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Shang JN, Yu CG, Li R, Xi Y, Jian YJ, Xu N, Chen S. The nonautophagic functions of autophagy-related proteins. Autophagy 2024; 20:720-734. [PMID: 37682088 PMCID: PMC11062363 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2023.2254664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
ABBREVIATIONS ATG: autophagy related; BECN1: beclin 1; cAMP: cyclic adenosine monophosphate; dsDNA: double-stranded DNA; EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition; IFN: interferon; ISCs: intestinal stem cells; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MAPK/JNK: mitogen-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinases; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; STING1: stimulator of interferon response cGAMP interactor 1; UVRAG: UV radiation resistance associated; VPS: vacuolar protein sorting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Ni Shang
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Chen-Ge Yu
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Rui Li
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Yan Xi
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Yue Jenny Jian
- Nanjing Foreign Language School, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Nan Xu
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Su Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
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Liu J, Xiao Y, Cao L, Lu S, Zhang S, Yang R, Wang Y, Zhang N, Yu Y, Wang X, Guo W, Wang Z, Xu H, Xing C, Song X, Cao L. Insights on E1-like enzyme ATG7: functional regulation and relationships with aging-related diseases. Commun Biol 2024; 7:382. [PMID: 38553562 PMCID: PMC10980737 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06080-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a dynamic self-renovation biological process that maintains cell homeostasis and is responsible for the quality control of proteins, organelles, and energy metabolism. The E1-like ubiquitin-activating enzyme autophagy-related gene 7 (ATG7) is a critical factor that initiates classic autophagy reactions by promoting the formation and extension of autophagosome membranes. Recent studies have identified the key functions of ATG7 in regulating the cell cycle, apoptosis, and metabolism associated with the occurrence and development of multiple diseases. This review summarizes how ATG7 is precisely programmed by genetic, transcriptional, and epigenetic modifications in cells and the relationship between ATG7 and aging-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwei Liu
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Department of Anus and Intestine Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yutong Xiao
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Liangzi Cao
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Songming Lu
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Siyi Zhang
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Ruohan Yang
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yubang Wang
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Naijin Zhang
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Department of Cardiology, First Hospital of China Medical University, Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yang Yu
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Xiwen Wang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Wendong Guo
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Zhuo Wang
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Hongde Xu
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China.
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China.
| | - Chengzhong Xing
- Department of Anus and Intestine Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China.
| | - Xiaoyu Song
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China.
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China.
| | - Liu Cao
- The College of Basic Medical Science, Health Sciences Institute, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China.
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors (China Medical University), Ministry of Education, Liaoning Province Collaborative Innovation Center of Aging Related Disease Diagnosis and Treatment and Prevention, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China.
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3
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Yemets A, Shadrina R, Blume R, Plokhovska S, Blume Y. Autophagy formation, microtubule disorientation, and alteration of ATG8 and tubulin gene expression under simulated microgravity in Arabidopsis thaliana. NPJ Microgravity 2024; 10:31. [PMID: 38499552 PMCID: PMC10948825 DOI: 10.1038/s41526-024-00381-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Autophagy plays an important role in plant growth and development, pathogen invasion and modulates plant response and adaptation to various abiotic stress stimuli. The biogenesis and trafficking of autophagosomes involve microtubules (MTs) as important actors in the autophagic process. However, initiation of autophagy in plants under microgravity has not been previously studied. Here we demonstrate how simulated microgravity induces autophagy development involving microtubular reorganization during period of autophagosome formation. It was shown that induction of autophagy with maximal autophagosome formation in root cells of Arabidopsis thaliana is observed after 6 days of clinostating, along with MT disorganization, which leads to visible changes in root morphology. Gradual decrease of autophagosome number was indicated on 9th and 12th days of the experiment as well as no significant re-orientation of MTs were identified. Respectively, analysis of α- and β-tubulins and ATG8 gene expression was carried out. In particular, the most pronounced increase of expression on both 6th and 9th days in response to simulated microgravity was detected for non-paralogous AtATG8b, AtATG8f, AtATG8i, and AtTUA2, AtTUA3 genes, as well as for the pair of β-tubulin duplicates, namely AtTUB2 and AtTUB3. Overall, the main autophagic response was observed after 6 and 9 days of exposure to simulated microgravity, followed by adaptive response after 12 days. These findings provide a key basis for further studies of cellular mechanisms of autophagy and involvement of cytoskeletal structures in autophagy biogenesis under microgravity, which would enable development of new approaches, aimed on enhancing plant adaptation to microgravity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alla Yemets
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Baidy-Vyshnevetskoho St., 2a, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine.
| | - Ruslana Shadrina
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Baidy-Vyshnevetskoho St., 2a, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine
| | - Rostyslav Blume
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Baidy-Vyshnevetskoho St., 2a, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine.
| | - Svitlana Plokhovska
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Baidy-Vyshnevetskoho St., 2a, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine
| | - Yaroslav Blume
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Baidy-Vyshnevetskoho St., 2a, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine.
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4
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Varela YR, Iriondo MN, Goñi FM, Alonso A, Montes LR. Ceramide regulation of autophagy: A biophysical approach. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2024; 1869:159444. [PMID: 38056762 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2023.159444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
Specific membrane lipids play unique roles in (macro)autophagy. Those include phosphatidylethanolamine, to which LC3/GABARAP autophagy proteins become covalently bound in the process, or cardiolipin, an important effector in mitochondrial autophagy (or mitophagy). Ceramide (Cer), or N-acyl sphingosine, is one of the simplest sphingolipids, known as a stress signal in the apoptotic pathway. Moreover, Cer is increasingly being recognized as an autophagy activator, although its mechanism of action is unclear. In the present review, the proposed Cer roles in autophagy are summarized, together with some biophysical properties of Cer in membranes. Possible pathways for Cer activation of autophagy are discussed, including specific protein binding of the lipid, and Cer-dependent perturbation of bilayer properties. Cer generation of lateral inhomogeneities (domain formation) is given special attention. Recent biophysical results, including fluorescence and atomic force microscopy data, show Cer-promoted enhanced binding of LC3/GABARAP to lipid bilayers. These observations could be interpreted in terms of the putative formation of Cer-rich nanodomains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaiza R Varela
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad del País Vasco, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Marina N Iriondo
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad del País Vasco, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Félix M Goñi
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad del País Vasco, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Alicia Alonso
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad del País Vasco, 48940 Leioa, Spain.
| | - L Ruth Montes
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad del País Vasco, 48940 Leioa, Spain
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5
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Zhou J, Sun F, Zhang W, Feng Z, Yang Y, Mei Z. Novel insight into the therapeutical potential of flavonoids from traditional Chinese medicine against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1352760. [PMID: 38487170 PMCID: PMC10937431 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1352760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CIRI) is a major contributor to poor prognosis of ischemic stroke. Flavonoids are a broad family of plant polyphenols which are abundant in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and have beneficial effects on several diseases including ischemic stroke. Accumulating studies have indicated that flavonoids derived from herbal TCM are effective in alleviating CIRI after ischemic stroke in vitro or in vivo, and exhibit favourable therapeutical potential. Herein, we systematically review the classification, metabolic absorption, neuroprotective efficacy, and mechanisms of TCM flavonoids against CIRI. The literature suggest that flavonoids exert potential medicinal functions including suppressing excitotoxicity, Ca2+ overloading, oxidative stress, inflammation, thrombin's cellular toxicity, different types of programmed cell deaths, and protecting the blood-brain barrier, as well as promoting neurogenesis in the recovery stage following ischemic stroke. Furthermore, we identified certain matters that should be taken into account in future research, as well as proposed difficulties and opportunities in transforming TCM-derived flavonoids into medications or functional foods for the treatment or prevention of CIRI. Overall, in this review we aim to provide novel ideas for the identification of new prospective medication candidates for the therapeutic strategy against ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, College of Integrated Traditional Chinese Medicine and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Feiyue Sun
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, College of Integrated Traditional Chinese Medicine and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Wenli Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zhitao Feng
- Third-Grade Pharmacological Laboratory on Chinese Medicine Approved by State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei, China
| | - Yi Yang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Hunan Traditional Chinese Medical College, Zhuzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Zhigang Mei
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, College of Integrated Traditional Chinese Medicine and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Third-Grade Pharmacological Laboratory on Chinese Medicine Approved by State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei, China
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6
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Pareek G, Kundu M. Physiological functions of ULK1/2. J Mol Biol 2024:168472. [PMID: 38311233 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2024.168472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
UNC-51-like kinases 1 and 2 (ULK1/2) are serine/threonine kinases that are best known for their evolutionarily conserved role in the autophagy pathway. Upon sensing the nutrient status of a cell, ULK1/2 integrate signals from upstream cellular energy sensors such as mTOR and AMPK and relay them to the downstream components of the autophagy machinery. ULK1/2 also play indispensable roles in the selective autophagy pathway, removing damaged mitochondria, invading pathogens, and toxic protein aggregates. Additional functions of ULK1/2 have emerged beyond autophagy, including roles in protein trafficking, RNP granule dynamics, and signaling events impacting innate immunity, axon guidance, cellular homeostasis, and cell fate. Therefore, it is no surprise that alterations in ULK1/2 expression and activity have been linked with pathophysiological processes, including cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. Growing evidence suggests that ULK1/2 function as biological rheostats, tuning cellular functions to intra and extra-cellular cues. Given their broad physiological relevance, ULK1/2 are candidate targets for small molecule activators or inhibitors that may pave the way for the development of therapeutics for the treatment of diseases in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gautam Pareek
- Cell and Molecular Biology Department, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Mondira Kundu
- Cell and Molecular Biology Department, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA.
