreover, the expression levels of a series of cytokines related to the inflammation, apoptosis and fibrosis were analyzed to explore the possible mechanisms of OLP to treat CKD.

RESULTS

OLP is composed of three kinds of monosaccharides. There are eight kinds of glycosidic linkages in OLP, among which →4)-Glcp-(1→ is the main linkage. OLP could significantly attenuate CKD in mice and the tubulointerstitial damage was recovered to almost normal after the treatment of OLP. Compared with the CKD model group, the levels of Scr, BUN, MDA, P in OLP treatment groups were significantly decreased; and the levels of SOD and Ca were increased after OLP treatment. Furthermore, OLP could reduce the oxidative stress of the renal tissues, decrease the expression levels of pro-inflammatory factors through TLR4-mediated MAPK and NF-κB pathway, inhibit the apoptosis of renal cells by MAPK pathway, and relieve the renal fibrosis by down-regulating the expression of TGF-β1.

CONCLUSIONS

OLP is composed of three kinds of monosaccharides and →4)-Glcp-(1→ is the main glycosidic linkage in the polysaccharide. OLP could ameliorate CKD in mice by declining the oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis and fibrosis in the kidneys. The study provided some evidences for the potential application of OLP in alleviating CKD.

Resveratrol Attenuates Diquat-Induced Oxidative Stress by Regulating Gut Microbiota and Metabolome Characteristics in Piglets

Previous studies have shown that dietary resveratrol (RES) reduces diarrhea and attenuates oxidative stress in piglets challenged with diquat. However, the effect of dietary resveratrol on the gut microbiota of these piglets, as well as the potential relationships between intestinal microflora and metabolites, remain unclear. Here, 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing and metabolome analyses were performed to investigate the effect of RES on the gut microbiota and metabolome of diquat-challenged piglets. A total of 18 weaned piglets (aged 28 ± 2 days) were divided into the control group (basal diet), diquat group (basal diet + diquat challenge), and RES group (basal diet containing 90 mg/kg RES + diquat challenge). Compared with the control group, piglets in the diquat group showed enriched relative abundance of the phyla Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, the genus Ruminococcaceae UCG-005, and members of the Eubacterium coprostanoligenes group. Noteworthy, RES supplementation significantly reduced the levels of these microorganisms. In contrast, the relative abundance of some beneficial bacterial species in the RES group, such as the genera Clostridium sensu stricto 1 and Lachnospiraceae unclassified were significantly higher than in the diquat and control groups. Metabolomic analysis indicated that some metabolites, including indole-3-carbinol, 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid, and uridine, were significantly upregulated upon RES supplementation. In particular, the relative abundance of uridine, indole, and alpha- and beta-dihydroresveratrol was significantly higher in the RES group than in the control group. Moreover, most gut bacterial genera were found to be highly correlated with altered gut microbiota-related metabolites. These findings suggest that dietary supplementation with resveratrol may alter the composition and metabolites of colonic microbiota in diquat-challenged piglets, which provides important insights into the use of resveratrol as a feed additive for gut microbial regulation in piglets with inflammatory and oxidative stress-associated disorders.

Mechanism of herbal medicine on hypertensive nephropathy (Review)

Hypertensive nephropathy is the most common complication of hypertension, and is one of the main causes of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in numerous countries. The basic pathological feature of hypertensive nephropathy is arteriolosclerosis followed by renal parenchymal damage. The etiology of this disease is complex, and its pathogenesis is mainly associated with renal hemodynamic changes and vascular remodeling. Despite the increased knowledge on the pathogenesis of hypertensive nephropathy, the current clinical treatment methods are still not effective in preventing the development of the disease to ESRD. Herbal medicine, which is used to relieve symptoms, can improve hypertensive nephropathy through multiple targets. Since there are few clinical studies on the treatment of hypertensive nephropathy with herbal medicine, this article aims to review the progress on the basic research on the treatment of hypertensive nephropathy with herbal medicine, including regulation of the renin angiotensin system, inhibition of sympathetic excitation, antioxidant stress and anti-inflammatory protection of endothelial cells, and improvement of obesity-associated factors. Herbal medicine with different components plays a synergistic and multi-target role in the treatment of hypertensive nephropathy. The description of the mechanism of herbal medicine in the treatment of hypertensive nephropathy will contribute towards the progress of modern medicine.

Novel poricoic acids attenuate renal fibrosis through regulating redox signalling and aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation

BACKGROUND

Renal fibrosis is the final manifestation of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Renal fibrosis is largely driven by oxidative stress and inflammation.

PURPOSE

The aim of the current study was to identify novel poricoic acids from Poria cocos and investigated their antifibrotic effects and the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

In this study, we identified six novel poricoic acids from Poria cocos and examined their antifibrotic effect using transforming growth factor-β1- (TGF-β1-) induced cultured human kidney proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2) and mice with unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO).

RESULTS

Treatment with six poricoic acids significantly inhibited TGF-β1-induced α-smooth muscle actin expression at both mRNA and protein levels in HK-2 cells. Three compounds with an intact carboxyl group at C-3 position showed a stronger inhibitory effect than that of other three compounds with esterified carboxyl group at the C-3 position. Mechanistically, poricoic acid ZM (PZM) and poricoic acid ZP (PZP) attenuate renal fibrosis through the modulation of redox signalling including the inhibition of proinflammatory nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signalling and its target genes as well as the activation of antioxidative nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signalling and its downstream target gene in both TGF-β1-induced HK-2 cells and UUO mice. PZM treatment and PZP treatment inhibit the upregulated aryl hydrocarbon receptor and they target the gene expression in UUO mice. Intriguingly, PZM treatment exhibits a stronger inhibitory effect than that of the PZP treatment. Structure-function relationship reveals that the carboxyl group at C-3 position is the most important bioactive function group in secolanostane tetracyclic triterpenoids against renal fibrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

PZM and PZP attenuated renal fibrosis through the modulation of redox signalling and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor signalling pathway. Our findings will provide several promising leading compounds against renal fibrosis.

Sub-nanoliter metabolomics via mass spectrometry to characterize volume-limited samples

The human metabolome provides a window into the mechanisms and biomarkers of various diseases. However, because of limited availability, many sample types are still difficult to study by metabolomic analyses. Here, we present a mass spectrometry (MS)-based metabolomics strategy that only consumes sub-nanoliter sample volumes. The approach consists of combining a customized metabolomics workflow with a pulsed MS ion generation method, known as triboelectric nanogenerator inductive nanoelectrospray ionization (TENGi nanoESI) MS. Samples tested with this approach include exhaled breath condensate collected from cystic fibrosis patients as well as in vitro-cultured human mesenchymal stromal cells. Both test samples are only available in minimum amounts. Experiments show that picoliter-volume spray pulses suffice to generate high-quality spectral fingerprints, which increase the information density produced per unit sample volume. This TENGi nanoESI strategy has the potential to fill in the gap in metabolomics where liquid chromatography-MS-based analyses cannot be applied. Our method opens up avenues for future investigations into understanding metabolic changes caused by diseases or external stimuli.

Effect of Different-Volume Fluid Resuscitation on Organ Functions in Severe Acute Pancreatitis and Therapeutic Effect of Poria cocos

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effect of different-volume fluid resuscitation (FR) on organ functions in severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) and to elucidate the therapeutic effect and mechanism of Poria cocos on organ injuries caused by high-volume FR.

