Photodegradation of selected phthalates on mural painting surfaces under UV light irradiation

Effect of Biofilm Forming on the Migration of Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate from PVC Plastics

Plastic additives, represented by plasticizers, are important components of plastic pollution. Biofilms inevitably form on plastic surfaces when plastic enters the aqueous environment. However, little is known about the effect of biofilms on plastic surfaces on the release of additives therein. In this study, PVC plastics with different levels of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) content were investigated to study the effect of biofilm growth on DEHP release. The presence of biofilms promoted the migration of DEHP from PVC plastics to the external environment. Relative to biofilm-free controls, although the presence of surface biofilm resulted in 0.8 to 11.6 times lower DEHP concentrations in water, the concentrations of the degradation product, monoethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) in water, were 2.3 to 57.3 times higher. When the total release amounts of DEHP in the biofilm and in the water were combined, they were increased by 0.6-73 times after biofilm growth. However, most of the released DEHP was adsorbed in the biofilms and was subsequently degraded. The results of this study suggest that the biofilm as a new interface between plastics and the surrounding environment can affect the transport and transformation of plastic additives in the environment through barrier, adsorption, and degradation. Future research endeavors should aim to explore the transport dynamics and fate of plastic additives under various biofilm compositions as well as evaluate the ecological risks associated with their enrichment by biofilms.

Photodegradation behavior and mechanism of dibutyl phthalate in water under flood discharge atomization

Flood discharge atomization is a prevalent hydraulics phenomenon in reservoir scheduling operations, however, its effect on the migration and transformation behavior of pollutants has not been examined. In this study, the behaviors and mechanisms of the direct photodegradation of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) in atomized water and the indirect photodegradation of DBP in the presence of ferric ions and nitrate were investigated. The results showed that the photodegradation rate of DBP was accelerated under atomization conditions by sunlight irradiation. The photodegradation efficiency of DBP in the presence of ferric ions and nitrate under atomization conditions was increased by 2.20 times and 1.82 times compared with no-atomization conditions, respectively. The quencher experiments indicated that the main active species for DBP photodegradation in the presence of ferric ions were hydroxyl radicals (·OH) and superoxide radicals (·O₂^-) with atomization, while the main active species in the presence of nitrate were ·OH, ·O₂^- and electrons (e^-). In addition, the differences were found in the photodegradation products and pathways of DBP between with and without atomization treatment. In the presence of ferric ions, the benzene ring of DBP was opened to produce fumaric acid, while phthalic acid bis(4-hydroxybutyl) ester was produced in the presence of nitrate under atomization conditions. The results of this study provide a scientific basis for assessing the effect of water conservancy projects on the migration and transformation behaviors of pollutants, which is of great theoretical significance and scientific value.

Review of recent advances on the use of mass spectrometry techniques for the study of organic materials in painted artworks

The study of painted artworks using scientific methods is fundamental for understanding the techniques used in their creation and their appropriate conservation. The ethical constraints involved in the handling of, and sampling from, these objects has steered recent developments in the field of Heritage science towards a range of new non-invasive/non-destructive spectroscopic techniques capable of providing important insights into their elemental or bulk chemical compositions. Due to the inherent complexities of heritage artefacts, however, their organic components are especially difficult to study in this way and their identification and degradation pathways are thus often best investigated using mass spectrometric (MS) techniques. The versatility, sensitivity and specificity of MS techniques are constantly increasing, with technological advances pushing the boundaries of their use in this field. The progress in the past ten years in the use of MS techniques for the analysis of paint media are described in the present review. While some historical context is included, the body of the review is structured around the five most widely used or emerging capabilities offered by MS. The first pertains to the use of spatially resolved MS to obtain chemical maps of components in cross-sections, which may yield information on both inorganic and organic materials, while the second area describes the development of novel sample preparation approaches for gas chromatography (GC)-MS to allow simultaneous analysis of a variety of components. The third focuses on thermally assisted analysis (either with direct MS or coupled with GC-MS), a powerful tool for studying macromolecules requiring zero (or minimal) sample pre-treatment. Subsequently, the use of soft ionisation techniques often combined with high-resolution MS for the study of peptides (proteomics) and other macromolecules (such as oligosaccharides and triglycerides) is outlined. The fifth area covers the advances in radiocarbon dating of painting components with accelerator MS (AMS). Lastly, future applications of other MS techniques to the study of paintings are mentioned; such as direct analysis in real time MS (DART-MS) and stable isotope ratio MS (IRMS). The latter, having proven its efficiency for the study of lipids in archaeological artefacts, is envisioned to become a valuable tool for this area, whereas DART-MS is already being utilised to study the surface composition of various museum objects. Rapid technological advances, resulting in increased sensitivity and selectivity of MS techniques, are opening up new approaches for paintings analysis, overcoming the fundamental hurdle of sample size available for destructive analysis. Importantly, while the last decade has seen proteomics applications come to the fore, this review aims to emphasise the wider potential of advanced MS techniques for the study of painting materials and their conservation.

