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Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a common inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Although the etiology of MS is unknown, genetics and environmental factors, such as infections, play a role. Viral infections of mice have been used as model systems to study this demyelinating disease of humans. Three viruses that have long been studied in this capacity are Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus, mouse hepatitis virus, and Semliki Forest virus. This review describes the viruses themselves, the infection process, the disease caused by infection and its accompanying pathology, and the model systems and their usefulness in studying MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Libbey
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - R S Fujinami
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA.
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2
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Neal JW, Gasque P. The role of primary infection of Schwann cells in the aetiology of infective inflammatory neuropathies. J Infect 2016; 73:402-418. [PMID: 27546064 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2016.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Numerous different pathogens are responsible for infective peripheral neuropathies and this is generally the result of the indirect effects of pathogen infection, namely anti pathogen antibodies cross reacting with epitopes on peripheral nerve, auto reactive T cells attacking myelin, circulating immune complexes and complement fixation. Primary infection of Schwann cells (SC) associated with peripheral nerve inflammation is rare requiring pathogens to cross the Blood Peripheral Nerve Barrier (BPNB) evade anti-pathogen innate immune pathways and invade the SC. Spirochetes Borrelia bourgdorferi and Trepomema pallidum are highly invasive, express surface lipo proteins, but despite this SC are rarely infected. However, Trypanosoma cruzi (Chaga's disease) and Mycobacterium leprae. Leprosy are two important causes of peripheral nerve infection and both demonstrate primary infection of SC. This is due to two novel strategies; T. cruzi express a trans-silalidase that mimics host neurotrophic factors and infects SC via tyrosine kinase receptors. M. leprae demonstrates multi receptor SC tropism and subsequent infection promotes nuclear reprogramming and dedifferentiation of host SC into progenitor stem like cells (pSLC) that are vulnerable to M. leprae infection. These two novel pathogen evasion strategies, involving stem cells and receptor mimicry, provide potential therapeutic targets relevant to the prevention of peripheral nerve inflammation by inhibiting primary SC infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Neal
- Infection and Immunity, Henry Wellcome Building, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom.
| | - P Gasque
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie Clinique et Expérimentale de l'OI (LICE-OI), Centre recherche Immuno-clinique des agents pathogènes de l'OI (CRIC-AP OI) Pôle Biologie Santé, Hôpital Félix Guyon, CHU de la Réunion, Reunion.
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3
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Abstract
The caliciviruses are by far the major cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis, highly infectious, and have a rapid and severe onset of symptoms. Studies on this family of viruses have been hampered by the lack of animal model and tissue culture system. However, recent advances in protein expression systems and the development of a mouse norovirus animal model has led to rapid advances in our understanding of these viruses with regard to structure and the host immune response. Our current understanding of this important family of viruses is reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umesh Katpally
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, Saint Louis, MO, 63132, USA
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4
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Abstract
Demyelination of the human peripheral nervous system (PNS) can be caused by diverse mechanisms including viral infection. Despite association of several viruses with the development of peripheral demyelination, animal models of the condition have been limited to disease that is either autoimmune or genetic in origin. We describe here a model of PNS demyelination based on direct injection of sciatic nerves of mice with the cardiovirus, Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV). Sciatic nerves of FVB mice develop inflammatory cell infiltration following TMEV injection. Schwann cells and macrophages are infected with TMEV. Viral replication is observed initially in the sciatic nerves and subsequently the spinal cord. Sciatic nerves are demyelinated by day 5 post-inoculation (p.i.). Injecting sciatic nerves of scid mice resulted in increased levels of virus recovered from the sciatic nerve and spinal cord relative to FVB mice. Demyelination also occurred in scid mice and by 12 days p.i., hindlimbs were paralyzed. This new model of virus-induced peripheral demyelination may be used to dissect processes involved in protection of the PNS from viral insult and to study the early phases of lesion development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen M Drescher
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, 2500 California Plaza, Criss II, Room 424, Omaha, NE 68178, USA.
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5
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Villarreal D, Young CR, Storts R, Ting JW, Welsh CJR. A comparison of the neurotropism of Theiler's virus and poliovirus in CBA mice. Microb Pathog 2006; 41:149-56. [PMID: 16935465 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2006.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2005] [Accepted: 01/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) and poliovirus infect the central nervous system (CNS) and cause neurological damage. The exact route by which TMEV and polioviruses enter the CNS remains, for the most part, unknown, although the neural and/or the hematogenous pathway have both been postulated. To explore these hypotheses, this research focuses on both the site of entry and the pathway used to invade the CNS. Following different inoculation sites of the GDVII strain of Theiler's virus or Lansing Type 2 poliovirus in CBA mice, the incidence of paralysis and/or encephalitis was evaluated on the basis of clinical signs and histopathology. The forms of paralysis displayed corresponded to the site of viral inoculation. Following intramuscular (i.m.), intraperitoneal (i.p.), and footpad routes of injection, bilateral and or contralateral paralyses were observed for both TMEV and poliovirus. In mice injected intratongue and in the hypoglossal nerve, tongue paralysis or paralysis of the forelimb, which progressed to bilateral forelimb paralysis, was observed, additionally the penis of most infected males was protruded. Intracranial (i.c.) injections with type II poliovirus strain resulted in forelimb paralysis. Intravenous (i.v.), injections with TMEV also resulted in forelimb paralysis. Thus Lansing Type II poliovirus and TMEV infections of CBA mice, result in similar incidence of paralysis and histopathological findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Villarreal
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4458, USA
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6
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Abstract
We describe a case of fatal neonatal enteroviral infection caused by echovirus 7. Multiple treatments, including specific antiviral therapy, were attempted and failed. Studies of the viral isolate, maternal plasma, intravenous immunoglobulin preparations and pleconaril were performed to identify potential causes for treatment failure.