METHODS

1. Clinical study: retrospective analysis of thirty-one patients about the effect of titrated fluid resuscitation protocol (TFR) on the occurrence of acute kidney injury (AKI) secondary to SAP. 2. Experimental study: rats (N = 30) were randomly divided into five groups: sham, model, low-volume FR (1.5 ml/kg/h), high-volume FR (10 ml/kg/h), and Poria cocos combined with high-volume FR (10 ml/kg/h + intraintestinal administration Poria cocos 5 g/kg); serum or plasma indicators and histopathologic scores were compared to explore the effect and mechanism of different fluid volumes and Poria cocos on organ function in SAP.

RESULTS

The occurrence of AKI, fluid volume, and fluid velocity in TFR group was lower than that in the control group. Logistic regression analysis showed that increased Marshall scores and fluid velocity were risk factors for predicting occurrence of AKI in SAP. Low-volume FR decreased the levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine (Cr), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), and pathologic scores of the pancreas and kidney. High-volume FR increased ascites, MMPs, and kidney pathologic scores. Poria cocos decreased the levels of BUN, Cr, MMPs, and pathologic scores of the pancreas and kidney and increased the arterial oxygen saturation.

CONCLUSION

TFR-associated lower fluid volume and velocity reduced the occurrence of AKI secondary to SAP. High volume might aggravate AKI via increased MMP release leading to endothelial glycocalyx damage and vascular endothelial dysfunction. Poria cocos reduced MMP release, relieved glycocalyx damage, and alleviated the pancreas and kidney injury aggravated by high fluid volume in SAP. Therefore, endothelial glycocalyx protection might be a new strategy in the treatment of SAP.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities of Wolfiporia cocos (F.A. Wolf) Ryvarden & Gilb

Poria cocos is the dried sclerotium of Wolfiporia cocos (F.A. Wolf) Ryvarden & Gilb., which was the current accepted name and was formerly known as Macrohyporia cocos (Schwein.) I. Johans. & Ryvarden, Pachyma cocos (Schwein.) Fr., Poria cocos F.A. Wolf and Sclerotium cocos Schwein. It is one of the most important crude drugs in traditional Chinese medicine, with a wide range of applications in ameliorating phlegm and edema, relieving nephrosis and chronic gastritis and improving uneasiness of minds. Its extensive pharmacological effects have attracted considerable attention in recent years. However, there is no systematic review focusing on the chemical compounds and pharmacological activities of Poria cocos. Therefore, this review aimed to provide the latest information on the chemical compounds and pharmacological effects of Poria cocos, exploring the therapeutic potential of these compounds. We obtained the information of Poria cocos from electronic databases such as SCI finder, PubMed, Web of Science, CNKI, WanFang DATA and Google Scholar. Up to now, two main active ingredients, triterpenes and polysaccharides of Poria cocos, have been identified from Poria cocos. It has been reported that they have pharmacological effects on anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulation, and liver and kidney protection. The review summarizes the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Poria cocos, which suggest that researchers should focus on the development of new drugs about Poria cocos to make them exert greater therapeutic potential.

Urine Metabolomics Study on Potential Hepatoxic Biomarkers Identification in Rats Induced by Aurantio-Obtusin

Previous studies revealed the hepatotoxic effect of aurantio-obtusin on rats. The aim of this study was to identify potential biomarkers of urine caused by aurantio-obtusin. Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats with body weight of 0, 4, 40, and 200 mg/kg were orally given aurantio-obtusin for 28 days, and urine was collected for 24 h after the last administration. The urine metabolites in the aurantio-obtusin group and the control group were analyzed by ultraperformance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS). Twenty-three metabolites were identified as potential biomarkers, and 10 of them were up-regulated, including xanthosine, hippuric acid, 5-L-glutamyl-taurine, etc. The other 13 biomarkers were down-regulated, including thymidine, 3-methyldioxyindole, cholic acid, etc. The significant changes of these biomarkers indicated that purine metabolism, taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, primary bile acid biosynthesis, pyrimidine metabolism, and tryptophan metabolism played an important role in the hepatotoxicity of aurantio-obtusin in rats. In this paper, the safety and potential risk of aurantio-obtusin were studied for the first time by combining the toxicity of aurantio-obtusin with the results of urine metabolomics, which provided information for the mechanism of liver injury induced by aurantio-obtusin.

Toxicity and Its Mechanism Study of Arecae semen Aqueous Extract in Wistar Rats by UPLC-HDMS-Based Serum Metabolomics

Background

Arecae semen (AS) is officially recorded in Chinese Pharmacopoeia and it is known for its multiple functions, including antidepressive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cholesterol-lowering effects, which have been confirmed by modern pharmacological study. Previous study in our laboratory showed that long-term oral administration of Arecae semen (AS) is officially recorded in Chinese Pharmacopoeia and it is known for its multiple functions, including antidepressive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cholesterol-lowering effects, which have been confirmed by modern pharmacological study. Previous study in our laboratory showed that long-term oral administration of Hypothesis. The aim of this work was to characterize the metabolome, evaluate the metabolic changes, and study the mechanisms of the toxicity induced by different treatment doses of ASAE via metabolomics.

Methods

Wistar rats were administered orally two different doses of ASAE (1500 and 4500 mg/kg/d) for 30 days. The investigation was carried out to evaluate the safety of ASAE. And, the UPLC-HDMS-based serum metabolomics in conjunction with multivariate statistical techniques was applied to investigate the serum metabolite profile and potential markers of toxicity induced by different doses of ASAE.

Results

Coupled with blood biochemistry and histopathology results, the significant difference in metabolic profiling was observed between 1500 and 4500 mg/kg/d dosages of ASAE-treated rats and normal rats by using pattern recognition analysis, indicating that changes in serum metabolites must have occurred. Some significant changed metabolites such as arachidonic acid, linoleic acid, stearic acid, and LPC (18 : 1) have been found and identified. These biochemical changes in serum metabolites are related to the perturbation of linoleic acid metabolism, arachidonic acid metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism, and purine metabolism, which may be helpful to further understand the cardiotoxicity and neurotoxicity of ASAE.

Conclusion

The study shows that the metabolomic method may be a valuable tool for studying the essence of toxicity induced by traditional Chinese medicine.

A Metabonomics Approach to Drug Toxicology in Liver Disease and its Application in Traditional Chinese Medicine

BACKGROUND

The progression of liver disease causes metabolic transformation in vivo and thus affects corresponding endogenous small molecular compounds. Metabonomics is a powerful technology which is able to assess global low-molecular-weight endogenous metabolites in a biological system. This review is intended to provide an overview of a metabonomics approach to the drug toxicology of diseases of the liver.

METHODS

The regulation of, and relationship between, endogenous metabolites and diseases of the liver is discussed in detail. Furthermore, the metabolic pathways involved in drug interventions of liver diseases are reviewed. Evaluation of the protective mechanisms of traditional Chinese medicine in liver diseases using metabonomics is also reviewed. Examples of applications of metabolite profiling concerning biomarker discovery are highlighted. In addition, new developments and future prospects are described.

RESULTS

Metabonomics can measure changes in metabolism relating to different stages of liver disease, so metabolic differences can provide a basis for the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of various diseases.