Phthalates in glass window films are associated with dormitory characteristics, occupancy activities and habits, and environmental factors

Phthalates are environmental endocrine disruptors that enter the human body through a variety of pathways and harm human health. The study aimed to explore the associations between phthalate concentrations in glass window films with dormitory characteristics, occupancy activities and habits, and environmental factors, of university dormitories. We surveyed these associations and measured the indoor environmental parameters of 144 dormitories from 13 universities in Beijing. Based on the results, we further explored the factors affecting phthalate concentrations using multivariate logistic regression. The results showed that phthalate concentrations in glass window films were associated with dormitory type, duration of occupancy, daily ventilation duration, window cleaning frequency, indoor relative humidity, light intensity, temperature, and particulate matter (PM₁₀) concentration. To date, there have only been a few studies on the factors that influence phthalate concentrations in glass window films; therefore, further study is needed. Our findings determined the influence of external factors on the different types of phthalates in window films, which helps understand indoor phthalate pollution and evaluate human exposure based on phthalate concentrations in glass window films.

Leaching of phthalate acid esters from plastic mulch films and their degradation in response to UV irradiation and contrasting soil conditions

Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are commonly used plastic additives, not chemically bound to the plastic that migrate into surrounding environments, posing a threat to environmental and human health. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) are two common PAEs found in agricultural soils, where degradation is attributed to microbial decomposition. Yet the impact of the plastic matrix on PAE degradation rates is poorly understood. Using ¹⁴C-labelled DBP and DEHP we show that migration from the plastic matrix into soil represents a key rate limiting step in their bioavailability and subsequent degradation. Incorporating PAEs into plastic film decreased their degradation in soil, DBP (DEHP) from 79% to 21% (9% to <1%), over four months when compared to direct application of PAEs. Mimicking surface soil conditions, we demonstrated that exposure to ultraviolet radiation accelerated PAE mineralisation twofold. Turnover of PAE was promoted by the addition of biosolids, while the presence of plants and other organic residues failed to promote degradation. We conclude that PAEs persist in soil for longer than previously thought due to physical trapping within the plastic matrix, suggesting PAEs released from plastics over very long time periods lead to increasing levels of contamination.

Analytical Method for Quantification of Several Phthalate Acid Esters by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry in Coffee Brew Samples

Several phthalate acid esters (PAEs), often called phthalate esters or phthalates, are substances classified as harmful due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties, and moreover, as dangerous for humans because they interfere with the endocrine system. In general, phthalic esters are used as plasticizers for different polymers and more other consumer products. In the present study, we describe a simple method to quantify PAEs in coffee brew using a liquid-liquid extraction without purification processes through analysing the obtained organic phase by GCMS in the single ion monitoring mode. The totals of single PAEs, in coffee brew samples analysed by us, are in the range of 159-5305 μg L^-1 . Considering that, on average, a person drinks three cups (total 90 mL) of the aforementioned drink per day, this will lead to the uptake of a total 14 to 477 μg of phthalates.