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MESH Headings
- Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use
- Enterovirus B, Human/classification
- Enterovirus B, Human/drug effects
- Enterovirus B, Human/genetics
- Enterovirus Infections/drug therapy
- Enterovirus Infections/immunology
- Enterovirus Infections/virology
- Fatal Outcome
- Female
- Humans
- Immunoglobulins, Intravenous/therapeutic use
- Immunologic Factors/therapeutic use
- Infant, Newborn
- Infant, Premature
- Infant, Premature, Diseases/drug therapy
- Infant, Premature, Diseases/immunology
- Infant, Premature, Diseases/virology
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Oxadiazoles/therapeutic use
- Oxazoles
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Treatment Failure
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison C Rentz
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
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7
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Tsunoda I, Fujinami RS. TMEV and Neuroantigens: Myelin Genes and Proteins, Molecular Mimicry, Epitope Spreading, and Autoantibody-Mediated Remyelination. Experimental Models of Multiple Sclerosis 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/0-387-25518-4_29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
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Reddi HV, Kumar ASM, Kung AY, Kallio PD, Schlitt BP, Lipton HL. Heparan sulfate-independent infection attenuates high-neurovirulence GDVII virus-induced encephalitis. J Virol 2004; 78:8909-16. [PMID: 15280499 PMCID: PMC479051 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.16.8909-8916.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The high-neurovirulence Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) strain GDVII uses heparan sulfate (HS) as a coreceptor to enter target cells. We report here that GDVII virus adapted to growth in HS-deficient cells exhibited two amino acid substitutions (R3126L and N1051S) in the capsid and no longer used HS as a coreceptor. Infectious-virus yields in CHO cells were 25-fold higher for the adapted virus than for the parental GDVII virus, and the neurovirulence of the adapted virus in intracerebrally inoculated mice was substantially attenuated. The adapted virus showed altered cell tropism in the central nervous systems of mice, shifting from cerebral and brainstem neurons to spinal cord anterior horn cells; thus, severe poliomyelitis, but not acute encephalitis, was observed in infected mice. These data indicate that the use of HS as a coreceptor by GDVII virus facilitates cell entry and plays an important role in cell tropism and neurovirulence in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honey V Reddi
- Department of Neurology, Evanston Hospital, 2650 Ridge Ave., Evanston, IL 60201, USA
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Reddi HV, Kallio P, Lipton HL. Galactose is needed only for expression of co-receptors used by Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus as the virus does not directly bind galactose or use the UDP-galactose transporter as a receptor. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:845-849. [PMID: 12655085 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.18746-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infects most mammalian cells, but a TMEV receptor has not been identified. Studies have demonstrated that the UDP-galactose transporter (UGT) is critical for TMEV attachment and entry into mammalian cells (Hertzler et al., Virology 286, 336-344, 2001). It was suggested that UGT might function as a TMEV receptor. We have demonstrated that polyclonal rabbit antibodies to human UGT that cross-react with hamster UGT do not block binding to or infection of mammalian cells by either high- or low-neurovirulence TMEV. In addition, incubation of virus with galactose, or blocking galactose on the cell surface with lectins, does not inhibit TMEV binding or infection. Thus, TMEV needs UGT for its transporter activity and galactose for assembly of its co-receptors (attachment factors) but does not bind directly to galactose. Excluding direct involvement of UGT and galactose in TMEV binding and entry provides further insight into how TMEV interacts with the host cell and should facilitate ongoing studies to identify a TMEV receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honey V Reddi
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Neurology, Evanston Hospital, 2650 Ridge Avenue, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
| | - Patricia Kallio
- Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Neurology, Evanston Hospital, 2650 Ridge Avenue, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
| | - Howard L Lipton
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Neurology, Evanston Hospital, 2650 Ridge Avenue, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
- Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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10
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Abstract
Low-neurovirulence BeAn and DA Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis viruses (TMEV) cause persistent infection in the central nervous system (CNS) of susceptible mouse strains, leading to an inflammatory demyelinating process. A role for a specific virus-cell receptor interaction has been posited to explain why only low- and not high-neurovirulence TMEV cause persistent CNS infections. Low- but not high-neurovirulence TMEV use sialic acid for attachment to mammalian cells, which may contribute to neurovirulence attenuation and viral persistence. Analysis of BeAn virus binding and infection in cells with altered (mutated) cell-surface expression of sialic acid containing glyconjugates indicated that both binding and infection are mediated entirely by N-linked glycoproteins. By contrast, GDVII virus binding and infection appears to be dependent only in part on N-linked glycoproteins and not on O-linked glycoproteins or glycolipids. These results indicate that low-neurovirulence BeAn virus uses a sialic acid moiety expressed on an N-linked carbohydrate of a glycoprotein that serves as the protein entry receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankur H Shah