CONCLUSION

Metabonomics has great advantages in all aspects of the therapy of liver diseases, with good prospects for clinical application.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation mediates kidney disease and renal cell carcinoma

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a well-known ligand-activated cytoplasmic transcription factor that contributes to cellular responses against environmental toxins and carcinogens. AhR is activated by a range of structurally diverse compounds from the environment, microbiome, natural products, and host metabolism, suggesting that AhR possesses a rather promiscuous ligand binding site. Increasing studies have indicated that AhR can be activated by a variety of endogenous ligands and induce the expression of a battery of genes. AhR regulates a variety of physiopathological events, including cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, adhesion and migration. These new roles have expanded our understanding of the AhR signalling pathways and endogenous metabolites interacting with AhR under homeostatic and pathological conditions. Recent studies have demonstrated that AhR is linked to cardiovascular disease (CVD), chronic kidney disease (CKD) and renal cell carcinoma (RCC). In this review, we summarize gut microbiota-derived ligands inducing AhR activity in patients with CKD, CVD, diabetic nephropathy and RCC that may provide a new diagnostic and prognostic approach for complex renal damage. We further highlight polyphenols from natural products as AhR agonists or antagonists that regulate AhR activity. A better understanding of structurally diverse polyphenols and AhR biological activities would allow us to illuminate their molecular mechanism and discover potential therapeutic strategies targeting AhR activation.

Discrimination of Different Parts of Saffron by Metabolomic-Based Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with High-Definition Mass Spectrometry

In this study, the metabolite profiling of three different parts of Crocus sativus L. was measured by using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTof-MS/MS). Multivariate statistical analysis was used to distinguish among the samples from different parts. A total of 54 compounds were identified in tepals, stigmas and stamens by UPLC-QTof-MS/MS. The results stated that chemical characteristics of saffron were obviously diverse in terms of the parts of flower. Through analysis, coniferin and crocin-2 were special components in stigmas when compared to tepals and stamens. The content of flavonoids was high in tepals when compared with the stigmas. The tepal of saffron may processed as a source of flavonoids in the future. The research provided the basis for the theory that only the stigma can be used as medicine.

Redox signaling in aging kidney and opportunity for therapeutic intervention through natural products

Kidney diseases are serious public problems with high morbidity and mortality in the general population and heavily retard renal function with aging regardless of the cause. Although myriad strategies have been assigned to prevent or harness disease progression, unfortunately, thus far, there is a paucity of effective therapies partly due to an insufficient knowledge of underlying pathological mechanisms, indicating deeper studies are urgently needed. Additionally, natural products are increasingly recognized as an alternative source for disease intervention owing to the potent safety and efficacy, which might be exploited for novel drug discovery. In this review, we primarily expatiate the new advances on mediators that might be amenable to targeting aging kidney and kidney diseases, including nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), renin-angiotensin system (RAS), nuclear factor-erythroid 2 related factor 2 (Nrf2), peroxisome proliferator-activated γ receptor (PPARγ), advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) as well as microRNAs and vitagenes. Of note, we conclude by highlighting some natural products which have the potential to facilitate the development of novel treatment for patients with myriad renal diseases.

Chronic kidney disease: Biomarker diagnosis to therapeutic targets

Chronic kidney disease (CKD), characterized as renal dysfunction, is recognized as a major public health problem with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Unfortunately, there are no obvious clinical symptoms in early stage disease until severe damage has occurred. Further complicating early diagnosis and treatment is the lack of sensitive and specific biomarkers. As such, novel biomarkers are urgently needed. Metabolomics has shown an increasing potential for identifying underlying disease mechanisms, facilitating clinical diagnosis and developing pharmaceutical treatments for CKD. Recent advances in metabolomics revealed that CKD was closely associated with the dysregulation of numerous metabolites, such as amino acids, lipids, nucleotides and glycoses, that might be exploited as potential biomarkers. In this review, we summarize recent metabolomic applications based on animal model studies and in patients with CKD and highlight several biomarkers that may play important roles in diagnosis, intervention and development of new therapeutic strategies.

Dietary natural flavonoids treating cancer by targeting aryl hydrocarbon receptor

The role of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) as a ligand-activated transcription factor in the field of cancer has gradually been unveiled. A strong body of evidence indicated that AhR is implicated in cell proliferation and apoptosis, immune metabolism and other processes, which further affected tumor growth, survival, migration, and invasion. Therefore, AhR targeted therapy may become a new method for cancer treatment and provide a new direction for clinical tumor treatment. Astonishingly, the largest source of exposure of animals and humans to AhR ligands (synthetic and natural) comes from the diet. Myriad studies have described that various natural dietary chemicals can directly activate and/or inhibit the AhR signaling pathway. Of note, numerous natural products contribute to AhR active, of which dietary flavonoids are the largest class of natural AhR ligands. As interest in AhR and its ligands increases, it seems sensible to summarize current research on these ligands. In this review, we highlight the role of AhR in tumorigenesis and focus on the double effect of AhR in cancer therapy. We explored the molecular mechanism of AhR ligands on cancer through a few AhR agonists/antagonists currently in clinical practice. Ultimately, we summarize and highlight the latest progression of dietary flavonoids as AhR ligands in cancer inhibition, including the limitations and deficiencies of it in clinical research. This review will offer a comprehensive understanding of AhR and its dietary ligands which may dramatically pave the way for targeted cancer treatment.

Combined melatonin and poricoic acid A inhibits renal fibrosis through modulating the interaction of Smad3 and β-catenin pathway in AKI-to-CKD continuum

Background:

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is one of the major risk factors for progression to chronic kidney disease (CKD) and renal fibrosis. However, effective therapies remain poorly understood. Here, we examined the renoprotective effects of melatonin and poricoic acid A (PAA) isolated from the surface layer of Poria cocos, and investigated the effects of combined therapy on the interaction of TGF-β/Smad and Wnt/β-catenin in a rat model of renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) and hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) or TGF-β1-induced HK-2 cells.

Methods:

Western blot and immunohistochemical staining were used to examine protein expression, while qRT-PCR was used to examine mRNA expression. Coimmunoprecipitation, chromatin immunoprecipitation, RNA interference, and luciferase reporter gene analysis were employed to explore the mechanisms of PAA and melatonin’s renoprotective effects.

Results:

PAA and combined therapy exhibited renoprotective and antifibrotic effects, but the underlying mechanisms were different during AKI-to-CKD continuum. Melatonin suppressed Smad-dependent and Smad-independent pathways, while PAA selectively inhibited Smad3 phosphorylation through distrupting the interactions of Smad3 with TGFβRI and SARA. Further studies demonstrated that the inhibitory effects of melatonin and PAA were partially depended on Smad3, especially PAA. Melatonin and PAA also inhibited the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and its profibrotic downstream targets, and PAA performed better. We further determined that IRI induced a nuclear Smad3/β-catenin complex, while melatonin and PAA disturbed the interaction of Smad3 and β-catenin, and supplementing with PAA could enhance the inhibitory effects of melatonin on the TGF-β/Smad and Wnt/β-catenin pathways.

Conclusions:

Combined melatonin and PAA provides a promising therapeutic strategy to treat renal fibrosis during the AKI-to-CKD continuum.

The Matrix Metalloproteinase-13 Inhibitor Poricoic Acid ZI Ameliorates Renal Fibrosis by Mitigating Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition

SCOPE

Fibrosis plays a key role in the progression of various diseases. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are important for epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which contributes to organ fibrosis. Four new poricoic acids are identified, poricoic acid ZI, ZJ, ZK, and ZL, as novel MMP inhibitors from edible mushroom Poria cocos.

METHODS

Molecular docking, siRNA techniques, TGF-β1-treated renal cells, and unilateral ureteral obstructed (UUO) mice are used to explore the potential efficacy of the novel MMP inhibitors in mitigating the fibrotic process.