Uptake and photoinduced degradation of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in Ulva lactuca highlight its potential application in environmental bioremediation

The bioaccumulation of phthalates was studied in fragments of Ulva lactuca exposed for a maximum of 31 days at different concentrations of a solution of six phthalic acid esters (PAEs). The algal matrix showed rapid uptake since the first sampling, which increased over the time of the experimental period, at the end of which seaweed's bioaccumulation potential was also evaluated. After the uptake, the algal matrix was subjected to UV irradiation in order to verify the removal of the phthalates. PAEs with higher octanol-water partition coefficients (logK_ow) and molecular weights were preferentially uptaken by U. lactuca in all the exposure experiments. It was observed that both accumulation (biota-sediment accumulation factor (log₁₀BSAF) ranging from 3.75 to 4.02) and photodegradation (higher than 70% removal for all phthalates in 8 h) are more efficient at lower concentration levels. These results suggest the potential use of the algal matrices for environmental bioremediation, in order to mitigate the impact of pollution from ubiquitous pollutants such as PAEs.

Modelling aerosol molecular markers in a 3D air quality model: Focus on anthropogenic organic markers

We developed and implemented in the 3D air quality model CHIMERE the formation of several key anthropogenic aerosol markers including one primary anthropogenic marker (levoglucosan) and 4 secondary anthropogenic markers (nitrophenols, nitroguaiacols, methylnitrocatechols and phthalic acid). Modelled concentrations have been compared to measurements performed at 12 locations in France for levoglucosan in winter 2014-15, and at a sub-urban station in the Paris region over the whole year 2015 for secondary molecular markers. While a good estimation of levoglucosan concentrations by the model has been obtained for a few sites, a strong underestimation was simulated for most of the stations especially for western locations due to a probable underestimation of residential wood burning emissions. The simulated ratio between wood burning organic matter and particulate phase levoglucosan is constant only at high OM values (>10 μg m^-3) indicating that using marker contribution ratio may be valid only under certain conditions. Concentrations of secondary markers were well reproduced by the model for nitrophenols and nitroguaiacols but were underestimated for methylnitrocatechols and phthalic acid highlighting missing formation pathways and/or precursor emissions. By comparing modelled to measured Gas/Particle Partitioning (GPP) of markers, the simulated partitioning of Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) was evaluated. Except for nitroguaiacols and nitrophenols when ideality was assumed, the GPP for all the markers was underestimated and mainly driven by the hydrophilic partitioning. SVOCs GPP, and more generally of all SVOC contributing to the formation of SOA, could therefore be significantly underestimated by air quality models, especially when only the partitioning on the organic phase is considered. Our results show that marker modelling can give insights on some processes (such as precursor emissions or missing mechanisms) involved in SOA formation and could prove especially useful to evaluate the GPP in 3D air quality models.

Environmental fate of dibutylphthalate in agricultural plastics: Photodegradation, migration and ecotoxicological impact on soil

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) were determined in polyethylene covers used in horticultural production units located at Moreno and La Plata districts (Buenos Aires, Argentina), detecting 0.69-8.75 mg PAEs kg^-1 plastic in greenhouse and tunnel films. The PAEs found were diisobutylphthalate (DIBP), dibutylphthalate (DBP) and diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP). DBP was chosen as a model molecule to carry out the photochemical degradation studies that led to the formation of monobutylphthalate (MBP) and phthalic acid (PA). DBP, MBP and PA migration from plastic covers was studied, finding that while DBP and MBP moved to soil and atmosphere in short times (<48 h), PA remained in the agricultural covers. Further experiments with DBP were made to explore the effect on migration of temperature (20 °C, 50 °C), film thickness (25 μm, 100 μm) and plastic ageing by solarization, observing that temperature increase, film thickness reduction and ageing by solarization favored DBP migration to the environment. DBP and MBP impact on soil were evaluated by avoidance and reproduction tests using Eisenia andrei as bioindicator. Both compounds reduced cocoon viability decreasing the number of juveniles at the lowest concentration assayed (0.1 mg kg^-1 of soil). At higher DBP and MBP concentrations the reproductive parameters (number of total cocoons, hatchability and number of juveniles) also showed alterations compared with the controls. Carboxylesterases (CaE), cholinesterases (ChE) and glutathion-S-transferases (GST) activities were analyzed in E. andrei exposed to DBP; cholinesterases activities were reduced at 1 and 10 mg DBP kg^-1 soil, and glutathione S-transferases activities were increased at 10 mg DBP kg^-1 soil while no effect was observed on carboxylesterases activities. These results emphasize the need to continue studying the impact of PAEs and their photodegradation products on the environment.