- Department of Neurology, Evanston Hospital, Evanston/Chicago, IL 60201, USA
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11
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Abstract
The mechanisms by which Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) binds and enters host cells and the molecules involved are not completely understood. In this study, we demonstrate that the high-neurovirulence TMEV GDVII virus uses the glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) as an attachment factor that is required for efficient infection. Studies based on soluble HS-mediated inhibition of attachment and infection, removal of HS with specific enzymes, and blocking with anti-HS antibodies establish that HS mediates GDVII virus entry into mammalian cells. Data from defined proteoglycan-deficient Chinese hamster ovary mutant cells further support the role of HS in GDVII infection and indicate that the extent of sulfation is critical for infection. Neuraminidase treatment of proteoglycan-deficient cells restores permissiveness to GDVII virus, indicating that sialic acid hinders direct access of virus to the protein entry receptor. A model of the potential steps in GDVII virus entry into mammalian cells involving HS is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honey V Reddi
- Department of Neurology, Evanston Hospital, Illinois 60201, USA
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McCright IJ, Tsunoda I, Libbey JE, Fujinami RS. Mutation in loop I of VP1 of Theiler's virus delays viral RNA release into cells and enhances antibody-mediated neutralization: a mechanism for the failure of persistence by the mutant virus. J Neurovirol 2002; 8:100-10. [PMID: 11935462 DOI: 10.1080/13550280290049561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The DA strain of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis viruses (TMEV) causes a central nervous system (CNS) demyelinating disease with viral persistence despite the presence of high serum anti-TMEV antibody titers. The DA virus mutant, T81D, was created to have a mutation at position 81 in loop I of VP1, close to the putative virus receptor binding site. T81D showed slower replication in vitro and in vivo. T81D-infected mice developed anti-TMEV antibody responses with no virus persistence. We tested whether the differences between the viruses were due to alteration in virus-cell interactions, or in the resistance to neutralization by anti-TMEV antibody. Using radiolabeled viruses, we found no difference in binding to permissive cell lines between the mutant and wild-type viruses. In a semipermissive cell line, DA virus bound more efficiently than T81D. During the uncoating step, both viruses decapsidated without the production of stable intermediates and 80% of viruses were eluted or decapsidated after 45 minutes. At the final step of uncoating, however, T81D showed a slower rate of RNA release than DA virus into cells using a photoinactivation assay. Anti-TMEV monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies neutralized T81D virus more efficiently than DA virus in suspension. Further, these anti-TMEV antibodies were able to neutralize viruses that had already attached to cells but not internalized (postadsorption neutralization [PAN]). However, DA virus showed significant resistance to PAN after cells were incubated at 37 degrees C compared with T81D-infected cells. The development of resistance to PAN appeared to correlate with the rate of RNA release from virions into cells. In T81D virus infection, the slow RNA release and high susceptibility to neutralization by antibodies would result in a failure to establish virus persistence in vivo. Conversely, rapid RNA release and resistance to neutralization could favor virus persistence in DA virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingeborg J McCright
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, USA
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13
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Libbey JE, Tsunoda I, Fujinami RS. Altered cell growth and morphology in a BHK-21 cell mutant that lacks a receptor for Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. Virology 2002; 294:85-93. [PMID: 11886268 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2001.1312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The receptor for Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) remains unknown. In vitro, BHK-21 cells are permissive to infection by TMEV. Selecting mutants of BHK-21 cells produced a cell line (BHKR-) resistant to infection by TMEV. Viral persistence was ruled out by immunofluorescent staining for viral antigens. BHKR- cells were nonpermissive to infection even at high multiplicities of infection. In contrast, cells were able to support one round of virus replication when transfected with infectious TMEV RNA. Binding studies indicated that TMEV was unable to attach to these cells. These data are consistent with the BHKR- cells lacking a receptor for TMEV. Interestingly, BHKR- cells were larger in size and had a significant lag in growth after subculture versus BHK-21 cells. This suggests that the TMEV receptor on BHK-21 cells could play an important role in cell growth and morphology under physiologic conditions. BHKR- cells should facilitate the search for TMEV receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Libbey
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 30 N 1900 E, Room 3R330, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
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