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Zeke A, Gibson TJ, Dobson L. Linear motifs regulating protein secretion, sorting and autophagy in Leishmania parasites are diverged with respect to their host equivalents. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1011902. [PMID: 38363808 PMCID: PMC10903960 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
The pathogenic, tropical Leishmania flagellates belong to an early-branching eukaryotic lineage (Kinetoplastida) with several unique features. Unfortunately, they are poorly understood from a molecular biology perspective, making development of mechanistically novel and selective drugs difficult. Here, we explore three functionally critical targeting short linear motif systems as well as their receptors in depth, using a combination of structural modeling, evolutionary sequence divergence and deep learning. Secretory signal peptides, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention motifs (KDEL motifs), and autophagy signals (motifs interacting with ATG8 family members) are ancient and essential components of cellular life. Although expected to be conserved amongst the kinetoplastids, we observe that all three systems show a varying degree of divergence from their better studied equivalents in animals, plants, or fungi. We not only describe their behaviour, but also build models that allow the prediction of localization and potential functions for several uncharacterized Leishmania proteins. The unusually Ala/Val-rich secretory signal peptides, endoplasmic reticulum resident proteins ending in Asp-Leu-COOH and atypical ATG8-like proteins are all unique molecular features of kinetoplastid parasites. Several of their critical protein-protein interactions could serve as targets of selective antimicrobial agents against Leishmaniasis due to their systematic divergence from the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andras Zeke
- Institute of Molecular Life Sciences, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Toby J. Gibson
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Laszlo Dobson
- Institute of Molecular Life Sciences, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Bioinformatics, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
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Duckney PJ, Wang P, Hussey PJ. Mitophagy in plants: Emerging regulators of mitochondrial targeting for selective autophagy. J Microsc 2024. [PMID: 38297985 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
The degradation and turnover of mitochondria is fundamental to Eukaryotes and is a key homeostatic mechanism for maintaining functional mitochondrial populations. Autophagy is an important pathway by which mitochondria are degraded, involving their sequestration into membrane-bound autophagosomes and targeting to lytic endosomal compartments (the lysosome in animals, the vacuole in plants and yeast). Selective targeting of mitochondria for autophagy, also known as mitophagy, distinguishes mitochondria from other cell components for degradation and is necessary for the regulation of mitochondria-specific cell processes. In mammals and yeast, mitophagy has been well characterised and is regulated by numerous pathways with diverse and important functions in the regulation of cell homeostasis, metabolism and responses to specific stresses. In contrast, we are only just beginning to understand the importance and functions of mitophagy in plants, chiefly as the proteins that target mitochondria for autophagy in plants are only recently emerging. Here, we discuss the current progress of our understanding of mitophagy in plants, the importance of mitophagy for plant life and the regulatory autophagy proteins involved in mitochondrial degradation. In particular, we will discuss the recent emergence of mitophagy receptor proteins that selectively target mitochondria for autophagy, and discuss the missing links in our knowledge of mitophagy-regulatory proteins in plants compared to animals and yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pengwei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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Chen J, Liang Y, Hu S, Jiang J, Zeng M, Luo M. Role of ATG7-dependent non-autophagic pathway in angiogenesis. Front Pharmacol 2024; 14:1266311. [PMID: 38269279 PMCID: PMC10806190 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1266311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
ATG7, one of the core proteins of autophagy, plays an important role in various biological processes, including the regulation of autophagy. While clear that autophagy drives angiogenesis, the role of ATG7 in angiogenesis remains less defined. Several studies have linked ATG7 with angiogenesis, which has long been underappreciated. The knockdown of ATG7 gene in cerebrovascular development leads to angiogenesis defects. In addition, specific knockout of ATG7 in endothelial cells results in abnormal development of neovascularization. Notably, the autophagy pathway is not necessary for ATG7 regulation of angiogenesis, while the ATG7-dependent non-autophagic pathway plays a critical role in the regulation of neovascularization. In order to gain a better understanding of the non-autophagic pathway-mediated biological functions of the autophagy-associated protein ATG7 and to bring attention to this expanding but understudied research area, this article reviews recent developments in the ATG7-dependent non-autophagic pathways regulating angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxiang Chen
- Basic Medicine Research Innovation Center for Cardiometabolic Diseases, Ministry of Education, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Electrophysiology, Ministry of Education and Medical Electrophysiological Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
| | - Yu Liang
- The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
| | - Shaorun Hu
- Basic Medicine Research Innovation Center for Cardiometabolic Diseases, Ministry of Education, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Electrophysiology, Ministry of Education and Medical Electrophysiological Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
| | - Jun Jiang
- Department of General Surgery (Thyroid Surgery), The Affiliated Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
- Metabolic Vascular Diseases Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
| | - Min Zeng
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
| | - Mao Luo
- Basic Medicine Research Innovation Center for Cardiometabolic Diseases, Ministry of Education, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Electrophysiology, Ministry of Education and Medical Electrophysiological Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
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10
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Kim WJ, Kim W, Kim Y, Cheong H, Kim SJ. Coordinated recruitment of conserved defense-signaling pathways in PVY O-Infected Nicotiana benthamiana. Plant Signal Behav 2023; 18:2252972. [PMID: 37655790 PMCID: PMC10478736 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2023.2252972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Potato virus Y (PVY) is an aphid-transmitted potyvirus that affects economically important solanaceous species. In this study, the phenomena and mechanisms following infection with PVY were investigated in tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana). In tobacco plants, infection with a mild strain of PVY (PVYO) induced stunted growth in the first two leaves at the shoot apex starting 7 days post-infection (dpi), and mosaic symptoms began to appear on newly developing young leaves at 14 dpi. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and ultrastructure analysis, we confirmed that viral particles accumulated only in the upper developing leaves of infected plants. We analyzed reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in leaves from the bottom to the top of the plants to investigate whether delayed symptom development in leaves was associated with a defense response to the virus. In addition, the ultrastructural analysis confirmed the increase of ATG4 and ATG8, which are autophagy markers by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and the expression of genes involved in viral RNA suppression. Overall, our results suggested that viral RNA silencing and induced autophagy may play a role in the inhibition of viral symptom development in host plants in response to PVYO infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Jin Kim
- Department of Integrative Biological Sciences & BK21 FOUR Educational Research Group for Age-Associated Disorder Control Technology, Chosun University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Woong Kim
- Department of Biomedical Science, Chosun University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngsoon Kim
- Plant Cell Research Institute of BIO-FD&C, Co., Ltd., Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeonsook Cheong
- Department of Biomedical Science, Chosun University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok-Jun Kim
- Department of Integrative Biological Sciences & BK21 FOUR Educational Research Group for Age-Associated Disorder Control Technology, Chosun University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical Science, Chosun University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Well-Aging Medicare, Chosun University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
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11
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Gouveia DG, Siqueira JA, Nunes-Nesi A, Araújo WL. Memories of heat: autophagy and Golgi recovery. Trends Plant Sci 2023:S1360-1385(23)00394-1. [PMID: 38135605 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2023.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Fluctuations in temperature severely impact crop yield and trigger various plant response mechanisms. In a recent study, Zhou et al. discovered a non-canonical role of autophagy in mediating Golgi apparatus restoration after short-term heat stress (HS). Their results further suggest a critical, yet previously unknown, mechanism of autophagy-related (ATG)-8 in Golgi reassembly after HS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debora Goncalves Gouveia
- National Institute of Science and Technology on Plant Physiology under Stress Conditions, Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900 Viçosa, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Adriano Nunes-Nesi
- National Institute of Science and Technology on Plant Physiology under Stress Conditions, Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900 Viçosa, MG, Brazil
| | - Wagner L Araújo
- National Institute of Science and Technology on Plant Physiology under Stress Conditions, Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900 Viçosa, MG, Brazil.
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12
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Chowdhury SG, Karmakar P. Revealing the role of epigenetic and post-translational modulations of autophagy proteins in the regulation of autophagy and cancer: a therapeutic approach. Mol Biol Rep 2023; 51:3. [PMID: 38063905 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-08961-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a process that is characterized by the destruction of redundant components and the removal of dysfunctional ones to maintain cellular homeostasis. Autophagy dysregulation has been linked to various illnesses, such as neurodegenerative disorders and cancer. The precise transcription of the genes involved in autophagy is regulated by a network of epigenetic factors. This includes histone modifications and histone-modifying enzymes. Epigenetics is a broad category of heritable, reversible changes in gene expression that do not include changes to DNA sequences, such as chromatin remodeling, histone modifications, and DNA methylation. In addition to affecting the genes that are involved in autophagy, the epigenetic machinery can also alter the signals that control this process. In cancer, autophagy plays a dual role by preventing the development of tumors on one hand and this process may suppress tumor progression. This may be the control of an oncogene that prevents autophagy while, conversely, tumor suppression may promote it. The development of new therapeutic strategies for autophagy-related disorders could be initiated by gaining a deeper understanding of its intricate regulatory framework. There is evidence showing that certain machineries and regulators of autophagy are affected by post-translational and epigenetic modifications, which can lead to alterations in the levels of autophagy and these changes can then trigger disease or affect the therapeutic efficacy of drugs. The goal of this review is to identify the regulatory pathways associated with post-translational and epigenetic modifications of different proteins in autophagy which may be the therapeutic targets shortly.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Parimal Karmakar
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, 700032, India.
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13
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Liu W, Wei T, Wang X. Plant reoviruses hijack autophagy in insect vectors. Trends Microbiol 2023; 31:1251-1261. [PMID: 37453843 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2023.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant reoviruses, transmitted only by insect vectors, seriously threaten global cereal production. Understanding how insect vectors efficiently transmit the viruses is key to controlling the viral diseases. Autophagy commonly plays important roles in plant host defense against virus infection, but recent studies have shown that plant reoviruses can hijack the autophagy pathway in insect cells to enable their persistence in the insect and continued transmission to plants. Here, we summarize and discuss new insights on viral activation, evasion, regulation, and manipulation of autophagy within the insect vectors and the role of autophagy in virus survival in insect vectors. Deeper knowledge of the functions of autophagy in vectors may lead to novel strategies for blocking transmission of insect-borne plant viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwen Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Taiyun Wei
- Vector-borne Virus Research Center, Fujian Province Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant Virology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China.
| | - Xifeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China.