Prevalence of phthalate alternatives and monoesters alongside traditional phthalates in indoor dust from a typical e-waste recycling area: Source elucidation and co-exposure risk

This study first discovered the prevalence of phthalate (PAE) alternatives and PAE monoesters alongside traditional PAEs with elevated concentrations in indoor dust from typical e-waste recycling industrial park and adjacent communities. Among nine PAEs, high-molecular-weight (HMW) PAEs dominated over low-molecular-weight (LMW) PAEs in e-waste dust, with total concentrations (∑₉PAEs) ranging from 170 to 5300 μg g^-1. The diisononyl phthalate (DiNP) was identified as the most abundant PAE in e-waste dust, with over 10 times higher median concentration than that measured in home dust. Total concentrations of three PAE alternatives ranged from 20 to 1600 μg g^-1 in e-waste dust, which were 3-10 times higher than the measured levels in home dust. A total of 13 monoesters were all identified in all samples with total concentrations of 4.7-59 μg g^-1, and biodegradation of diesters was recognized as the major source of monoesters present in indoor dust. Significant correlations between the concentrations of PAE alternatives and the HMW PAEs were observed (p < 0.05), indicating that they are being simultaneously used in electronic and electrical products. The occupationally high co-exposure of e-waste dismantling workers to multiple PAEs and PAE alternatives as well as their monoesters should be of concern.

Theoretical Design of Biodegradable Phthalic Acid Ester Derivatives in Marine and Freshwater Environments

The biodegradability of phtalic acid esters in marine and freshwater environments was characterized by their binding free energy with corresponding degrading enzymes. According to comprehensive biodegradation effects weights, the binding free energy values were converted into dimensionless efficacy coefficient using ratio normalization method. Then, considering comprehensive dual biodegradation effects value and the structural parameters of PAEs in both marine and freshwater environments, a 3D‐QSAR pharmacophore model was constructed, five PAE derivatives (DBP−COOH, DBP−CHO, DBP−OH, DINP−NH₂, and DINP−NO₂) were screened out based on their environmental friendliness, functionality and stability. The prediction of biodegradation effects on five PAE derivatives by biodegradation models in marine and freshwater environment increased by 15.90 %, 15.84 %, 27.21 %, 12.33 %, and 8.32 %, and 21.57 %, 15.21 %, 20.99 %, 15.10 %, and 9.74 %, respectively. By simulating the photodegradation path of the PAE derivative molecular, it was found that DBP−OH can generate ^.OH and provides free radicals for the photodegradation of microplastics in the environment.

Phthalate esters (PAEs) in atmospheric particles around a large shallow natural lake (Lake Chaohu, China)