RESULTS

Treatment with four poricoic acids downregulates profibrotic protein expression in TGF-β1-induced HK-2 cells. Similar results are observed in NRK-52E and NRK-49F cells, indicating that poricoic acids can suppress EMT. Furthermore, both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrate that poricoic acid ZI (PZI) exerts a stronger inhibitory effect on protein expression and enzymatic activity of MMP-13 than the other three compounds, which is consistent with the docking results. The inhibitory effect of PZI on MMP-13 is partially attenuated by MMP-13 RNAi in HK-2 cells and UUO mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that as a specific MMP-13 inhibitor, PZI attenuates EMT and renal fibrosis. Therefore, the MMP-13 inhibitor PZI can be a novel therapeutic candidate for limiting EMT and renal fibrosis.

Zhen-wu-tang ameliorates membranous nephropathy rats through inhibiting NF-κB pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome

BACKGROUND

Zhen-wu-tang (ZWT), a traditional herbal formula, has been widely used for the treatment of kidney diseases in clinics, but the underlying molecular mechanisms have not been fully understood.

PURPOSE

Inflammation mediated podocyte injury has been reported to constitute a crucial part in the pathogenesis of membranous nephropathy (MN). The current study was designed to evaluate the effect of ZWT on MN related to nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome.

METHODS

The main components of ZWT were identified by 3D-ultra performance liquid chromatography (3D-UPLC) assay. A MN rat model induced by cationic-bovine serum albumin (C-BSA) and podocytes stimulated by TNF-α were used in this study. The 24 h urine protein, serum total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG), as well as kidney histology were measured to evaluate kidney damage. The expressions of IgG and complement 3 (C3), and the co-localization of NLRP3 and ASC were detected by immunofluorescence. The expressions of podocyte injury related protein desmin, podocin were measured by immunohistochemistry and western blot. Cell vitality of cultured podocytes was detected by MTT assay, as apoptosis assay was measured via flow cytometry. The protein expressions of p-p65, p-IκBα, NLRP3, Caspase-1, IL-1β were detected by western blot.

RESULTS

Our results showed that ZWT significantly ameliorated kidney damage in MN model rats by decreasing the levels of 24 h urine protein, TC and TG. ZWT also improved renal histology and reduced the expressions of IgG and C3 in glomerulus. In addition, ZWT lessened the expressions of desmin, but increased podocin expression in vivo and vitro. ZWT protected cultured podocytes by maintaining cell vitality and inhibiting apoptosis. Moreover, we found that ZWT suppressed the expressions of NLRP3, Caspase-1, IL-1β and the co-localization of NLRP3 and ASC. Furthermore, the inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome under ZWT treatment were accompanied by down-regulation of NF-κB pathway, as the p-p65 and p-IκBα protein expression were reduced.

CONCLUSIONS

Our present study indicates that the inhibition of NF-κB pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome might be the potential mechanisms for the therapeutic effects of ZWT against MN.

Microbiome-metabolomics reveals gut microbiota associated with glycine-conjugated metabolites and polyamine metabolism in chronic kidney disease

Dysbiosis of the gut microbiome and related metabolites in chronic kidney disease (CKD) have been intimately associated with the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases. Unfortunately, thus far, there is a paucity of sufficient knowledge of gut microbiome and related metabolites on CKD progression partly due to the severely limited investigations. Using a 5/6 nephrectomized (NX) rat model, we carried out 16S rRNA sequence and untargeted metabolomic analyses to explore the relationship between colon's microbiota and serum metabolites. Marked decline in microbial diversity and richness was accompanied by significant changes in 291 serum metabolites, which were mediated by altered enzymatic activities and dysregulations of lipids, amino acids, bile acids and polyamines metabolisms. Interestingly, CCr was directly associated with some microbial genera and polyamine metabolism. However, SBP was directly related to certain microbial genera and glycine-conjugated metabolites in CKD rats. Administration of poricoic acid A (PAA) and Poria cocos (PC) ameliorated microbial dysbiosis as well as attenuated hypertension and renal fibrosis. In addition, treatments with PAA and PC lowered serum levels of microbial-derived products including glycine-conjugated compounds and polyamine metabolites. Collectively, the present study confirmed the CKD-associated gut microbial dysbiosis and identified a novel dietary and therapeutic strategy to improve the gut microbial dysbiosis and the associated metabolomic disorders and retarded the progression of kidney disease in the rat model of CKD.

Small molecule inhibitors of epithelial-mesenchymal transition for the treatment of cancer and fibrosis

Tissue fibrosis and cancer both lead to high morbidity and mortality worldwide; thus, effective therapeutic strategies are urgently needed. Because drug resistance has been widely reported in fibrotic tissue and cancer, developing a strategy to discover novel targets for targeted drug intervention is necessary for the effective treatment of fibrosis and cancer. Although many factors lead to fibrosis and cancer, pathophysiological analysis has demonstrated that tissue fibrosis and cancer share a common process of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT is associated with many mediators, including transcription factors (Snail, zinc-finger E-box-binding protein and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3), signaling pathways (transforming growth factor-β1, RAC-α serine/threonine-protein kinase, Wnt, nuclear factor-kappa B, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, Notch, and RAS), RNA-binding proteins (ESRP1 and ESRP2) and microRNAs. Therefore, drugs targeting EMT may be a promising therapy against both fibrosis and tumors. A large number of compounds that are synthesized or derived from natural products and their derivatives suppress the EMT by targeting these mediators in fibrosis and cancer. By targeting EMT, these compounds exhibited anticancer effects in multiple cancer types, and some of them also showed antifibrotic effects. Therefore, drugs targeting EMT not only have both antifibrotic and anticancer effects but also exert effective therapeutic effects on multiorgan fibrosis and cancer, which provides effective therapy against fibrosis and cancer. Taken together, the results highlighted in this review provide new concepts for discovering new antifibrotic and antitumor drugs.

Insights into Triterpene Acids in Fermented Mycelia of Edible Fungus Poria cocos by a Comparative Study

As an edible sclerotia-forming fungus, Poria cocos is widely used as a food supplement and as a tonic in China. High-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) was applied to identify triterpene acids in fermented mycelia of P. cocos, as well as the epidermis and inner part of natural sclerotia. A total of 19 triterpene acids were identified in fermented mycelia, whereas 31 were identified in the epidermis and 24 in the inner part. Nine triterpene acids were quantitatively determined, and the concentrations of two valuable triterpenes, dehydropachymic acid and pachymic acid, reached 1.07 mg/g and 0.61 mg/g in the fermented mycelia part, respectively, and were both significantly higher than the concentration in the two natural parts. The fermented mycelia could be a good choice for producing some target triterpene compounds and functional foods through fermentation thanks to the high concentration of some triterpene acids.

Identification of serum metabolites associating with chronic kidney disease progression and anti-fibrotic effect of 5-methoxytryptophan

Early detection and accurate monitoring of chronic kidney disease (CKD) could improve care and retard progression to end-stage renal disease. Here, using untargeted metabolomics in 2155 participants including patients with stage 1–5 CKD and healthy controls, we identify five metabolites, including 5-methoxytryptophan (5-MTP), whose levels strongly correlate with clinical markers of kidney disease. 5-MTP levels decrease with progression of CKD, and in mouse kidneys after unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). Treatment with 5-MTP ameliorates renal interstitial fibrosis, inhibits IκB/NF-κB signaling, and enhances Keap1/Nrf2 signaling in mice with UUO or ischemia/reperfusion injury, as well as in cultured human kidney cells. Overexpression of tryptophan hydroxylase-1 (TPH-1), an enzyme involved in 5-MTP synthesis, reduces renal injury by attenuating renal inflammation and fibrosis, whereas TPH-1 deficiency exacerbates renal injury and fibrosis by activating NF-κB and inhibiting Nrf2 pathways. Together, our results suggest that TPH-1 may serve as a target in the treatment of CKD.