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14
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Miklaszewska M, Zienkiewicz K, Klugier-Borowska E, Rygielski M, Feussner I, Zienkiewicz A. CALEOSIN 1 interaction with AUTOPHAGY-RELATED PROTEIN 8 facilitates lipid droplet microautophagy in seedlings. Plant Physiol 2023; 193:2361-2380. [PMID: 37619984 PMCID: PMC10663143 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Lipid droplets (LDs) of seed tissues are storage organelles for triacylglycerols (TAGs) that provide the energy and carbon for seedling establishment. In the major route of LD degradation (lipolysis), TAGs are mobilized by lipases. However, LDs may also be degraded via lipophagy, a type of selective autophagy, which mediates LD delivery to vacuoles or lysosomes. The exact mechanisms of LD degradation and the mobilization of their content in plants remain unresolved. Here, we provide evidence that LDs are degraded via a process morphologically resembling microlipophagy in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seedlings. We observed the entry and presence of LDs in the central vacuole as well as their breakdown. Moreover, we show co-localization of AUTOPHAGY-RELATED PROTEIN 8b (ATG8b) and LDs during seed germination and localization of lipidated ATG8 (ATG8-PE) to the LD fraction. We further demonstrate that structural LD proteins from the caleosin family, CALEOSIN 1 (CLO1), CALEOSIN 2 (CLO2), and CALEOSIN 3 (CLO3), interact with ATG8 proteins and possess putative ATG8-interacting motifs (AIMs). Deletion of the AIM localized directly before the proline knot disrupts the interaction of CLO1 with ATG8b, suggesting a possible role of this region in the interaction between these proteins. Collectively, we provide insights into LD degradation by microlipophagy in germinating seeds with a particular focus on the role of structural LD proteins in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Miklaszewska
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biotechnology, University of Gdańsk, Wita Stwosza 59, Gdańsk 80-308, Poland
- Department for Plant Biochemistry, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences, University of Goettingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, Goettingen 37077, Germany
| | - Krzysztof Zienkiewicz
- Department for Plant Biochemistry, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences, University of Goettingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Centre for Modern Interdisciplinary Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
| | - Ewa Klugier-Borowska
- Centre for Modern Interdisciplinary Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
| | - Marcin Rygielski
- Centre for Modern Interdisciplinary Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
| | - Ivo Feussner
- Department for Plant Biochemistry, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences, University of Goettingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Service Unit for Metabolomics and Lipidomics, Goettingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University of Goettingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Department of Plant Biochemistry, Goettingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University of Goettingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, Goettingen 37077, Germany
| | - Agnieszka Zienkiewicz
- Department for Plant Biochemistry, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences, University of Goettingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Centre for Modern Interdisciplinary Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
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15
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Wang Q, Wang Y, Li S, Shi J. PACAP-Sirtuin3 alleviates cognitive impairment through autophagy in Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Res Ther 2023; 15:184. [PMID: 37891608 PMCID: PMC10605376 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-023-01334-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autophagy is vital in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration. Thus far, no studies have specifically investigated the relationship between pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and autophagy, particularly in the context of Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study used in vitro and in vivo models, along with clinical samples, to explore interactions between PACAP and autophagy in AD. METHODS AD model mice were administered 6 μl of 0.1 mg/ml PACAP liquid intranasally for 4 weeks, then subjected to behavioral analyses to assess the benefits of PACAP treatment. The underlying mechanisms of PACAP-induced effects were investigated by methods including real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, RNA sequencing, immunofluorescence, and western blotting. Exosomes were extracted from human serum and subjected to enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to examine autophagy pathways. The clinical and therapeutic implications of PACAP and autophagy were extensively investigated throughout the experiment. RESULTS Impaired autophagy was a critical step in amyloid β (Aβ) and Tau deposition; PACAP enhanced autophagy and attenuated cognitive impairment. RNA sequencing revealed three pathways that may be involved in AD progression: PI3K-AKT, mTOR, and AMPK. In vivo and in vitro studies showed that sirtuin3 knockdown diminished the ability of PACAP to restore normal autophagy function, resulting in phagocytosis dysregulation and the accumulation of pTau, Tau, and Aβ. Additionally, the autophagic biomarker MAP1LC3 demonstrated a positive association with PACAP in human serum. CONCLUSIONS PACAP reverses AD-induced cognitive impairment through autophagy, using sirtuin3 as a key mediator. MAP1LC3 has a positive relationship with PACAP in humans. These findings provide insights regarding potential uses of intranasal PACAP and sirtuin3 agonists in AD treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION NCT04320368.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Wang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 119, South 4Th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100070, China
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Wang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 119, South 4Th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100070, China
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shiping Li
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 119, South 4Th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100070, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
| | - Jiong Shi
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 119, South 4Th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100070, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
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16
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Ali NH, Al-Kuraishy HM, Al-Gareeb AI, Alnaaim SA, Alexiou A, Papadakis M, Saad HM, Batiha GES. Autophagy and autophagy signaling in Epilepsy: possible role of autophagy activator. Mol Med 2023; 29:142. [PMID: 37880579 PMCID: PMC10598971 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-023-00742-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an explicit cellular process to deliver dissimilar cytoplasmic misfolded proteins, lipids and damaged organelles to the lysosomes for degradation and elimination. The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is the main negative regulator of autophagy. The mTOR pathway is involved in regulating neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, neuronal development and excitability. Exaggerated mTOR activity is associated with the development of temporal lobe epilepsy, genetic and acquired epilepsy, and experimental epilepsy. In particular, mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) is mainly involved in epileptogenesis. The investigation of autophagy's involvement in epilepsy has recently been conducted, focusing on the critical role of rapamycin, an autophagy inducer, in reducing the severity of induced seizures in animal model studies. The induction of autophagy could be an innovative therapeutic strategy in managing epilepsy. Despite the protective role of autophagy against epileptogenesis and epilepsy, its role in status epilepticus (SE) is perplexing and might be beneficial or detrimental. Therefore, the present review aims to revise the possible role of autophagy in epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naif H Ali
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical College, Najran university, Najran, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hayder M Al-Kuraishy
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Medicine, College of Medicine, ALmustansiriyia University, P.O. Box 14132, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Ali I Al-Gareeb
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Medicine, College of Medicine, ALmustansiriyia University, P.O. Box 14132, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Saud A Alnaaim
- Clinical Neurosciences Department, College of Medicine, King Faisal University, Hofuf, Saudi Arabia
| | - Athanasios Alexiou
- Department of Science and Engineering, Novel Global Community Educational Foundation, Hebersham, NSW, 2770, Australia
- AFNP Med, Wien, 1030, Austria
| | - Marios Papadakis
- Department of Surgery II, University Hospital Witten-Herdecke, University of Witten-Herdecke, Heusnerstrasse 40, 42283, Wuppertal, Germany.
| | - Hebatallah M Saad
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Matrouh University, Matrouh, Matrouh, 51744, Egypt.
| | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, AlBeheira, 22511, Egypt.
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17
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Godtliebsen G, Larsen KB, Bhujabal Z, Opstad IS, Nager M, Punnakkal AR, Kalstad TB, Olsen R, Lund T, Prasad DK, Agarwal K, Myrmel T, Birgisdottir AB. High-resolution visualization and assessment of basal and OXPHOS-induced mitophagy in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts. Autophagy 2023; 19:2769-2788. [PMID: 37405374 PMCID: PMC10472865 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2023.2230837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are susceptible to damage resulting from their activity as energy providers. Damaged mitochondria can cause harm to the cell and thus mitochondria are subjected to elaborate quality-control mechanisms including elimination via lysosomal degradation in a process termed mitophagy. Basal mitophagy is a house-keeping mechanism fine-tuning the number of mitochondria according to the metabolic state of the cell. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying basal mitophagy remain largely elusive. In this study, we visualized and assessed the level of mitophagy in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts at basal conditions and after OXPHOS induction by galactose adaptation. We used cells with a stable expression of a pH-sensitive fluorescent mitochondrial reporter and applied state-of-the-art imaging techniques and image analysis. Our data showed a significant increase in acidic mitochondria after galactose adaptation. Using a machine-learning approach we also demonstrated increased mitochondrial fragmentation by OXPHOS induction. Furthermore, super-resolution microscopy of live cells enabled capturing of mitochondrial fragments within lysosomes as well as dynamic transfer of mitochondrial contents to lysosomes. Applying correlative light and electron microscopy we revealed the ultrastructure of the acidic mitochondria confirming their proximity to the mitochondrial network, ER and lysosomes. Finally, exploiting siRNA knockdown strategy combined with flux perturbation with lysosomal inhibitors, we demonstrated the importance of both canonical as well as non-canonical autophagy mediators in lysosomal degradation of mitochondria after OXPHOS induction. Taken together, our high-resolution imaging approaches applied on H9c2 cells provide novel insights on mitophagy during physiologically relevant conditions. The implication of redundant underlying mechanisms highlights the fundamental importance of mitophagy.Abbreviations: ATG: autophagy related; ATG7: autophagy related 7; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; BafA1: bafilomycin A1; CLEM: correlative light and electron microscopy; EGFP: enhanced green fluorescent protein; MAP1LC3B: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; OXPHOS: oxidative phosphorylation; PepA: pepstatin A; PLA: proximity ligation assay; PRKN: parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase; RAB5A: RAB5A, member RAS oncogene family; RAB7A: RAB7A, member RAS oncogene family; RAB9A: RAB9A, member RAS oncogene family; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SIM: structured illumination microscopy; siRNA: short interfering RNA; SYNJ2BP: synaptojanin 2 binding protein; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; TOMM20: translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 20; ULK1: unc-51 like kinase 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustav Godtliebsen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kenneth Bowitz Larsen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Department of Medical Biology, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Zambarlal Bhujabal
- Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ida S. Opstad
- Department of Physics and Technology, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Mireia Nager
- Division of Cardiothoracic and Respiratory Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | | | - Trine B. Kalstad
- Division of Cardiothoracic and Respiratory Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Randi Olsen
- Department of Medical Biology, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Trine Lund
- Department of Medical Biology, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Dilip K. Prasad
- Department of Computer Science, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Krishna Agarwal
- Department of Physics and Technology, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Truls Myrmel
- Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Division of Cardiothoracic and Respiratory Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Asa Birna Birgisdottir
- Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Division of Cardiothoracic and Respiratory Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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18
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Mabuchi Y, Cui X, Xie L, Kim H, Jiang T, Yapici N. Visual feedback neurons fine-tune Drosophila male courtship via GABA-mediated inhibition. Curr Biol 2023; 33:3896-3910.e7. [PMID: 37673068 PMCID: PMC10529139 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.08.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Many species of animals use vision to regulate their social behaviors. However, the molecular and circuit mechanisms underlying visually guided social interactions remain largely unknown. Here, we show that the Drosophila ortholog of the human GABAA-receptor-associated protein (GABARAP) is required in a class of visual feedback neurons, lamina tangential (Lat) cells, to fine-tune male courtship. GABARAP is a ubiquitin-like protein that maintains cell-surface levels of GABAA receptors. We demonstrate that knocking down GABARAP or GABAAreceptors in Lat neurons or hyperactivating them induces male courtship toward other males. Inhibiting Lat neurons, on the other hand, delays copulation by impairing the ability of males to follow females. Remarkably, the fly GABARAP protein and its human ortholog share a strong sequence identity, and the fly GABARAP function in Lat neurons can be rescued by its human ortholog. Using in vivo two-photon imaging and optogenetics, we reveal that Lat neurons are functionally connected to neural circuits that mediate visually guided courtship pursuits in males. Our work identifies a novel physiological function for GABARAP in regulating visually guided courtship pursuits in Drosophila males. Reduced GABAA signaling has been linked to social deficits observed in the autism spectrum and bipolar disorders. The functional similarity between the human and the fly GABARAP raises the possibility of a conserved role for this gene in regulating social behaviors across insects and mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Mabuchi
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Xinyue Cui
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Lily Xie
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Haein Kim
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Tianxing Jiang
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Nilay Yapici