The pollution of phthalate esters (PAEs) remains an important issue in the world. Current studies mainly focused on atmospheric PAEs in urban area with strong anthropogenic activities, but there were no studies on PAEs in the ambient air around large natural lake. This paper focused on two sites around Lake Chaohu to investigate the monthly occurrence, composition and source of PAEs in the atmospheric particles around large shallow natural lake. New insights into atmospheric PAEs in large shallow natural lake and the overall fate of PAEs in lake ecosystem were given. The concentrations of the Σ₁₃PAEs in atmospheric particles were at a significantly low level ranging from 2740 to 11,890 pg·m^-3 and 2622 to 15,331 pg·m^-3 in ZM (the lakeshore site) and HB (the downtown site), respectively. There were no statistically significant differences of PAEs between ZM and HB. The highest atmospheric PAE concentrations in August were likely related to the long-range transport from Guangdong Province. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) were the main PAE congeners. Temporally, DIBP and DBP had the highest fractions in winter and the lowest fractions in summer. It might be justified by the condensation of DIBP and DBP from gas phase to particulate phase at low temperature. Multimedia comparison of PAE profiles in Lake Choahu revealed that low molecular weight (LMW) congeners were transported mainly through water while high molecular weight (HMW) congeners were transported mainly through atmosphere.

Combination of self-organizing map and parallel factor analysis to characterize the evolution of fluorescent dissolved organic matter in a full-scale landfill leachate treatment plant

The dissolved organic matter (DOM) characterization in a full-scale landfill leachate treatment plant is of great importance for the design and operation of treatment processes. In this study, the long-term removal behaviors of DOM during landfill leachate treatment were explored using excitation emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy (EEMs) coupled with parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) and self-organizing map (SOM). Results indicated that the application of combining PARAFAC and SOM on EEMs analysis effectively characterized long-term removal behaviors of DOM during leachate treatment. The DOM in raw leachate was dominated by humic substances, while its composition exhibited significant seasonal differences. A large proportion of protein-like fluorescent dissolved organic matter (FDOM) and bulk DOM were removed within membrane bioreactor (MBR) system. Meanwhile the humic-like FDOM removal capacity in nanofiltration (NF) process was well comparable with those in the MBR system owing to the bio-recalcitrant nature of humic substances. The protein-like FDOM and bulk DOM were removed synchronously in both the process of MBR and NF. Moreover, samples distribution exhibited obvious differences among NF concentrate samples. In general, the performance of MBR-NF treatment for landfill leachate displayed reasonable stability in DOM removal irrespective of seasonal variations. This study enhanced our understanding of EEMs application in characterizing leachate-derived DOM composition and has potential implications for the associated monitoring investigations in engineered systems.

Indoor phthalates from household dust in Qatar: implications for non-dietary human exposure

Phthalates are ubiquitous semi-volatile organic compounds in the indoor environment present in various consumer products such as cosmetics, polyvinylchloride (PVC) flooring, food packing, and many others. Indoor phthalate concentrations were investigated in 15 buildings including 11 homes, 3 laboratories, and 1 from a hospital in Qatar. Dust samples were collected from vacuum cleaning bags usually used for cleaning homes, labs, and hospitals. The main objectives of this study was to determine the occurrence and concentration of phthalates in dust in Qatar and consequently to estimate the non-dietary human exposure. Eleven phthalates was analyzed. The major identified phthalate compounds at homes in Qatar were bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate unlabeled (DEHP) and diisononyl phthalate (DINP) at a geometric mean of 288 μg/g (median 395 μg/g) and 106 μg/g (median 101 μg/g) accounting for 57% and 23% of the total measured phthalates, respectively. The major phthalate compounds found in the first lab building were DEHP and DINP with a median of 4861 μg/g and 943 μg/g, respectively, accounting for 82% and 16% of the total phthalates. For the second lab building, the major phthalates were DEHP with a median of 466 μg/g, accounting for 20% of the total phthalates measured, and DINP median of 1725 μg/g, accounting for 71% of the total measured phthalates. The dust sample tested from hospital building had DEHP as the major phthalate compound with a median of 793 μg/g, accounting for 4.0% of the total measured phthalates, and DINP with a median of 19,626 μg/g, accounting for 94%. The estimated human non-dietary exposure for children, adults, and toddlers was based on phthalate concentrations (median) and found to be 225 ng/kg bw/day for children, 2328 ng/kg bw/day for adults, and 2099 ng/kg bw/day for toddlers.

