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Jin YH, Kim CX, Huang J, Kim BS. Infection and Activation of B Cells by Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus (TMEV) Leads to Autoantibody Production in an Infectious Model of Multiple Sclerosis. Cells 2020; 9:cells9081787. [PMID: 32727036 PMCID: PMC7465974 DOI: 10.3390/cells9081787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces immune-mediated inflammatory demyelinating disease in susceptible mice that is similar to human multiple sclerosis (MS). In light of anti-CD20 therapies for MS, the susceptibility of B cells to TMEV infection is particularly important. In our study, direct viral exposure to macrophages and lymphocytes resulted in viral replication and cellular stimulation in the order of DCs, macrophages, B cells, and T cells. Notably, B cells produced viral proteins and expressed elevated levels of CD69, an activation marker. Similarly, the expression of major histocompatibility complex class II and costimulatory molecules in B cells was upregulated. Moreover, TMEV-infected B cells showed elevated levels of antigen-presenting function and antibody production. TMEV infection appeared to polyclonally activate B cells to produce autoantibodies and further T cell stimulation. Thus, the viral infection might potentially affect the outcome of autoimmune diseases, and/or the development of other chronic infections, including the protection and/or pathogenesis of TMEV-induced demyelinating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Hee Jin
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA;
- KM Application Center, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daegu 41062, Korea
- Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 34114, Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.-H.J.); (B.S.K.); Tel.: +82-42-610-8850 (Y.-H.J.); +1-312-503-8693 (B.S.K.)
| | - Charles X. Kim
- Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA;
- M Health Fairview Heart Clinic, University of Minnesota Health, Edina, MN 55435, USA
| | - Jocelin Huang
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA;
- M Health Cancer Care, University of Minnesota Health, Edina, MN 55435, USA
| | - Byung S. Kim
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA;
- Correspondence: (Y.-H.J.); (B.S.K.); Tel.: +82-42-610-8850 (Y.-H.J.); +1-312-503-8693 (B.S.K.)
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Hansmann F, Zhang N, Herder V, Leitzen E, Baumgärtner W. Delayed Astrogliosis Associated with Reduced M1 Microglia Activation in Matrix Metalloproteinase 12 Knockout Mice during Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E1702. [PMID: 30959793 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20071702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis (TME) represents a versatile animal model for studying the pathogenesis of demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Hallmarks of TME are demyelination, astrogliosis, as well as inflammation. Previous studies showed that matrix metalloproteinase 12 knockout (Mmp12−/−) mice display an ameliorated clinical course associated with reduced demyelination. The present study aims to elucidate the impact of MMP12 deficiency in TME with special emphasis on astrogliosis, macrophages infiltrating the central nervous system (CNS), and the phenotype of microglia/macrophages (M1 or M2). SJL wild-type and Mmp12−/− mice were infected with TME virus (TMEV) or vehicle (mock) and euthanized at 28 and 98 days post infection (dpi). Immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence of cervical and thoracic spinal cord for detecting glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1), chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2), CD107b, CD16/32, and arginase I was performed and quantitatively evaluated. Statistical analyses included the Kruskal–Wallis test followed by Mann–Whitney U post hoc tests. TMEV-infected Mmp12−/− mice showed transiently reduced astrogliosis in association with a strong trend (p = 0.051) for a reduced density of activated/reactive microglia/macrophages compared with wild-type mice at 28 dpi. As astrocytes are an important source of cytokine production, including proinflammatory cytokines triggering or activating phagocytes, the origin of intralesional microglia/macrophages as well as their phenotype were determined. Only few phagocytes in wild-type and Mmp12−/− mice expressed CCR2, indicating that the majority of phagocytes are represented by microglia. In parallel to the reduced density of activated/reactive microglia at 98 dpi, TMEV-infected Mmp12−/− showed a trend (p = 0.073) for a reduced density of M1 (CD16/32- and CD107b-positive) microglia, while no difference regarding the density of M2 (arginase I- and CD107b-positive) cells was observed. However, a dominance of M1 cells was detected in the spinal cord of TMEV-infected mice at all time points. Reduced astrogliosis in Mmp12−/− mice was associated with a reduced density of activated/reactive microglia and a trend for a reduced density of M1 cells. This indicates that MMP12 plays an important role in microglia activation, polarization, and migration as well as astrogliosis and microglia/astrocyte interaction.