Accurate monitoring of chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression is essential for efficient disease management. Here Chen et al. identify five serum metabolites in patients with stage 1–5 CKD whose levels associate with disease progression, and find that 5-methoxytryptophan and its regulatory enzyme TPH-1 exert anti-fibrotic effects in mouse models of kidney injury.

Poricoic acid A enhances melatonin inhibition of AKI-to-CKD transition by regulating Gas6/AxlNFκB/Nrf2 axis

Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a complex syndrome, which causes chronic kidney disease (CKD) after recovery from IRI-mediated acute kidney injury (AKI). There is no single therapy that could effectively prevent the renal injury after ischemia. In this study, the effects of melatonin or poricoic acid A (PAA) and their combination were investigated in protecting against AKI-to-CKD transition in rats and hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R)-induced injury in cultured renal NRK-52E cells. Melatonin and PAA significantly reduced the magnitude of rise in serum creatinine and urea levels in IRI rats at days 3 and 14. Our results further showed that treatment with melatonin and PAA ameliorated renal fibrosis and podocyte injury by attenuating oxidative stress and inflammation via regulation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathways in IRI rats. Melatonin and PAA protected against AKI-to-CKD transition by regulating growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6)/AxlNFκB/Nrf2 signaling cascade. Melatonin and PAA initiallyupregulated Gas6/Axl signaling to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation in AKI and subsequently downregulated Gas6/Axl signaling to attenuate renal fibrosis and progression to CKD. Melatonin and PAA inhibited expression of extracellular matrix proteins. Poricoic acid A enhances melatonin-mediated inhibition of AKI-to-CKD transition by the regulating Gas6/AxlNFκB/Nrf2 signaling cascade. Notably, our study first identified Axl as a promising therapeutic target for prevention of AKI-to-CKD transition.

Production of a novel Poria cocos immunomodulatory protein in Pichia pastoris: cloning, expression, purification and activities assays

In this study, the cDNA of immunomodulatory protein from Poria cocos (PCP) was amplified by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and used to transform P. Pastoris cells, resulting in rPCP expression as a secreted protein to a concentration of ~ 38 mg/L following methanol induction in shake flasks. Approximately 1.6 mg of high purity rPCP was obtained from a 100-mL culture by Ni⁺-affinity chromatography, and sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis results indicated rPCP as a homologous dimer glycoprotein formed by different molecular-weight monomers. Peptide-N-glycosidase F-mediated deglycosylation analysis showed the presence of an N-glycosylated rPCP monomer, and bioactivity assays showed that rPCP activity upregulated tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin-1β transcription and increased TNF-α secretion from mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. Shortly, we demonstrated successful purification of active rPCP from P. pastoris, which promoted further study of its biological activities and medical applications.

Metabolomic evaluation of Euphorbia pekinensis induced nephrotoxicity in rats

CONTEXT

Euphorbia pekinensis Rupr. (Euphorbiaceae) has long been used in the Orient, while its clinical use was limited due to its nephrotoxic effect.

OBJECTIVE

The possible mechanism of nephrotoxicity of Euphorbia pekinensis (EPR) and its related constituents were investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Petroleum ether (PE), acetic ether (AE) and n-butanol (BUT) extracted sections of EPR were separately given to Wistar rats by gavage at the dose of 3 g/kg/day for 10 weeks to determine the nephrotoxic section of EPR. Then, renal metabolic profiling of EPR after oral administration of nephrotoxic section was investigated and its related constituents were identified by LC/Q-TOF-MS method.

RESULTS

The average values of creatinine (CREA) in PE, AE, BUT and control groups were 76.54 ± 9.52, 54.12 ± 10.34, 51.33 ± 5.19 and 48.23 ± 6.67 μmol/L. The average values of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in PE, AE, BUT and control groups were 15.25 ± 3.37, 8.32 ± 0.89, 9.22 ± 1.78 and 8.47 ± 1.33 mmol/L, respectively. Only kidney section of rats in PE group showed that glomeruli had cellular or fibrocellular crescents. Renal metabolic profiling showed disturbed metabolic pathways of purine, amino acid, phospholipids and sphingolipids in EPR nephrotoxicity. A total of 25 compounds [(-)-(1S)-15-hydroxy-18-carboxycembrene is a new compound] in PE section and 10 compounds in rat serum after administration of PE section were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first time that the toxic compounds of PER and action mechanism of EPR nephrotoxicity were explored to provide a new reference for studying the toxic components of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).

Natural products for the prevention and treatment of kidney disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is one of the common causes resulting in a high morbidity and mortality. Renal fibrosis is the main pathological features of CKD. Natural products have begun to gain widely popularity worldwide for promoting healthcare and preventing CKD, and have been used as a conventional or complementary therapy for CKD treatment.

PURPOSE

The present paper reviewed the therapeutic effects of natural products on CKD and revealed the molecular mechanisms of their anti-fibrosis.

METHODS

All the available information on natural products against renal fibrosis was collected via a library and electronic search (using Web of Science, Pubmed, ScienceDirect, Splinker, etc.).

RESULTS

Accumulated evidence demonstrated that natural products exhibited the beneficial effects for CKD treatment and against renal fibrosis. This review presents an overview of the molecular mechanism of CKD and natural products against renal fibrosis, followed by an in-depth discussion of their molecular mechanism of natural products including isolated compounds and crude extracts against renal fibrosis in vitro and in vivo. A number of isolated compounds have been confirmed to retard renal fibrosis.

CONCLUSION

The review provides comprehensive insights into pathophysiological mechanisms of CKD and natural products against renal fibrosis. Particular challenges are presented and placed within the context of future applications of natural products against renal fibrosis.

A UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of eight triterpene compounds from Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf extract in rat plasma: Application to a comparative pharmacokinetic study

Poria cum Radix Pini (PRP), White Poria (WP), Rubra Poria (RP), and Poriae Cutis (PC), different parts of the dried sclerotium of Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf (PCW), have possessed various pharmacological effects and clinical application. In the present study, a novel ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of eight triterpene compounds in rat plasma and then was applied in the comparison of pharmacokinetic characteristics of PRP, WP, RP, and PC extracts. Chromatographic separation was performed on an ACQUITY UPLC® BEH C₁₈ (2.1 × 100 mm, 5 μm) with a mobile phase composed of aqueous solution (containing 0.5‰ formic acid and 0.5 mmol/L ammonium acetate) and acetonitrile in gradient elution. Mass spectrometric of the analytes and internal standard (IS) were conducted in negative electrospray ionization with high-resolution multiple reaction monitoring (MRM^HR) mode. The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) for the eight analytes were in the range of 2.00-20.16 ng/mL. All calibration curves showed good linearity (r > 0.993). The inter- and intra-batch precision and accuracy for the eight triterpene compounds were acceptable. The results indicated that the eight triterpene compounds displayed different pharmacokinetic characteristics in PRP, WP, RP, and PC, and that poricoic acid B, poricoic acid A, pachymic acid, dehydrotrametenolic acid, dehydrotumulosic acid, polyporenic acid C and dehydropachymic acid may be the major bioactive compounds of PCW contributing to the diuretic effect.

Renoprotective effect of Zhenwu decoction against renal fibrosis by regulation of oxidative damage and energy metabolism disorder

Zhenwu decoction (ZWD) is a promising traditional Chinese prescription against renal fibrosis, while its underlying mechanism remains unclear. Rat model of renal fibrosis were established and divided into control group, model group, ZWD treatment group and enalapril maleate treatment group. Metabolic profiles on serum samples from each group were acquired by using ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight high-resolution mass spectrometry. Metabolomics combined with molecular biology were comparatively conducted on samples of various groups. Fifteen potential biomarkers were identified and these biomarkers are mainly phospholipids and fatty acids. The results showed renal fibrosis was associated with oxidative damage and energy metabolism disorder. The results of histopathology, biochemistry and metabolomics demonstrated that ZWD exhibited an efficient renoprotective effect by alleviating oxidative stress, increasing energy metabolism and regulating fibrotic cytokines. This study provided scientific support for the research and development of new drugs from traditional Chinese medicine.