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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19
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Shabkhizan R, Haiaty S, Moslehian MS, Bazmani A, Sadeghsoltani F, Saghaei Bagheri H, Rahbarghazi R, Sakhinia E. The Beneficial and Adverse Effects of Autophagic Response to Caloric Restriction and Fasting. Adv Nutr 2023; 14:1211-1225. [PMID: 37527766 PMCID: PMC10509423 DOI: 10.1016/j.advnut.2023.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Each cell is equipped with a conserved housekeeping mechanism, known as autophagy, to recycle exhausted materials and dispose of injured organelles via lysosomal degradation. Autophagy is an early-stage cellular response to stress stimuli in both physiological and pathological situations. It is thought that the promotion of autophagy flux prevents host cells from subsequent injuries by removing damaged organelles and misfolded proteins. As a correlate, the modulation of autophagy is suggested as a therapeutic approach in diverse pathological conditions. Accumulated evidence suggests that intermittent fasting or calorie restriction can lead to the induction of adaptive autophagy and increase longevity of eukaryotic cells. However, prolonged calorie restriction with excessive autophagy response is harmful and can stimulate a type II autophagic cell death. Despite the existence of a close relationship between calorie deprivation and autophagic response in different cell types, the precise molecular mechanisms associated with this phenomenon remain unclear. Here, we aimed to highlight the possible effects of prolonged and short-term calorie restriction on autophagic response and cell homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roya Shabkhizan
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Sanya Haiaty
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Marziyeh Sadat Moslehian
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ahad Bazmani
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Sadeghsoltani
- Student Committee Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Reza Rahbarghazi
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Advanced Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
| | - Ebrahim Sakhinia
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
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20
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Ge J, Wang Y, Chen X, Yu K, Luo ZQ, Liu X, Qiu J. Phosphoribosyl-linked serine ubiquitination of USP14 by the SidE family effectors of Legionella excludes p62 from the bacterial phagosome. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112817. [PMID: 37471226 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Xenophagy is an evolutionarily conserved host defensive mechanism to eliminate invading microorganisms through autophagic machinery. The intracellular bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila can avoid clearance by the xenophagy pathway via the actions of multiple Dot/Icm effector proteins. Previous studies have shown that p62, an adaptor protein involved in xenophagy signaling, is excluded from Legionella-containing vacuoles (LCVs). Such defects are attributed to the multifunctional SidE family effectors (SidEs) that exhibit classic deubiquitinase (DUB) and phosphoribosyl ubiquitination (PR-ubiquitination) activities, yet the mechanism remains elusive. In the present study, we demonstrate that the host DUB USP14 is PR-ubiquitinated by SidEs at multiple serine residues, which impairs its DUB activity and its interactions with p62. The exclusion of p62 from the bacterial phagosome requires the ubiquitin ligase but not the DUB activity of SidEs. These results reveal that PR-ubiquitination of USP14 by SidEs contributes to the evasion of xenophagic clearance by L. pneumophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinli Ge
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Center for Pathogen Biology and Infectious Diseases, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xindi Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Center for Pathogen Biology and Infectious Diseases, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Kaiwen Yu
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Zhao-Qing Luo
- Purdue Institute for Inflammation, Immunology and Infectious Disease and Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Xiaoyun Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Jiazhang Qiu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Center for Pathogen Biology and Infectious Diseases, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
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21
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Rudinskiy M, Molinari M. ER-to-lysosome-associated degradation in a nutshell: mammalian, yeast, and plant ER-phagy as induced by misfolded proteins. FEBS Lett 2023; 597:1928-1945. [PMID: 37259628 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Conserved catabolic pathways operate to remove aberrant polypeptides from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the major biosynthetic organelle of eukaryotic cells. The best known are the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) pathways that control the retrotranslocation of terminally misfolded proteins across the ER membrane for clearance by the cytoplasmic ubiquitin/proteasome system. In this review, we catalog folding-defective mammalian, yeast, and plant proteins that fail to engage ERAD machineries. We describe that they rather segregate in ER subdomains that eventually vesiculate. These ER-derived vesicles are captured by double membrane autophagosomes, engulfed by endolysosomes/vacuoles, or fused with degradative organelles to clear cells from their toxic cargo. These client-specific, mechanistically diverse ER-phagy pathways are grouped under the umbrella term of ER-to-lysosome-associated degradation for description in this essay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail Rudinskiy
- Università della Svizzera italiana, Lugano, Switzerland
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Department of Biology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Maurizio Molinari
- Università della Svizzera italiana, Lugano, Switzerland
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Bellinzona, Switzerland
- School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland
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22
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Gökerküçük EB, Cheron A, Tramier M, Bertolin G. The LC3B FRET biosensor monitors the modes of action of ATG4B during autophagy in living cells. Autophagy 2023; 19:2275-2295. [PMID: 36814061 PMCID: PMC10351462 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2023.2179845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Although several mechanisms of macroautophagy/autophagy have been dissected in the last decade, following this pathway in real time remains challenging. Among the early events leading to its activation, the ATG4B protease primes the key autophagy player MAP1LC3B/LC3B. Given the lack of reporters to follow this event in living cells, we developed a Förster's resonance energy transfer (FRET) biosensor responding to the priming of LC3B by ATG4B. The biosensor was generated by flanking LC3B within a pH-resistant donor-acceptor FRET pair, Aquamarine-tdLanYFP. We here showed that the biosensor has a dual readout. First, FRET indicates the priming of LC3B by ATG4B and the resolution of the FRET image makes it possible to characterize the spatial heterogeneity of the priming activity. Second, quantifying the number of Aquamarine-LC3B puncta determines the degree of autophagy activation. We then showed that there are pools of unprimed LC3B upon ATG4B downregulation, and the priming of the biosensor is abolished in ATG4B knockout cells. The lack of priming can be rescued with the wild-type ATG4B or with the partially active W142A mutant, but not with the catalytically dead C74S mutant. Moreover, we screened for commercially-available ATG4B inhibitors, and illustrated their differential mode of action by implementing a spatially-resolved, broad-to-sensitive analysis pipeline combining FRET and the quantification of autophagic puncta. Finally, we uncovered the CDK1-dependent regulation of the ATG4B-LC3B axis at mitosis. Therefore, the LC3B FRET biosensor paves the way for a highly-quantitative monitoring of the ATG4B activity in living cells and in real time, with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution.Abbreviations: Aqua: aquamarine; ATG: autophagy related; AURKA: aurora kinase A; BafA1: bafilomycin A1; CDK1: cyclin dependent kinase 1; DKO: double knockout; FLIM: fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy; FP: fluorescence protein; FRET: Förster's resonance energy transfer; GABARAP: GABA type A receptor-associated protein; HBSS: Hanks' balanced salt solution; KO: knockout; LAMP2: lysosomal associated membrane protein 2; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; NSC: NSC 185058; PE: phosphatidylethanolamine; SKO: single knockout; TKO: triple knockout; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1; WT: wild-type; ZPCK: Z-L-phe chloromethyl ketone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elif Begüm Gökerküçük
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, IGDR (Institute of Genetics and Development of Rennes), UMR 6290, Rennes, France
| | - Angélique Cheron
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, IGDR (Institute of Genetics and Development of Rennes), UMR 6290, Rennes, France
| | - Marc Tramier
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, IGDR (Institute of Genetics and Development of Rennes), UMR 6290, Rennes, France
| | - Giulia Bertolin
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, IGDR (Institute of Genetics and Development of Rennes), UMR 6290, Rennes, France
- Lead Contact
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23
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Abstract
Mitochondria are often referred to as the "powerhouse" of the cell. However, this organelle has many more functions than simply satisfying the cells' metabolic needs. Mitochondria are involved in calcium homeostasis and lipid metabolism, and they also regulate apoptotic processes. Many of these functions require contact with the ER, which is mediated by several tether proteins located on the respective organellar surfaces, enabling the formation of mitochondria-ER contact sites (MERCS). Upon damage, mitochondria produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can harm the surrounding cell. To circumvent toxicity and to maintain a functional pool of healthy organelles, damaged and excess mitochondria can be targeted for degradation via mitophagy, a form of selective autophagy. Defects in mitochondria-ER tethers and the accumulation of damaged mitochondria are found in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which argues that the interplay between the two organelles is vital for neuronal health. This review provides an overview of the different mechanisms of mitochondrial quality control that are implicated with the different mitochondria-ER tether proteins, and also provides a novel perspective on how MERCS are involved in mediating mitophagy upon mitochondrial damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Rühmkorf
- TUM Medical Graduate Center, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Angelika Bettina Harbauer
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, 81377 Munich, Germany
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24
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Omrane M, Ben M'Barek K, Santinho A, Nguyen N, Nag S, Melia TJ, Thiam AR. LC3B is lipidated to large lipid droplets during prolonged starvation for noncanonical autophagy. Dev Cell 2023; 58:1266-1281.e7. [PMID: 37315562 PMCID: PMC10686041 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2023.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Lipid droplets (LDs) store lipids that can be utilized during times of scarcity via autophagic and lysosomal pathways, but how LDs and autophagosomes interact remained unclear. Here, we discovered that the E2 autophagic enzyme, ATG3, localizes to the surface of certain ultra-large LDs in differentiated murine 3T3-L1 adipocytes or Huh7 human liver cells undergoing prolonged starvation. Subsequently, ATG3 lipidates microtubule-associated protein 1 light-chain 3B (LC3B) to these LDs. In vitro, ATG3 could bind alone to purified and artificial LDs to mediate this lipidation reaction. We observed that LC3B-lipidated LDs were consistently in close proximity to collections of LC3B-membranes and were lacking Plin1. This phenotype is distinct from macrolipophagy, but it required autophagy because it disappeared following ATG5 or Beclin1 knockout. Our data suggest that extended starvation triggers a noncanonical autophagy mechanism, similar to LC3B-associated phagocytosis, in which the surface of large LDs serves as an LC3B lipidation platform for autophagic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohyeddine Omrane
- Laboratoire de Physique de l'École Normale Supérieure, ENS, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris Cité, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Kalthoum Ben M'Barek
- Laboratoire de Physique de l'École Normale Supérieure, ENS, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris Cité, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Alexandre Santinho
- Laboratoire de Physique de l'École Normale Supérieure, ENS, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris Cité, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Nathan Nguyen
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Shanta Nag
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Thomas J Melia
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Abdou Rachid Thiam
- Laboratoire de Physique de l'École Normale Supérieure, ENS, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris Cité, 75005 Paris, France.
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25
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Nguyen TN, Sawa-Makarska J, Khuu G, Lam WK, Adriaenssens E, Fracchiolla D, Shoebridge S, Bernklau D, Padman BS, Skulsuppaisarn M, Lindblom RSJ, Martens S, Lazarou M. Unconventional initiation of PINK1/Parkin mitophagy by Optineurin. Mol Cell 2023; 83:1693-1709.e9. [PMID: 37207627 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2023.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Cargo sequestration is a fundamental step of selective autophagy in which cells generate a double-membrane structure termed an "autophagosome" on the surface of cargoes. NDP52, TAX1BP1, and p62 bind FIP200, which recruits the ULK1/2 complex to initiate autophagosome formation on cargoes. How OPTN initiates autophagosome formation during selective autophagy remains unknown despite its importance in neurodegeneration. Here, we uncover an unconventional path of PINK1/Parkin mitophagy initiation by OPTN that does not begin with FIP200 binding or require the ULK1/2 kinases. Using gene-edited cell lines and in vitro reconstitutions, we show that OPTN utilizes the kinase TBK1, which binds directly to the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase complex I to initiate mitophagy. During NDP52 mitophagy initiation, TBK1 is functionally redundant with ULK1/2, classifying TBK1's role as a selective autophagy-initiating kinase. Overall, this work reveals that OPTN mitophagy initiation is mechanistically distinct and highlights the mechanistic plasticity of selective autophagy pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanh Ngoc Nguyen
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA.
| | - Justyna Sawa-Makarska
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 9, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Grace Khuu
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Wai Kit Lam
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Elias Adriaenssens
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 9, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Dorotea Fracchiolla
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 9, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Stephen Shoebridge
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 9, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniel Bernklau
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 9, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Benjamin Scott Padman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Marvin Skulsuppaisarn
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Runa S J Lindblom
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Sascha Martens
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 9, 1030 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Michael Lazarou
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA.