Chasing phthalates in tissues of marine turtles from the Mediterranean sea

Tissues from thirteen specimens of marine turtles, one Dermochelys coriacea and twelve Caretta caretta, found dead along the Sicilian coasts in 2016 were analyzed for the presence of phthalates. Four phthalates (DEP, DBP, BBP, and DEHP) were found at different significant concentrations in liver and gonads, while only DBP was found in muscle tissues and at a fourfold lower concentration than other phthalates in Dermochelys coriacea. No traces of DEP were detected in C. caretta tissues where DOTP was also revealed. The presence of phthalates in fat tissue in specimens of C. caretta showed a major prevalence of the most lipophilic phthalates DEHP and DOTP. The total concentration of all analyzed phthalates, showed high values in all tissues. Results suggested that for monitoring purposes from live specimens sample collection should be addressed to fat tissue with accurate manipulations.

Volatile Profiles of Emissions from Different Activities Analyzed Using Canister Samplers and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) Analysis: A Case Study

The objective of present study was to identify volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from several sources (fuels, traffic, landfills, coffee roasting, a street-food laboratory, building work, indoor use of incense and candles, a dental laboratory, etc.) located in Palermo (Italy) by using canister autosamplers and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. In this study, 181 VOCs were monitored. In the atmosphere of Palermo city, propane, butane, isopentane, methyl pentane, hexane, benzene, toluene, meta- and para-xylene, 1,2,4 trimethyl benzene, 1,3,5 trimethyl benzene, ethylbenzene, 4 ethyl toluene and heptane were identified and quantified in all sampling sites.

Phthalate levels and related factors in children aged 6-12 years

Although previous studies showed that children are widely exposed to phthalates, the sources of phthalate exposure for school-aged children in China are not well understood. This study aimed to assess phthalate metabolite levels and explore the factors influencing exposure in children. We collected demographic data and biological samples from 336 children aged 6-12 years. We calculated urinary concentrations of 14 mono-phthalate metabolites and conducted chi-square (χ²) tests and logistic regression analysis to determine the variables associated with phthalate levels. Mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) and mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) were the most abundant urinary phthalate metabolites. In addition, housing type, decorating materials in the home, and frequency of canned food consumption were associated with exposure to low molecular weight phthalates. Water source, duration of time spent playing with toys, residential area, and frequency of canned food consumption were associated with exposure to high molecular weight phthalates. Based on these results, potential strategies to reduce exposure to phthalates include avoiding plastic food containers and chemical fragrances as well as eating fewer processed foods, especially canned foods, and foods in plastic packaging.

Phenyl-functionalized mesoporous silica materials for the rapid and efficient removal of phthalate esters

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are a group of endocrine disrupting compounds, which have been widely used as plasticizers. To alleviate the environmental and health threats from water resources polluted by PAEs, we prepared phenyl functionalized mesoporous silica materials (ph-SBA-15) were synthesized by a simple post-modification approach for rapid and efficient removal of low concentration of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) from aqueous solution. Mesostructure, texture, surface chemistry and surface charges were systemically characterized. The obtained ph-SBA-15 possesses a highly ordered mesostructure, a high surface area (418m²/g), uniform mesopores (6.5nm) and high-density organic groups around 11wt.%. Batch adsorption experiments revealed that phenyl modified SBA-15 had an excellent ability to remove DBP with the maximum adsorption capacity up to ∼40mg/g at 25°C. The thermodynamics and kinetics for the adsorption were also investigated, demonstrating an exothermic, multi-layer and fast adsorption process. In addition, DBP adsorption was found to be sensitive to the pH and the uptake was observed to be greatest at around pH 7.0. Furthermore, this material can be effectively regenerated by ethanol.