Metabolomic profiling of rat urine after oral administration of the prescription antipyretic Hao Jia Xu Re Qing Granules by UPLC/Q-TOF-MS

Hao Jia Xu Re Qing Granules (HJ), is an effective clinically used antipyretic based on traditional Chinese medicine. Although its antipyretic therapeutic effectiveness is obvious, its therapeutic mechanism has not been comprehensively explored yet. In this research, we first identified potential biomarkers which may be relevant for the antipyretic effect of HJ based on urine metabolomics using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS). A rat model of fever was established using the yeast-induced febrile response. Total-ion-current metabolic profiles of different groups were acquired and the data were processed by multivariate statistical analysis-partial least-squares discriminant analysis. As envisioned, the results revealed changes of urine metabolites related to the antipyretic effect. Fourteen potential biomarkers were selected from the urine samples based on the results of Student's t-test, "shrinkage t", variable importance in projection and partial least-squares discriminant analysis. N-Acetylleucine, kynurenic acid, indole-3-ethanol, nicotinuric acid, pantothenic acid and tryptophan were the most significant biomarkers found in the urine samples, and may be crucially related to the antipyretic effect of HJ. Consequently, we propose the hypothesis that the significant antipyretic effect the HJ may be related to the inhibition of tryptophan metabolism. This research thus provides strong theoretical support and further direction to explain the antipyretic mechanism of HJ, laying the foundation for future studies.

New insights into TGF-β/Smad signaling in tissue fibrosis

Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) is considered as a crucial mediator in tissue fibrosis and causes tissue scarring largely by activating its downstream small mother against decapentaplegic (Smad) signaling. Different TGF-β signalings play different roles in fibrogenesis. TGF-β1 directly activates Smad signaling which triggers pro-fibrotic gene overexpression. Excessive studies have demonstrated that dysregulation of TGF-β1/Smad pathway was an important pathogenic mechanism in tissue fibrosis. Smad2 and Smad3 are the two major downstream regulator that promote TGF-β1-mediated tissue fibrosis, while Smad7 serves as a negative feedback regulator of TGF-β1/Smad pathway thereby protects against TGF-β1-mediated fibrosis. This review presents an overview of the molecular mechanisms of TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway in renal, hepatic, pulmonary and cardiac fibrosis, followed by an in-depth discussion of their molecular mechanisms of intervention effects both in vitro and in vivo. The role of TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway in tumor or cancer is also discussed. Additionally, the current advances also highlight targeting TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway for the prevention of tissue fibrosis. The review reveals comprehensive pathophysiological mechanisms of tissue fibrosis. Particular challenges are presented and placed within the context of future applications against tissue fibrosis.

Novel inhibitors of the cellular renin-angiotensin system components, poricoic acids, target Smad3 phosphorylation and Wnt/β-catenin pathway against renal fibrosis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Tubulo-interstitial fibrosis is the final pathway in the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) to kidney failure. The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays a major role in CKD progression. Hence, we determined the efficacy of novel RAS inhibitors isolated from Poria cocos against renal fibrosis.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Effects of three novel tetracyclic triterpenoid compounds, poricoic acid ZC (PZC), poricoic acid ZD (PZD) and poricoic acid ZE (PZE), were investigated on TGFβ1- and angiotensin II (AngII)-treated HK-2 cells and unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) in mice. Immunofluorescence staining, quantitative real-time PCR, siRNA, co-immunoprecipitation and Western blot analyses were used to evaluate expression of key molecules in RAS, Wnt/β-catenin and TGFβ/Smad pathways.

KEY RESULTS

Addition of the above compounds to culture media and their administration to UUO mice: (i) significantly attenuated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and extracellular matrix production in TGFβ1- and AngII-treated HK-2 cells and UUO mice by inhibiting Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation and Smad3 phosphorylation; (ii) selectively inhibited Smad3 phosphorylation by blocking the interaction of TGFBR1 with Smad3; and (iii) specifically inhibited Smad3 activation. PZC and PZD showed a strong inhibitory effect on all RAS components, and PZE showed a strong inhibitory effect on renin. Furthermore, the secolanostane tetracyclic triterpenoids, PZC and PZD, showed a stronger inhibitory effect than the lanostane tetracyclic triterpenoid PZE. Therefore, compounds with secolanostance skeleton showed stronger bioactivity than those with lanostance skeleton.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The secolanostane tetracyclic triterpenoids effectively blocked RAS by simultaneously targeting multiple RAS components and lanostane tetracyclic triterpenoids inhibited renin and protected against tubulo-interstitial fibrosis.

Molecular mechanism of Poria cocos combined with oxaliplatin on the inhibition of epithelial-mesenchymal transition in gastric cancer cells

PURPOSE

Natural product Poria cocos possesses antitumor effect. This study will explore the molecular mechanism of Poria cocos combined with chemotherapy in the inhibition of gastric cancer cell EMT process.

METHODS

The experiment was divided into blank control group, Poria cocos group, oxaliplatin group and Poria cocos combined with oxaliplatin group. Scratch and Transwell assay were used to detect cell migration and invasion respectively. RT-qPCR and Western Blot analyses were used to detect mRNA and protein expression of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) related factors including Snail, Twist, Vimentin, E-cadherin and N-cadherin respectively. Morphologic assessment was performed with HPIAS-1000 automated image analysis system.

RESULTS

The migration and invasion abilities of gastric cancer cells in the Poria cocos combined with oxaliplatin group were significantly decreased (P < 0.01). The mRNA and protein expression of Snail, Twist, Vimentin and N-cadherin were significantly decreased while the mRNA and protein expression of E-cadherin were significantly increased (P < 0.01) compared with blank control group. Nude mice model of gastric cancer was successfully established. Poria cocos combined with oxaliplatin could significantly inhibit gastric tumor progression. The expression of EMT related factors were consistent with in vitro study. Morphologic assessment showed that the nucleus area, perimeter, mean diameter, volume, long diameter and shape factor in the Poria cocos combined with oxaliplatin group were significantly different compared with the blank control group (P < 0.01) but not significantly different compared with the normal control.

CONCLUSIONS

Poria cocos combined with oxaliplatin could significantly inhibit the migration and invasion of gastric cancer cells. Through both in vitro and in vivo studies, it is confirmed that Poria cocos combined with oxaliplatin could significantly inhibit the EMT process of gastric cancer. Poria cocos combined with oxaliplatin could significantly affect the morphology changes of gastric cancer cells. These findings may provide a theoretical guidance for the clinical treatment of gastric cancer.

Metabolic profiles revealed anti-ischemia-reperfusion injury of Yangxinshi tablet in Rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is a serious injury that is resulted from the recovery of blood supply after myocardial ischemia. Yangxinshi tablet is a compound Chinese herbal preparation and often used to alleviate the myocardial ischemia in clinical, but its protective mechanism of anti-myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury remains unclear. The objective of this study was to evaluate the anti-I/R injury effect of Yangxinshi tablet on a myocardial I/R rat model and to identify serum biomarker metabolites associated with I/R based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF/MS) metabolomic method, and explore the metabolic mechanism of anti-I/R injury of Yangxinshi tablet.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Unsupervised principle component analysis highlighted significant differences in the metabolome of the myocardial I/R, healthy control and drug-treated rats. Partial least squares-discriminant analysis revealed 25 metabolites as the most potential biomarker metabolites discriminating the myocardial I/R rats and control rats. Most of the metabolites were primarily involved in oxidative stress, energy metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, amino acid metabolism. These metabolites were validated by assessing the efficacy after intragastric administration of Yangxinshit ablet to the myocardial I/R rat model.