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26
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Kirat D, Alahwany AM, Arisha AH, Abdelkhalek A, Miyasho T. Role of Macroautophagy in Mammalian Male Reproductive Physiology. Cells 2023; 12:cells12091322. [PMID: 37174722 PMCID: PMC10177121 DOI: 10.3390/cells12091322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Physiologically, autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved and self-degradative process in cells. Autophagy carries out normal physiological roles throughout mammalian life. Accumulating evidence shows autophagy as a mechanism for cellular growth, development, differentiation, survival, and homeostasis. In male reproductive systems, normal spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis need a balance between degradation and energy supply to preserve cellular metabolic homeostasis. The main process of autophagy includes the formation and maturation of the phagophore, autophagosome, and autolysosome. Autophagy is controlled by a group of autophagy-related genes that form the core machinery of autophagy. Three types of autophagy mechanisms have been discovered in mammalian cells: macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy. Autophagy is classified as non-selective or selective. Non-selective macroautophagy randomly engulfs the cytoplasmic components in autophagosomes that are degraded by lysosomal enzymes. While selective macroautophagy precisely identifies and degrades a specific element, current findings have shown the novel functional roles of autophagy in male reproduction. It has been recognized that dysfunction in the autophagy process can be associated with male infertility. Overall, this review provides an overview of the cellular and molecular basics of autophagy and summarizes the latest findings on the key role of autophagy in mammalian male reproductive physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doaa Kirat
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Mohamed Alahwany
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Badr University in Cairo (BUC), Cairo, Badr City 11829, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Hamed Arisha
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Badr University in Cairo (BUC), Cairo, Badr City 11829, Egypt
| | - Adel Abdelkhalek
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Badr University in Cairo (BUC), Cairo, Badr City 11829, Egypt
| | - Taku Miyasho
- Laboratory of Animal Biological Responses, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido 069-8501, Japan
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27
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Gao Q, Fan Y, Wei S, Song S, Guo Y, Wang S, Liu Y, Yan D. Insights into the Global Transcriptome Response of Lentinula edodes Mycelia during Aging. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9030379. [PMID: 36983547 PMCID: PMC10057243 DOI: 10.3390/jof9030379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The spawn of Lentinula edodes and other basidiomycete fungi tend to age with long-term culture. This causes heavy yield losses if aging spawn is used for propagation. In this study, we cultivated dikaryotic L. edodes mycelia in plates for 60 days to produce intrinsic aging phenotypes. We found that intracellular reactive oxygen species levels increased in contrast to mitochondrial depolarization and also observed greater DNA fragmentation with longer culture time. Transcriptome analysis of mycelia at different growth stages revealed pronounced expression differences between short- and long-term cultures. In particular, "phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis", "mitophagy and autophagy", "MAPK signaling pathway", and "ABC transporter" were among the enriched terms in the mycelial aging process. Weighted correlation network analysis identified LeAtg8, LeHog1, LePbs2, and LemTOR as key genes during aging. Western blotting confirmed that LeATG8 and phosphorylated LeHOG1 protein levels were significantly upregulated in aging mycelia. Our combined analytical approach provides insights into the mechanisms that regulate mycelial aging, indicating that autophagy/mitophagy plays a major role in counteracting the effects of age on mycelial growth development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Gao
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Edible Mushroom, Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 9 Shuguang Garden Zhonglu, Haidian District, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Yangyang Fan
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Edible Mushroom, Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 9 Shuguang Garden Zhonglu, Haidian District, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Sai Wei
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Edible Mushroom, Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 9 Shuguang Garden Zhonglu, Haidian District, Beijing 100097, China
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Beijing University of Agriculture, 7 Beinong Road, Changping District, Beijing 102208, China
| | - Shuang Song
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Edible Mushroom, Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 9 Shuguang Garden Zhonglu, Haidian District, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Yuan Guo
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Edible Mushroom, Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 9 Shuguang Garden Zhonglu, Haidian District, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Shouxian Wang
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Edible Mushroom, Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 9 Shuguang Garden Zhonglu, Haidian District, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Edible Mushroom, Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 9 Shuguang Garden Zhonglu, Haidian District, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Dong Yan
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Edible Mushroom, Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 9 Shuguang Garden Zhonglu, Haidian District, Beijing 100097, China
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28
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Ehrmann JF, Grabarczyk DB, Heinke M, Deszcz L, Kurzbauer R, Hudecz O, Shulkina A, Gogova R, Meinhart A, Versteeg GA, Clausen T. Structural basis for regulation of apoptosis and autophagy by the BIRC6/SMAC complex. Science 2023; 379:1117-1123. [PMID: 36758105 DOI: 10.1126/science.ade8873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
Inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) bind to pro-apoptotic proteases, keeping them inactive and preventing cell death. The atypical ubiquitin ligase BIRC6 is the only essential IAP, additionally functioning as a suppressor of autophagy. We performed a structure-function analysis of BIRC6 in complex with caspase-9, HTRA2, SMAC, and LC3B, which are critical apoptosis and autophagy proteins. Cryo-electron microscopy structures showed that BIRC6 forms a megadalton crescent shape that arcs around a spacious cavity containing receptor sites for client proteins. Multivalent binding of SMAC obstructs client binding, impeding ubiquitination of both autophagy and apoptotic substrates. On the basis of these data, we discuss how the BIRC6/SMAC complex can act as a stress-induced hub to regulate apoptosis and autophagy drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian F Ehrmann
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
- Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna and Medical University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniel B Grabarczyk
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Maria Heinke
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Luiza Deszcz
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Robert Kurzbauer
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Otto Hudecz
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexandra Shulkina
- Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna and Medical University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
- Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rebeca Gogova
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
- Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna and Medical University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Anton Meinhart
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gijs A Versteeg
- Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tim Clausen
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
- Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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29
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Varela YR, González-ramírez EJ, Iriondo MN, Ballesteros U, Etxaniz A, Montes LR, Goñi FM, Alonso A. Lipids in Mitochondrial Macroautophagy: Phase Behavior of Bilayers Containing Cardiolipin and Ceramide. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:5080. [PMID: 36982156 PMCID: PMC10049649 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiolipin (CL) is a key lipid for damaged mitochondrial recognition by the LC3/GABARAP human autophagy proteins. The role of ceramide (Cer) in this process is unclear, but CL and Cer have been proposed to coexist in mitochondria under certain conditions. Varela et al. showed that in model membranes composed of egg sphingomyelin (eSM), dioleoyl phosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE), and CL, the addition of Cer enhanced the binding of LC3/GABARAP proteins to bilayers. Cer gave rise to lateral phase separation of Cer-rich rigid domains but protein binding took place mainly in the fluid continuous phase. In the present study, a biophysical analysis of bilayers composed of eSM, DOPE, CL, and/or Cer was attempted to understand the relevance of this lipid coexistence. Bilayers were studied by differential scanning calorimetry, confocal fluorescence microscopy, and atomic force microscopy. Upon the addition of CL and Cer, one continuous phase and two segregated ones were formed. In bilayers with egg phosphatidylcholine instead of eSM, in which the binding of LC3/GABARAP proteins hardly increased with Cer in the former study, a single segregated phase was formed. Assuming that phase separation at the nanoscale is ruled by the same principles acting at the micrometer scale, it is proposed that Cer-enriched rigid nanodomains, stabilized by eSM:Cer interactions formed within the DOPE- and CL-enriched fluid phase, result in structural defects at the rigid/fluid nanointerfaces, thus hypothetically facilitatingLC3/GABARAP protein interaction.
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30
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Takanezawa Y, Kashiwano Y, Nakamura R, Ohshiro Y, Uraguchi S, Kiyono M. Methylmercury drives lipid droplet formation and adipokine expression during the late stages of adipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells. Toxicology 2023; 486:153446. [PMID: 36708982 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2023.153446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Chronic exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) is positively associated with obesity and metabolic syndromes. However, the effect of MeHg on adipogenesis has not been thoroughly investigated. This study investigated the effects of continuous exposure to 0.5 µM MeHg on adipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells. Oil Red O staining and triglycerides (TG) assays demonstrated that MeHg enhanced the TG content in 3T3-L1 cells. MeHg enhanced the mRNA and protein expression of adipocyte differentiation markers including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, adiponectin, and fatty acid-binding protein, and their expression levels were prominent during the late stages (days 6-8) after the induction of differentiation. In addition, 0.5 µM MeHg promoted the expression of autophagy-related genes, including light chain 3 B-II and p62, after induction of differentiation. Treatment of 3T3-L1 cells with chloroquine (CQ), an autophagy inhibitor, during the early stages (days 0-2) after induction of differentiation inhibited cellular lipid accumulation in the presence of 0.5 µM MeHg. However, treatment with CQ during the late stages (days 6-8) had little effect on the MeHg-induced increase in TG content and the expression of adipocyte differentiation markers. Although the underlying mechanisms in the late stages remain to be completely elucidated, but the present data suggest that autophagy and other mechanisms play critical roles in adipogenesis during MeHg-induced differentiation. Collectively, our results suggest that continuous exposure to MeHg induces TG accumulation and expression of genes related to adipogenesis, especially during the late stages of 3T3-L1 differentiation, which may contribute to an improved understanding of MeHg-induced adipogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasukazu Takanezawa
- Department of Public Health, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Yui Kashiwano
- Department of Public Health, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Nakamura
- Department of Public Health, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Yuka Ohshiro
- Department of Public Health, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Shimpei Uraguchi
- Department of Public Health, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Masako Kiyono
- Department of Public Health, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan.