Phenols, flame retardants and phthalates in water and wastewater - a global problem

Organic pollutants in water and wastewater have been causing serious environmental problems. The arbitrary discharge of wastewater by industries, and handling, use, and disposal constitute a means by which phenols, flame retardants (FRs), phthalates (PAEs) and other toxic organic pollutants enter the ecosystem. Moreover, these organic pollutants are not completely removed during treatment processes and might be degraded into highly toxic derivatives, which has led to their occurrence in the environment. Phenols, FRs and PAEs are thus highly toxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic, and are capable of disrupting the endocrine system. Therefore, investigation to understand the sources, pathways, behavior, toxicity and exposure to phenols, FRs and PAEs in the environment is necessary. Formation of different by-products makes it difficult to compare the efficacy of the treatment processes, most especially when other organic matters are present. Hence, high levels of phenols, FRs and PAEs removal could be attained with in-line combined treatment processes.

Reliable quantification of phthalates in environmental matrices (air, water, sludge, sediment and soil): a review

Because of their widespread application, phthalates or phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are ubiquitous in the environment. Their presence has attracted considerable attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystem functioning and on public health, so their quantification has become a necessity. Various extraction procedures as well as gas/liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry detection techniques are found as suitable for reliable detection of such compounds. However, PAEs are ubiquitous in the laboratory environment including ambient air, reagents, sampling equipment, and various analytical devices, that induces difficult analysis of real samples with a low PAE background. Therefore, accurate PAE analysis in environmental matrices is a challenging task. This paper reviews the extensive literature data on the techniques for PAE quantification in natural media. Sampling, sample extraction/pretreatment and detection for quantifying PAEs in different environmental matrices (air, water, sludge, sediment and soil) have been reviewed and compared. The concept of "green analytical chemistry" for PAE determination is also discussed. Moreover useful information about the material preparation and the procedures of quality control and quality assurance are presented to overcome the problem of sample contamination and these encountered due to matrix effects in order to avoid overestimating PAE concentrations in the environment.

Occurrence, fate, behavior and ecotoxicological state of phthalates in different environmental matrices

Because of their large and widespread application, phthalates or phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are ubiquitous in all the environmental compartements. They have been widely detected throughout the worldwide environment. Indoor air where people spend 65-90% of their time is also highly contaminated by various PAEs released from plastics, consumer products as well as ambient suspended particulate matter. Because of their widespread application, PAEs are the most common chemicals that humans are in contact with daily. Based on various exposure mechanisms, including the ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, air inhalation and dermal exposure the daily intake of PAEs may reach values as high as 70 μg/kg/day. PAEs are involved in endocrine disrupting effects, namely, upon reproductive physiology in different species of fish and mammals. They also present a variety of additional toxic effects for many other species including terrestrial and aquatic fauna and flora. Therefore, their presence in the environment has attracted considerable attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystem functioning and on public health. This paper is a synthesis of the extensive literature data on behavior, transport, fate and ecotoxicological state of PAEs in environmental matrices: air, water, sediment, sludge, wastewater, soil, and biota. First, the origins and physicochemical properties of PAEs that control the behavior, transport and fate in the environment are reviewed. Second, the compilation of data on transport and fate, adverse environmental and human health effects, legislation, restrictions, and ecotoxicological state of the environment based on PAEs is presented.

Determination of Selected Phthalates by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry in Personal Perfumes

A simple and fast method is proposed to analyze commercial personal perfumes. Our method includes measurement of phthalates, known to be major sources of endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDC), which originate from the less volatile fraction of perfumes. The quantification of phthalates were carried out directly with no sample preparation required on 30 samples of commercial products using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) as a detector. The total concentrations of 15 investigated compounds ranged from 17 to 9650 mg/L with an average of 2643 mg/L. The highest total concentration was found in cologne. Diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) were detected in appreciable concentrations. Further, it was found that the composition of counterfeit samples varied widely from that of authentic products. The composition of old products was different from that of recent perfumes, which contain less harmful chemicals, attributed to the ban on some phthalates in Europe due their toxicity. It should be noted that older and contaminated products are not equivalent to authentic products when considering quality, safety, and probably effectiveness. Older and nonapproved perfumes contain chemicals that are not allowed for commercial use and may contain toxic impurities.