RESULTS

Based on metabolomic results, the action mechanism of anti-I/R injury of Yangxinshi tablet was concluded as follows: (1) enhance the ability of scavenging free radicals and reactive oxygen species in vivo; (2) provide energy for myocardium via accelerating the intracellular carnitine transportion to accelerate the oxidation of fatty acid and (3) attenuate ceramide to reduce cardiomyocyte apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Yangxinshi tablet has cardio-protection effects on I/R rats via regulation of multiple metabolic pathways involving in oxidative stress, energy metabolism, fatty acid, and amino acid metabolisms. This study will be meaningful for its clinical application and valuable for further exploring the action mechanism of Yangxinshi tablet.

Zhen-wu-tang protects against podocyte injury in rats with IgA nephropathy via PPARγ/NF-κB pathway

Zhen-wu-tang (ZWT) has been widely applied in chronic kidney diseases. However, the mechanism of ZWT remains unclear. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors-γ (PPARγ) is known as a protective factor for podocyte and kidney function. This study is aimed to investigate the protective effects of ZWT on IgA nephropathy (IgAN) in rats against podocyte injury and the underlying mechanism related to PPARγ. IgAN model rats were induced by administering bovine serum albumin, lipopolysaccharide, and carbon tetrachloride. ZWT at two doses and GW9662 (PPARγ antagonist) was administered once daily for 4 weeks respectively. Cultured podocyte induced by LPS were used to evaluate the podocyte-protective effect and related mechanism of ZWT in vitro. Results showed that ZWT observably reduced proteinuria and hematuria excretion, as well as the levels of blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, serum uric acid, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol and triglycerides, but increased the contents of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, ameliorating renal function and hyperlipidemia state in IgAN rats. Besides, both ZWT administration groups alleviated kidney pathological lesion, macrophage infiltration, IgA and C3 deposition in glomeruli. To further demonstrate the protective effects of ZWT, we found that podocyte damage was markedly ameliorated with ZWT treatments in IgAN rats and LPS-induced podocyte injury model by suppressing the expressions of desmin, reducing podocyte apoptosis and augmenting nephrin and podocin levels. Moreover, ZWT inhibited the phosphorylation of NF-κB and IκBα, simultaneously upregulated PPARγ. However, GW9662 made no difference in all the above effects compared to the model group, and was reversed by ZWT in vitro study. In conclusion, these results demonstrated that ZWT ameliorated IgAN-induced podocyte injury via upregulation PPARγ and the underlying mechanism might involve the inhibition of NF-κB pathway.

Novel RAS Inhibitors Poricoic Acid ZG and Poricoic Acid ZH Attenuate Renal Fibrosis via a Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway and Targeted Phosphorylation of smad3 Signaling

Renal fibrosis is a common end point of the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Suppressing the development and progression of renal fibrosis is essential in the treatment of kidney disease. Our previous study demonstrated that the ethyl acetate extract of the surface layer of Poria cocos exhibited beneficial antitubulointerstitial fibrosis. In this study, we isolated new diterpene (PZF) and triterpenes (PZG and PZH) and examined their antifibrotic effect. TGF-β1 upregulated the collagen I protein expression in HK-2 cells, and PZG and PZH treatment significantly inhibited the upregulated collagen I expression (TGF group 0.59 ± 0.08 vs TGF+PZG group 0.36 ± 0.08, P < 0.01; TGF+PZH group 0.39 ± 0.12, P < 0.01). Triterpenes, PZG and PZH, exhibited a stronger inhibitory effect on renal fibrosis and podocyte injury than PZF. PZG and PZH further showed a stronger inhibitory effect on the activation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) than PZF. Additionally, PZG and PZH markedly inhibited the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, which played an important role in fibrogenesis. Interestingly, PZG and PZH suppressed the TGF-β/Smad pathway by selectively inhibiting the phosphorylation of Smad3 through blocking the interactions of SARA with TGFβI and Smad3. The analysis of the structure-activity relationship demonstrated that their antifibrotic effects were closely associated with the first six-membered ring structure and the number of carboxyl groups in this type of compounds. Additionally, fifteen known triterpenes were identified. These novel tetracyclic triterpenoid compounds provided the potential lead compounds for the research and development of antifibrosis drug, and they possessed the potential to be utilized as RAS inhibitors.

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry metabolomic study of lipopolysaccharides toxicity on rat basophilic leukemia cells

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can lead to uncontrollable cytokine production, fatal sepsis syndrome and depression/multiple organ failure, as pathophysiologic demonstration. Various toxic effects of LPS have been extensively reported, mainly on the toxicity of LPS in cellular level, macrophages or tumor cells, etc. This work aimed on the impact of LPS on mast cell metabolism, which focused on LPS-induced cellular metabolic profiles. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) based metabolomics strategy was implemented for the endo-metabolites detection in rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cells, treated with 10 μg/mL LPS for 24 h, along with multiple time-dose tests of cells viability/apoptosis. Significantly changes metabolites were mainly involved the metabolism of glycine, serine, threonine and the biosynthesis of phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan and pentose phosphate pathway. The endo-metabolism results illustrated that LPS treatment led to downregulation of glycine, serine and threonine metabolism besides pentose phosphate pathway in RBL-2H3 cells. This novel insight into LPS cellular metabolism, provides some heuristic guidance for elucidating the underlying mechanism of LPS-mediated disease.

Poricoic acid ZA, a novel RAS inhibitor, attenuates tubulo-interstitial fibrosis and podocyte injury by inhibiting TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

The pathogenesis of tubulo-interstitial fibrosis and glomerulosclerosisis was characterized by cellular hypertrophy, extracellular matrix accumulation and podocyte detachment. Poricoic acid ZA (PZA) is a tetracyclic triterpenoid compound extracted from the surface layer of Poria cocos (LPC), which have been used extensively for diuretic and renoprotective effects.

METHODS

The anti-fibrotic effect of PZA is investigated in HK-2 cells and podocytes induced by TGF-β1 and angiotensin II (ANGII). qRT-PCR, siRNA, immunofluorescence staining, co-immunoprecipitation and Western blot analyses are used to evaluate the expression of RAS signaling, TGF-β/Smad pathway, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and podocyte markers.

RESULTS

PZA restores the mRNA and protein expression of EMT in HK-2 cells. Specific TGF-β1-siRNA efficiently blocks ANGII-induced protein expression of TGF-β1 and further inhibits activated Smad signaling. PZA significantly attenuates up-regulation of angiotensinogen, renin, ACE and AT1. Further, PZA reverses up-regulation of TGFβRII and suppresses Smad proteins. Simultaneously, PZA inhibits the protein interaction of TGF-β receptor and Smads and PZA also inhibits activated RAS and TGF-β/Smad signaling cascade and up-regulates protein expression of podocyte markers and mitigates podocyte injury.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the beneficial role of PZA in renal fibrosis and podocyte injury. Our study highlighted that PZA inhibits RAS and further suppresses TGF-β/Smad pathway through inhibiting Smad2/3 phosphorylation via blocking Smad2/3-TGFβRI protein interaction. PZA is implicated in activation of RAS/TGF-β/Smad axis in HK-2 cells and podocytes. PZA could be considered as a novel RAS inhibitor for treating CKD.