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Walczak M, Meister TR, Nguyen HM, Zhu Y, Besteiro S, Yeh E. Structure-Function Relationship for a Divergent Atg8 Protein Required for a Nonautophagic Function in Apicomplexan Parasites. mBio 2023; 14:e0364221. [PMID: 36625582 PMCID: PMC9973341 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03642-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Atg8 family proteins are highly conserved eukaryotic proteins with diverse autophagy and nonautophagic functions in eukaryotes. While the structural features required for conserved autophagy functions of Atg8 are well established, little is known about the molecular changes that facilitated acquisition of divergent, nonautophagic functions of Atg8. The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum offers a unique opportunity to study nonautophagic functions of Atg8 family proteins because it encodes a single Atg8 homolog whose only essential function is in the inheritance of an unusual secondary plastid called the apicoplast. Here, we used functional complementation to investigate the structure-function relationship for this divergent Atg8 protein. We showed that the LC3-interacting region (LIR) docking site (LDS), the major interaction interface of the Atg8 protein family, is required for P. falciparum Atg8 (PfAtg8) apicoplast localization and function, likely via Atg8 lipidation. On the other hand, another region previously implicated in canonical Atg8 interactions, the N-terminal helix, is not required for apicoplast-specific PfAtg8 function. Finally, our investigations at the cellular level demonstrate that the unique apicomplexan-specific loop, previously implicated in interaction with membrane conjugation machinery in recombinant protein-based in vitro assays, is not required for membrane conjugation nor for the apicoplast-specific effector function of Atg8 in both P. falciparum and related Apicomplexa member Toxoplasma gondii. These results suggest that the effector function of apicomplexan Atg8 is mediated by structural features distinct from those previously identified for macroautophagy and selective autophagy functions. IMPORTANCE The most extensively studied role of Atg8 proteins is in autophagy. However, it is clear that they have other nonautophagic functions critical to cell function and disease pathogenesis that are so far understudied compared to their canonical role in autophagy. Mammalian cells contain multiple Atg8 paralogs that have diverse, specialized functions. Gaining molecular insight into their nonautophagic functions is difficult because of redundancy between the homologs and their role in both autophagy and nonautophagic pathways. Malaria parasites such as Plasmodium falciparum are a unique system to study a novel, nonautophagic function of Atg8 separate from its role in autophagy: they have only one Atg8 protein whose only essential function is in the inheritance of the apicoplast, a unique secondary plastid organelle. Insights into the molecular basis of PfAtg8's function in apicoplast biogenesis will have important implications for the evolution of diverse nonautophagic functions of the Atg8 protein family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Walczak
- Department of Pathology, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Thomas R. Meister
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Hoa Mai Nguyen
- LPHI UMR5235, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Yili Zhu
- Department of Pathology, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | | | - Ellen Yeh
- Department of Pathology, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, California, USA
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Abstract
Autophagy-the lysosomal degradation of cytoplasm-plays a central role in cellular homeostasis and protects cells from potentially harmful agents that may accumulate in the cytoplasm, including pathogens, protein aggregates, and dysfunctional organelles. This process is initiated by the formation of a phagophore membrane, which wraps around a portion of cytoplasm or cargo and closes to form a double-membrane autophagosome. Upon the fusion of the autophagosome with a lysosome, the sequestered material is degraded by lysosomal hydrolases in the resulting autolysosome. Several alternative membrane sources of autophagosomes have been proposed, including the plasma membrane, endosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, lipid droplets, hybrid organelles, and de novo synthesis. Here, we review recent progress in our understanding of how the autophagosome is formed and highlight the proposed role of vesicles that contain the lipid scramblase ATG9 as potential seeds for phagophore biogenesis. We also discuss how the phagophore is sealed by the action of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhen
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Montebello, N-0379 Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, N-0379 Oslo, Norway
- Correspondence: (Y.Z.); (H.S.); Tel.: +47-22781911 (Y.Z.); +47-22781818 (H.S.)
| | - Harald Stenmark
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Montebello, N-0379 Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, N-0379 Oslo, Norway
- Correspondence: (Y.Z.); (H.S.); Tel.: +47-22781911 (Y.Z.); +47-22781818 (H.S.)
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Ding G, Mugume Y, Dueñas ME, Lee YJ, Liu M, Nettleton DS, Zhao X, Li L, Bassham DC, Nikolau BJ. Biological insights from multi-omics analysis strategies: Complex pleotropic effects associated with autophagy. Front Plant Sci 2023; 14:1093358. [PMID: 36875559 PMCID: PMC9978356 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1093358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Research strategies that combine molecular data from multiple levels of genome expression (i.e., multi-omics data), often referred to as a systems biology strategy, has been advocated as a route to discovering gene functions. In this study we conducted an evaluation of this strategy by combining lipidomics, metabolite mass-spectral imaging and transcriptomics data from leaves and roots in response to mutations in two AuTophaGy-related (ATG) genes of Arabidopsis. Autophagy is an essential cellular process that degrades and recycles macromolecules and organelles, and this process is blocked in the atg7 and atg9 mutants that were the focus of this study. Specifically, we quantified abundances of ~100 lipids and imaged the cellular locations of ~15 lipid molecular species and the relative abundance of ~26,000 transcripts from leaf and root tissues of WT, atg7 and atg9 mutant plants, grown either in normal (nitrogen-replete) and autophagy-inducing conditions (nitrogen-deficient). The multi-omics data enabled detailed molecular depiction of the effect of each mutation, and a comprehensive physiological model to explain the consequence of these genetic and environmental changes in autophagy is greatly facilitated by the a priori knowledge of the exact biochemical function of the ATG7 and ATG9 proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geng Ding
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Yosia Mugume
- Department of Genetics, Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | | | - Young Jin Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Meiling Liu
- Department of Statistics, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | | | - Xuefeng Zhao
- Research Information Technology, College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Ling Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States
| | - Diane C. Bassham
- Department of Genetics, Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Basil J. Nikolau
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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Dutta SB, Linneweber GA, Andriatsilavo M, Hiesinger PR, Hassan BA. EGFR-dependent suppression of synaptic autophagy is required for neuronal circuit development. Curr Biol 2023; 33:517-532.e5. [PMID: 36640763 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The development of neuronal connectivity requires stabilization of dynamic axonal branches at sites of synapse formation. Models that explain how axonal branching is coupled to synaptogenesis postulate molecular regulators acting in a spatiotemporally restricted fashion to ensure branching toward future synaptic partners while also stabilizing the emerging synaptic contacts between such partners. We investigated this question using neuronal circuit development in the Drosophila brain as a model system. We report that epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) activity is required in presynaptic axonal branches during two distinct temporal intervals to regulate circuit wiring in the developing Drosophila visual system. EGFR is required early to regulate primary axonal branching. EGFR activity is then independently required at a later stage to prevent degradation of the synaptic active zone protein Bruchpilot (Brp). Inactivation of EGFR results in a local increase of autophagy in presynaptic branches and the translocation of active zone proteins into autophagic vesicles. The protection of synaptic material during this later interval of wiring ensures the stabilization of terminal branches, circuit connectivity, and appropriate visual behavior. Phenotypes of EGFR inactivation can be rescued by increasing Brp levels or downregulating autophagy. In summary, we identify a temporally restricted molecular mechanism required for coupling axonal branching and synaptic stabilization that contributes to the emergence of neuronal wiring specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suchetana B Dutta
- Institut du Cerveau-Paris Brain Institute (ICM), Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié Salpêtrière, 75013 Paris, France; Division of Neurobiology, Free University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany; Einstein-BIH, Charité Universitätsmedizin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Maheva Andriatsilavo
- Institut du Cerveau-Paris Brain Institute (ICM), Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié Salpêtrière, 75013 Paris, France; Division of Neurobiology, Free University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany; Einstein-BIH, Charité Universitätsmedizin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Bassem A Hassan
- Institut du Cerveau-Paris Brain Institute (ICM), Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié Salpêtrière, 75013 Paris, France; Division of Neurobiology, Free University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany; Einstein-BIH, Charité Universitätsmedizin, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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35
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Oh J, Tamborindeguy C. Treatment of Rapamycin and Evaluation of an Autophagic Response in the Gut of Bactericera cockerelli (Sulč). Insects 2023; 14:142. [PMID: 36835711 PMCID: PMC9958837 DOI: 10.3390/insects14020142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic process that results in the autophagosomic-lysosomal degradation of bulk cytoplasmic content, abnormal protein aggregates, and excess of/or damaged organelles to promote cell survival. Autophagy is also a component of innate immunity in insects and is involved in the clearance of pathogens, including bacteria. The potato psyllid, Bactericera cockerelli, transmits the plant bacterial pathogen 'Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum' (Lso) in the Americas and causes serious damage to solanaceous crops. Our previous studies showed that autophagy could be involved in the psyllid response to Lso and could affect pathogen acquisition. However, the tools to evaluate this response have not been validated in psyllids. To this end, the effect of rapamycin, a commonly used autophagy inducer, on potato psyllid survival and the expression of autophagy-related genes was evaluated. Further, the autophagic activity was assessed via microscopy and by measuring the autophagic flux. Artificial diet-feeding assays using rapamycin resulted in significant psyllid mortality, an increase in the autophagic flux, as well as an increase in the amount of autolysosomes. This study represents a stepping stone in determining the role of autophagy in psyllid immunity.
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36
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Mabuchi Y, Cui X, Xie L, Kim H, Jiang T, Yapici N. GABA-mediated inhibition in visual feedback neurons fine-tunes Drosophila male courtship. bioRxiv 2023:2023.01.25.525544. [PMID: 36747836 PMCID: PMC9900824 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.25.525544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Vision is critical for the regulation of mating behaviors in many species. Here, we discovered that the Drosophila ortholog of human GABA A -receptor-associated protein (GABARAP) is required to fine-tune male courtship by modulating the activity of visual feedback neurons, lamina tangential cells (Lat). GABARAP is a ubiquitin-like protein that regulates cell-surface levels of GABA A receptors. Knocking down GABARAP or GABA A receptors in Lat neurons or hyperactivating them induces male courtship toward other males. Inhibiting Lat neurons, on the other hand, delays copulation by impairing the ability of males to follow females. Remarkably, the human ortholog of Drosophila GABARAP restores function in Lat neurons. Using in vivo two-photon imaging and optogenetics, we show that Lat neurons are functionally connected to neural circuits that mediate visually-guided courtship pursuits in males. Our work reveals a novel physiological role for GABARAP in fine-tuning the activity of a visual circuit that tracks a mating partner during courtship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Mabuchi
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, 14853, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Xinyue Cui
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, 14853, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Lily Xie
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, 14853, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Haein Kim
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, 14853, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Tianxing Jiang
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, 14853, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Nilay Yapici
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, 14853, Ithaca, NY, USA
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37
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Yu P, Hua Z. To Kill or to Be Killed: How Does the Battle between the UPS and Autophagy Maintain the Intracellular Homeostasis in Eukaryotes? Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032221. [PMID: 36768543 PMCID: PMC9917186 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitin-26S proteasome system and autophagy are two major protein degradation machineries encoded in all eukaryotic organisms. While the UPS is responsible for the turnover of short-lived and/or soluble misfolded proteins under normal growth conditions, the autophagy-lysosomal/vacuolar protein degradation machinery is activated under stress conditions to remove long-lived proteins in the forms of aggregates, either soluble or insoluble, in the cytoplasm and damaged organelles. Recent discoveries suggested an integrative function of these two seemly independent systems for maintaining the proteome homeostasis. One such integration is represented by their reciprocal degradation, in which the small 76-amino acid peptide, ubiquitin, plays an important role as the central signaling hub. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge about the activity control of proteasome and autophagosome at their structural organization, biophysical states, and turnover levels from yeast and mammals to plants. Through comprehensive literature studies, we presented puzzling questions that are awaiting to be solved and proposed exciting new research directions that may shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying the biological function of protein degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peifeng Yu
- Department of Environmental and Plant Biology, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program in Molecular and Cellular Biology, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA
| | - Zhihua Hua
- Department of Environmental and Plant Biology, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program in Molecular and Cellular Biology, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA
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38
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Hasan KMM, Haque MA. Autophagy and Its Lineage-Specific Roles in the Hematopoietic System. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2023; 2023:8257217. [PMID: 37180758 PMCID: PMC10171987 DOI: 10.1155/2023/8257217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a dynamic process that regulates the selective and nonselective degradation of cytoplasmic components, such as damaged organelles and protein aggregates inside lysosomes to maintain tissue homeostasis. Different types of autophagy including macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperon-mediated autophagy (CMA) have been implicated in a variety of pathological conditions, such as cancer, aging, neurodegeneration, and developmental disorders. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism and biological functions of autophagy have been extensively studied in vertebrate hematopoiesis and human blood malignancies. In recent years, the hematopoietic lineage-specific roles of different autophagy-related (ATG) genes have gained more attention. The evolution of gene-editing technology and the easy access nature of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), hematopoietic progenitors, and precursor cells have facilitated the autophagy research to better understand how ATG genes function in the hematopoietic system. Taking advantage of the gene-editing platform, this review has summarized the roles of different ATGs at the hematopoietic cell level, their dysregulation, and pathological consequences throughout hematopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazi Md Mahmudul Hasan
- Department of Health Technology and Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
- Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia 7003, Bangladesh
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, The University of California, 710 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Md Anwarul Haque
- Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia 7003, Bangladesh
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Iriondo MN, Etxaniz A, Varela YR, Ballesteros U, Lázaro M, Valle M, Fracchiolla D, Martens S, Montes LR, Goñi FM, Alonso A. Effect of ATG12-ATG5-ATG16L1 autophagy E3-like complex on the ability of LC3/GABARAP proteins to induce vesicle tethering and fusion. Cell Mol Life Sci 2023; 80:56. [PMID: 36729310 PMCID: PMC9894987 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-023-04704-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
In macroautophagy, the autophagosome (AP) engulfs portions of cytoplasm to allow their lysosomal degradation. AP formation in humans requires the concerted action of the ATG12 and LC3/GABARAP conjugation systems. The ATG12-ATG5-ATG16L1 or E3-like complex (E3 for short) acts as a ubiquitin-like E3 enzyme, promoting LC3/GABARAP proteins anchoring to the AP membrane. Their role in the AP expansion process is still unclear, in part because there are no studies comparing six LC3/GABARAP family member roles under the same conditions, and also because the full human E3 was only recently available. In the present study, the lipidation of six members of the LC3/GABARAP family has been reconstituted in the presence and absence of E3, and the mechanisms by which E3 and LC3/GABARAP proteins participate in vesicle tethering and fusion have been investigated. In the absence of E3, GABARAP and GABARAPL1 showed the highest activities. Differences found within LC3/GABARAP proteins suggest the existence of a lipidation threshold, lower for the GABARAP subfamily, as a requisite for tethering and inter-vesicular lipid mixing. E3 increases and speeds up lipidation and LC3/GABARAP-promoted tethering. However, E3 hampers LC3/GABARAP capacity to induce inter-vesicular lipid mixing or subsequent fusion, presumably through the formation of a rigid scaffold on the vesicle surface. Our results suggest a model of AP expansion in which the growing regions would be areas where the LC3/GABARAP proteins involved should be susceptible to lipidation in the absence of E3, or else a regulatory mechanism would allow vesicle incorporation and phagophore growth when E3 is present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina N. Iriondo
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain ,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Asier Etxaniz
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain ,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Yaiza R. Varela
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain ,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Uxue Ballesteros
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain ,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Melisa Lázaro
- CIC bioGUNE, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Bizkaia Technology Park, Building 800, 48160 Derio, Bizkaia Spain
| | - Mikel Valle
- CIC bioGUNE, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Bizkaia Technology Park, Building 800, 48160 Derio, Bizkaia Spain
| | - Dorotea Fracchiolla
- Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 9, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sascha Martens
- Max Perutz Labs, University of Vienna, Vienna BioCenter, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 9, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - L. Ruth Montes
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain ,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Félix M. Goñi
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain ,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Alicia Alonso
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, 48940, Leioa, Spain. .,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, 48940, Leioa, Spain.
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Zhang J, Li L, Yu J, Zhang F, Shi J, LI M, Liu J, Li H, Gao J, Wu Y. Autophagy-Modulated Biomaterial: A Robust Weapon for Modulating the Wound Environment to Promote Skin Wound Healing. Int J Nanomedicine 2023; 18:2567-2588. [PMID: 37213350 PMCID: PMC10198186 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s398107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy, a self-renewal mechanism, can help to maintain the stability of the intracellular environment of organisms. Autophagy can also regulate several cellular functions and is strongly related to the onset and progression of several diseases. Wound healing is a biological process that is coregulated by different types of cells. However, it is troublesome owing to prolonged treatment duration and poor recovery. In recent years, biomaterials have been reported to influence the skin wound healing process by finely regulating autophagy. Biomaterials that regulate autophagy in various cells involved in skin wound healing to regulate the differentiation, proliferation and migration of cells, inflammatory responses, oxidative stress and formation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) have emerged as a key method for improving the tissue regeneration ability of biomaterials. During the inflammatory phase, autophagy enhances the clearance of pathogens from the wound site and leads to macrophage polarization from the M1 to the M2 phenotype, thus preventing enhanced inflammation that can lead to further tissue damage. Autophagy plays important roles in facilitating the formation of extracellular matrix (ECM) during the proliferative phase, removing excess intracellular ROS, and promoting the proliferation and differentiation of endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and keratinocytes. This review summarizes the close association between autophagy and skin wound healing and discusses the role of biomaterial-based autophagy in tissue regeneration. The applications of recent biomaterials designed to target autophagy are highlighted, including polymeric materials, cellular materials, metal nanomaterials, and carbon-based materials. A better understanding of biomaterial-regulated autophagy and skin regeneration and the underlying molecular mechanisms may open new possibilities for promoting skin regeneration. Moreover, this can lay the foundation for the development of more effective therapeutic approaches and novel biomaterials for clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Zhang
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Luxin Li
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jing Yu
- Department of Endocrinology, Hongqi Hospital Affiliated to Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, 157011, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fan Zhang
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiayi Shi
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Meiyun LI
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianyong Liu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Wuhan Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Haitao Li
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Wuhan Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jie Gao
- Changhai Clinical Research Unit, Shanghai Changhai Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, People’s Republic of China
- Jie Gao, Changhai Clinical Research Unit, Shanghai Changhai Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, People’s Republic of China, Tel/Fax +86 21-31166666, Email
| | - Yan Wu
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Yan Wu, College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang, 157001, People’s Republic of China, Tel/Fax +86-453-6984647, Email
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41
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Reid SE, Kolapalli SP, Nielsen TM, Frankel LB. Canonical and non-canonical roles for ATG8 proteins in autophagy and beyond. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:1074701. [PMID: 36601581 PMCID: PMC9806848 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1074701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
During autophagy, the ATG8 family proteins have several well-characterized roles in facilitating early, mid, and late steps of autophagy, including autophagosome expansion, cargo recruitment and autophagosome-lysosome fusion. Their discovery has importantly allowed for precise experimental monitoring of the pathway, bringing about a huge expansion of research in the field over the last decades. In this review, we discuss both canonical and non-canonical roles of the autophagic lipidation machinery, with particular focus on the ATG8 proteins, their post-translational modifications and their increasingly uncovered alternative roles mediated through their anchoring at different membranes. These include endosomes, macropinosomes, phagosomes and the plasma membrane, to which ATG8 proteins can bind through canonical or alternative lipidation. Beyond new ATG8 binding partners and cargo types, we also explore several open questions related to alternative outcomes of autophagic machinery engagement beyond degradation. These include their roles in plasma membrane repair and secretion of selected substrates as well as the physiological implications hereof in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Lisa B. Frankel
- Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Copenhagen, Denmark,Biotech Research and Innovation Center, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark,*Correspondence: Lisa B. Frankel,
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42
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Ilic D, Magnussen HM, Tirard M. Stress - Regulation of SUMO conjugation and of other Ubiquitin-Like Modifiers. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2022; 132:38-50. [PMID: 34996712 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Stress is unavoidable and essential to cellular and organismal evolution and failure to adapt or restore homeostasis can lead to severe diseases or even death. At the cellular level, stress drives a plethora of molecular changes, of which variations in the profile of protein post-translational modifications plays a key role in mediating the adaptative response of the genome and proteome to stress. In this context, post-translational modification of proteins by ubiquitin-like modifiers, (Ubl), notably SUMO, is an essential stress response mechanism. In this review, aiming to draw universal concepts of the Ubls stress response, we will decipher how stress alters the expression level, activity, specificity and/or localization of the proteins involved in the conjugation pathways of the various type-I Ubls, and how this result in the modification of particular Ubl targets that will translate an adaptive physiological stress response and allow cells to restore homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragana Ilic
- Department of Epigenetics, Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, D-79108 Freiburg; Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg; Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, D-37075 Göttingen
| | - Helge M Magnussen
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitination Unit, Sir James Black Center, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, UK
| | - Marilyn Tirard
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, D-37075 Göttingen.
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43
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Sui GY, Wang F, Lee J, Roh YS. Mitochondrial Control in Inflammatory Gastrointestinal Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232314890. [PMID: 36499214 PMCID: PMC9736936 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria play a central role in the pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colorectal cancer (CRC). The maintenance of mitochondrial function is necessary for a stable immune system. Mitochondrial dysfunction in the gastrointestinal system leads to the excessive activation of multiple inflammatory signaling pathways, leading to IBD and increased severity of CRC. In this review, we focus on the mitochondria and inflammatory signaling pathways and its related gastrointestinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Yan Sui
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Feng Wang
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Lee
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Correspondence: (J.L.); (Y.S.R.)
| | - Yoon Seok Roh
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: (J.L.); (Y.S.R.)