Integrated metabonomic-proteomic studies on blood enrichment effects of Angelica sinensis on a blood deficiency mice model

CONTEXT

Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels (Umbelliferae) (AS) is a well-known Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) that enriches and regulates the blood.

OBJECTIVE

An integrated metabonomic and proteomic method was developed and applied to study the blood enrichment effects and mechanisms of AS on blood deficiency (BD) mouse model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Forty mice were randomly divided into the control, BD, High-dose of AS (ASH), Middle-dose of AS (ASM), and Low-dose of AS (ASL) groups. BD model mice were established by injecting N-acetylphenylhydrazine (APH) and cyclophosphamide (CTX) (ip). The aqueous extract of AS was administered at three dose of 20, 10, or 5 g/kg b. wt. orally for 7 consecutive days before/after APH and CTX administration. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) combined with pattern recognition method and 2D gel electrophoresis (2-DE) proteomics were performed in this study to discover the underlying hematopoietic regulation mechanisms of AS on BD mouse model.

RESULTS

Unlike in the control group, the HSP90 and arginase levels increased significantly (p < 0.05) in the BD group, but the levels of carbonic anhydrase, GAPDH, catalase, fibrinogen, GSTP, carboxylesterase and hem binding protein in the BD group decreased significantly (p < 0.05). Unlike the levels in the BD group, the levels of these biomarkers were regulated to a normal state near the control group in the ASM group. Unlike in the control group, l-alanine, arachidonic acid, l-valine, octadecanoic acid, glycine, hexadecanoic acid, l-threonine, butanoic acid, malic acid, l-proline and propanoic acid levels increased significantly (p < 0.05) in the BD group, the levels of d-fructose in the BD group decreased significantly (p < 0.05). The relative concentrations of 12 endogenous metabolites were also significantly affected by the ASL, ASM, and ASH treatments. Notably, most of the altered BD-related metabolites were restored to normal state after ASM administration.

CONCLUSION

AS can promote hematopoietic activities, inhibit production of reactive oxygen species, regulate energy metabolism, increase antiapoptosis, and potentially contribute to the blood enrichment effects of AS against APH- and CTX-induced BD mice.

Protective Effects of Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis on Glycerol-Induced Acute Renal Failure in Mice

Objective

Oxidative stress and immune response are associated with acute renal failure (ARF). Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis (OL) might be an antioxidant and immunopotentiator. In this study, we explored the protective effects of OL on glycerol-induced ARF.

Methods

Male mice were randomly divided into four groups, specifically, glycerol-induced ARF model group, low-dose OL-treated group (1.0 g/kg/d), high-dose OL-treated group (2.0 g/kg/d), and control group. Renal conditions were evaluated using kidney index, serum creatinine (Cr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and histological analysis. Rhabdomyolysis was monitored using creatine kinase (CK) level. Oxidative stress was determined using kidney tissue glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels. Immune status was evaluated using immune organ indices and immunoglobulin G (IgG) level.

Results

OL could relieve renal pathological injury and decrease the abnormal levels of kidney index, serum Cr, CK, BUN, and MDA, as well as increase the immune organ indices and the levels of IgG, GSH, and SOD. Treatment with a high dose of OL had more positive therapeutic effects on ARF than using a low dose of OL.

Conclusion

OL could ameliorate renal dysfunction in glycerol-induced ARF in mice by inhibiting oxidative stress and enhancing immune response.

Antitumorpharmacological mechanism of the oral liquid of Poriacocos polysaccharide

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The liquid oral formulation of Poria cocos polysaccharides is composed of polysaccharides of Lentinusedodes, Ganodermalucidum and Poria cocos(1:1:2), which are all fungi used in traditional Chinese medicine. Polysaccharides extracted from these fungi have been reported to exhibit an antitumor effect by modulating the immune system.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aimed to clarify the antitumor mechanism of an orally administered liquid containing Poriacocos and to further provide clinical guidance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, the effects of an orally administered liquid containing Poriacocos polysaccharides on the solid tumors formed from sarcoma 180 cells in mice were evaluated. The protein expression of Bcl-2, caspase-3, and caspase-9in the thymus, spleen and liver tissues in the mice was determined by Western blot analysis. In addition, hematoxylin-eosin（H&E）staining and immunohistochemistry were performed on thymus, spleen and liver tissue and the positive staining rate was calculated for the three protein expression.

RESULTS

The liquid oral formulation of Poriacocos polysaccharides reduced Bcl-2 protein levels and increased caspase-3 and -9 protein levels in sarcoma 180 cells.

CONCLUSION

The mechanism underlying the antitumor effects of the oral liquid formulation of Poriacocos polysaccharides involved inhibition of Bcl-2 expression and activation of caspase-9 expression in sarcoma 180 cells. Furthermore, the downstream caspase-3 promoter cascade was activated and cell apoptosis was activated in sarcoma 180 cells.

Erhuang Formula ameliorates renal damage in adenine-induced chronic renal failure rats via inhibiting inflammatory and fibrotic responses

AIMS

The present study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of Erhuang Formula (EHF) and explore its pharmacological mechanisms on adenine-induced chronic renal failure (CRF).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The compounds in EHF were analyzed by HPLC/MS. Adenine-induced CRF rats were administrated by EHF. The effects were evaluated by renal function examination and histology staining. Immunostaining of some proteins related cell adhesion was performedin renal tissues, including E-cadherin, β-catenin, fibronectin and laminin. The qRT-PCR was carried out determination of gene expression related inflammation and fibrosis including NF-κB, TNF-α, TGF-β1, α-SMA and osteopontin (OPN).

RESULTS

Ten compounds in EHF were identified including liquiritigenin, farnesene, vaccarin, pachymic acid, cycloastragenol, astilbin, 3,5,6,7,8,3',4'-heptemthoxyflavone, physcion, emodin and curzerene. Abnormal renal function and histology had significant improvements by EHF treatment. The protein expression of β-catenin, fibronectin and laminin were significantly increased and the protein expression of E-cadherin significantly decreased in CRF groups. However, these protein expressions were restored to normal levels in EHF group. Furthermore, low expression of PPARγ and high expression of NF-κB, TNF-α, TGF-β1, α-SMA and OPN were substantially restored by EHF treatment in a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

EHF ameliorated renal damage in adenine-induced CRF rats, and the mechanisms might involve in the inhibition of inflammatory and fibrotic responses and the regulation of PPARγ, NF-κB and TGF-β signaling pathways.

The disorder metabolic profiling in kidney and spleen of mice induced by mycotoxins deoxynivalenol through gas chromatography mass spectrometry

Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) based metabolomics strategy was implemented for the metabolites detection in kidney and spleen samples of mice, which were treated with 2 mg kg^-1 deoxynivalenol (DON), through intragastric administration for three weeks, for studying the toxicity of DON on the metabolic profiling in kidney and spleen. The spectrum was deconvoluted, aligned and identified with MS DIAL, equipped with Fiehn library. And the data matrix was processed with univariate analysis and multivariate analysis for selection of metabolites with VIP >1, t-test p value < 0.05. The metabolic pathway analysis was analyzed with MetaMapp and drew by CytoScape. Result shows that DON could induce an increased protein synthesis to repair the damaged membrane protein structure, in both kidney and spleen, with decrease of valine, leucine and phenylalanine, et al. essential precursors for protein synthesis and energy production; the energy metabolism in kidney disordered by DON, with the decreasing of ribitol, glycerol 1-phosphate, et al. Furthermore, DON could lead to the disorder in immunity function and nucleotide metabolism in spleen, with decreasing trend of cytidine and alanine.