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44
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Cason SE, Mogre SS, Holzbaur ELF, Koslover EF. Spatiotemporal analysis of axonal autophagosome-lysosome dynamics reveals limited fusion events and slow maturation. Mol Biol Cell 2022; 33:ar123. [PMID: 36044338 PMCID: PMC9634976 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e22-03-0111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Macroautophagy is a homeostatic process required to clear cellular waste. Neuronal autophagosomes form constitutively in the distal tip of the axon and are actively transported toward the soma, with cargo degradation initiated en route. Cargo turnover requires autophagosomes to fuse with lysosomes to acquire degradative enzymes; however, directly imaging these fusion events in the axon is impractical. Here we use a quantitative model, parameterized and validated using data from primary hippocampal neurons, to explore the autophagosome maturation process. We demonstrate that retrograde autophagosome motility is independent of fusion and that most autophagosomes fuse with only a few lysosomes during axonal transport. Our results indicate that breakdown of the inner autophagosomal membrane is much slower in neurons than in nonneuronal cell types, highlighting the importance of this late maturation step. Together, rigorous quantitative measurements and mathematical modeling elucidate the dynamics of autophagosome-lysosome interaction and autophagosomal maturation in the axon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sydney E. Cason
- Department of Physiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Saurabh S. Mogre
- Department of Physics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | | | - Elena F. Koslover
- Department of Physics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093,*Address correspondence to: Elena F. Koslover ()
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45
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Song I, Hong S, Huh SU. Identification and Expression Analysis of the Solanum tuberosum StATG8 Family Associated with the WRKY Transcription Factor. Plants (Basel) 2022; 11:2858. [PMID: 36365311 PMCID: PMC9659186 DOI: 10.3390/plants11212858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is an evolutionarily well-conserved cellular catabolic pathway in eukaryotic cells and plays an important role in cellular processes. Autophagy is regulated by autophagy-associated (ATG) proteins. Among these ATG proteins, the ubiquitin-like protein ATG8/LC3 is essential for autophagosome formation and function. In this study, the potato StATG8 family showed clade I and clade II with significantly different sequences. Expression of the StATG8 family was also increased in senescence. Interestingly, the expression of the StATG8 and other core StATG genes decreased in potato tubers as the tubers matured. The StATG8 family also responded to a variety of stresses such as heat, wounding, salicylic acid, and salt stress. We also found that some Arabidopsis WRKY transcription factors interacted with the StATG8 protein in planta. Based on group II-a WRKY, StATG8-WRKY interaction is independent of the ATG8 interacting motif (AIM) or LC3 interacting region (LIR) motif. This study showed that the StATG8 family had diverse functions in tuber maturation and multiple stress responses in potatoes. Additionally, StATG8 may have an unrelated autophagy function in the nucleus with the WRKY transcription factor.
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46
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Yu X, Su W, Zhang H, Niu M, Liu X, Li Z, Liu C, Wang H, Yin W, Xia X. Genome-wide analysis of autophagy-related gene family and PagATG18a enhances salt tolerance by regulating ROS homeostasis in poplar. Int J Biol Macromol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.10.240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Abstract
Macroautophagy/autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved intracellular degradation pathway that maintains cellular homeostasis. Over the past two decades, a series of scientific breakthroughs have helped explain autophagy-related molecular mechanisms and physiological functions. This tremendous progress continues to depend largely on powerful research methods, specifically, various autophagy marker Atg8-PE protein-based methods for studying membrane dynamics and monitoring autophagic activity. Recently, several biochemical approaches have been successfully developed to produce the lipidated protein Atg8-PE or its mimics in vitro, including enzyme-mediated reconstitution systems, chemically defined reconstitution systems, cell-free lipidation systems and protein chemical synthesis. These approaches have contributed important insights into the mechanisms underlying Atg8-mediated membrane dynamics and protein-protein interactions, creating a new perspective in autophagy studies. In this review, we comprehensively summarize Atg8-PE protein-based in vitro biochemical approaches and recent advances to facilitate a better understanding of autophagy mechanisms. In addition, we highlight the advantages and disadvantages of various Atg8-PE protein-based approaches to provide general guidance for their use in studying autophagy.Abbreviations: ATG: autophagy related; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; COPII: coat protein complex II; DGS-NTA: 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-[(N-(5-amino-1-carboxypentyl)iminodiacetic acid)succinyl] (nickel salt); DPPE: 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine; DSPE: 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine; E. coli: Escherichia coli; EPL: expressed protein ligation; ERGIC: ER-Golgi intermediate compartment; GABARAP: GABA type A receptor-associated protein; GABARAPL1: GABA type A receptor associated protein like 1; GABARAPL2: GABA type A receptor associated protein like 2; GFP: green fluorescent protein; GUVs: giant unilamellar vesicles; LIR: LC3-interacting region; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MBP: maltose binding protein; MEFs: mouse embryonic fibroblasts; MESNa: 2-mercaptoethanesulfonic acid sodium salt; NCL: native chemical ligation; NTA: nitrilotriacetic acid; PE: phosphatidylethanolamine; PS: phosphatidylserine; PtdIns3K: class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PtdIns3P: phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate; SPPS: solid-phase peptide synthesis; TEV: tobacco etch virus; WT: wild-type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Huang
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jia Yao
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Lu Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yu Luo
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Aimin Yang
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China,CONTACT Aimin Yang School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
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48
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West G, Turunen M, Aalto A, Virtanen L, Li SP, Heliö T, Meinander A, Taimen P. A heterozygous p.S143P mutation in LMNA associates with proteasome dysfunction and enhanced autophagy-mediated degradation of mutant lamins A and C. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:932983. [PMID: 36111332 PMCID: PMC9468711 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.932983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Lamins A and C are nuclear intermediate filament proteins that form a proteinaceous meshwork called lamina beneath the inner nuclear membrane. Mutations in the LMNA gene encoding lamins A and C cause a heterogenous group of inherited degenerative diseases known as laminopathies. Previous studies have revealed altered cell signaling pathways in lamin-mutant patient cells, but little is known about the fate of mutant lamins A and C within the cells. Here, we analyzed the turnover of lamins A and C in cells derived from a dilated cardiomyopathy patient with a heterozygous p.S143P mutation in LMNA. We found that transcriptional activation and mRNA levels of LMNA are increased in the primary patient fibroblasts, but the protein levels of lamins A and C remain equal in control and patient cells because of a meticulous interplay between autophagy and the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). Both endogenous and ectopic expression of p.S143P lamins A and C cause significantly reduced activity of UPS and an accumulation of K48-ubiquitin chains in the nucleus. Furthermore, K48-ubiquitinated lamins A and C are degraded by compensatory enhanced autophagy, as shown by increased autophagosome formation and binding of lamins A and C to microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3. Finally, chaperone 4-PBA augmented protein degradation by restoring UPS activity as well as autophagy in the patient cells. In summary, our results suggest that the p.S143P-mutant lamins A and C have overloading and deleterious effects on protein degradation machinery and pharmacological interventions with compounds enhancing protein degradation may be beneficial for cell homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gun West
- Institute of Biomedicine and FICAN West Cancer Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland,InFLAMES Research Flagship Center, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Minttu Turunen
- Institute of Biomedicine and FICAN West Cancer Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland,InFLAMES Research Flagship Center, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Anna Aalto
- InFLAMES Research Flagship Center, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland,Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Laura Virtanen
- Institute of Biomedicine and FICAN West Cancer Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland,InFLAMES Research Flagship Center, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Song-Ping Li
- Institute of Biomedicine and FICAN West Cancer Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland,InFLAMES Research Flagship Center, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Tiina Heliö
- Heart and Lung Center Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Annika Meinander
- InFLAMES Research Flagship Center, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland,Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Pekka Taimen
- Institute of Biomedicine and FICAN West Cancer Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland,InFLAMES Research Flagship Center, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland,Department of Pathology, Laboratory Division, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland,*Correspondence: Pekka Taimen,
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49
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Voronina S, Chvanov M, De Faveri F, Mayer U, Wileman T, Criddle D, Tepikin A. Autophagy, Acute Pancreatitis and the Metamorphoses of a Trypsinogen-Activating Organelle. Cells 2022; 11:cells11162514. [PMID: 36010591 PMCID: PMC9406838 DOI: 10.3390/cells11162514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have highlighted the importance of autophagy and particularly non-canonical autophagy in the development and progression of acute pancreatitis (a frequent disease with considerable morbidity and significant mortality). An important early event in the development of acute pancreatitis is the intrapancreatic activation of trypsinogen, (i.e., formation of trypsin) leading to the autodigestion of the organ. Another prominent phenomenon associated with the initiation of this disease is vacuolisation and specifically the formation of giant endocytic vacuoles in pancreatic acinar cells. These organelles develop in acinar cells exposed to several inducers of acute pancreatitis (including taurolithocholic acid and high concentrations of secretagogues cholecystokinin and acetylcholine). Notably, early trypsinogen activation occurs in the endocytic vacuoles. These trypsinogen-activating organelles undergo activation, long-distance trafficking, and non-canonical autophagy. In this review, we will discuss the role of autophagy in acute pancreatitis and particularly focus on the recently discovered LAP-like non-canonical autophagy (LNCA) of endocytic vacuoles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Voronina
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signalling, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Michael Chvanov
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signalling, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Francesca De Faveri
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signalling, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Ulrike Mayer
- Biomedical Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Tom Wileman
- Quadram Institute Bioscience and Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7UQ, UK
| | - David Criddle
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signalling, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Alexei Tepikin
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signalling, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
- Correspondence:
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50
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Varela YR, Iriondo MN, Etxaniz A, Ballesteros U, Montes LR, Goñi FM, Alonso A. Ceramide enhances binding of LC3/GABARAP autophagy proteins to cardiolipin-containing membranes. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 217:748-760. [PMID: 35839958 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Macroautophagy, or autophagy, is a process in which cell macromolecules, or even organelles, are engulfed in a double-membrane vesicle, the autophagosome, and directed to a lysosome. Among autophagy-related proteins, LC3/GABARAP constitute a protein family derived from yeast Atg8. They play important roles in autophagosome formation, binding future cargo organelles and promoting autophagosome growth. The involvement of specific lipids in this process is poorly understood. The present study explores the interaction of LC3/GABARAP proteins with phospholipid monolayers and bilayers based on phosphatidylcholine or on sphingomyelin. Cardiolipin is found to be essential for the protein interaction with such bilayers, as measured through gradient centrifugation experiments, while ceramide markedly increases binding. Giant unilamellar vesicles examined under confocal fluorescence microscopy reveal that ceramide segregates laterally into very rigid domains, while GABARAP binds only the more fluid regions, suggesting that the enhancing role of ceramide is exerted by the minority of ceramide molecules dispersed in the fluid phase. Although in further autophagy steps the LC3/GABARAP proteins are covalently bound to a phospholipid, this is not the case in our system, thus it is proposed that the observed ceramide effects would correspond to very early stages in the process, such as cargo recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaiza R Varela
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain
| | - Marina N Iriondo
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain
| | - Asier Etxaniz
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain
| | - Uxue Ballesteros
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain
| | - L Ruth Montes
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain
| | - Félix M Goñi
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain
| | - Alicia Alonso
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain.
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