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Palumbo S, Bosetti F. Alterations of brain eicosanoid synthetic pathway in multiple sclerosis and in animal models of demyelination: role of cyclooxygenase-2. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2013; 89:273-8. [PMID: 24095587 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2013.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is a physiological response to exogenous and endogenous stimuli and, together with demyelination and immune system activation, is one of the key features of multiple sclerosis (MS). Arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism by cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LO) enzymes leads to the production of proinflammatory eicosanoids, and stimulates cytokine production and activation of microglia and astrocytes, thereby contributing to MS pathology. Current therapies target the immune system but do not specifically target AA-related inflammatory pathway. Corticosteroids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are frequently associated with immunomodulatory therapies to treat flu-like adverse effects. Few clinical and mounting preclinical data in MS show that AA metabolism contributes to immune system activation, demyelination and motor disabilities, and administration of NSAIDs reduces these symptoms. The beneficial effect of NSAIDs seems to be a prerogative of COX-2 selective inhibitors and suggests that NSAIDs selective for COX-2 may be more effective than mixed COX-1/2 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Palumbo
- Molecular Neuroscience Unit, Brain Physiology and Metabolism Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, 20892 Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Jafari M, Haist V, Baumgärtner W, Wagner S, Stein VM, Tipold A, Wendt H, Potschka H. Impact of Theiler's virus infection on hippocampal neuronal progenitor cells: differential effects in two mouse strains. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2013; 38:647-64. [PMID: 22288387 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2012.01256.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Disease-associated alterations in hippocampal neurogenesis are discussed as an important factor contributing to long-term consequences of central nervous system diseases. Therefore, the study aimed to determine the impact of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus infection on hippocampal cell proliferation, neuronal progenitor cells and neurogenesis as well as the influence of microglia on respective disease-associated alterations. METHODS The impact of the infection was evaluated in two mouse strains which differ in the disease course, with an acute polioencephalitis followed by virus elimination in C57BL/6 mice and a chronic demyelinating disease in SJL/J mice. RESULTS Infection with the low neurovirulent BeAn strain did not exert significant acute effects regardless of the mouse strain. In the chronic phase, the number of neuronal progenitor cells and early postmitotic neurones was significantly reduced in infected SJL/J mice, whereas no long-term alterations were observed in C57BL/6 mice. A contrasting course of microglia activation was observed in the two mouse strains, with an early increase in the number of activated microglia cells in SJL/J mice and a delayed increase in C57BL/6 mice. Quantitative analysis did not confirm a correlation between the number of activated microglia and the number of neuronal progenitor cells and early postmitotic neurones. However, flow cytometric analyses revealed alterations in the functional state of microglial cells which might have affected the generation of neuronal progenitor cells. CONCLUSIONS Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus infection can exert delayed effects on the hippocampal neuronal progenitor population with long-term alterations evident 3 months following infection. These alterations proved to depend on strain susceptibility and might contribute to detrimental consequences of virus encephalitis such as cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Jafari
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
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Abstract
Demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis are chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases with a heterogeneous clinical presentation and course. Both the adaptive and the innate immune systems have been suggested to contribute to their pathogenesis and recovery. In this review, we discuss the role of the innate immune system in mediating demyelinating diseases. In particular, we provide an overview of the anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory functions of dendritic cells, mast cells, natural killer (NK) cells, NK-T cells, γδ T cells, microglial cells, and astrocytes. We emphasize the interaction of astroctyes with the immune system and how this interaction relates to the demyelinating pathologies. Given the pivotal role of the innate immune system, it is possible that targeting these cells may provide an effective therapeutic approach for demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lior Mayo
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Granja AG, Carrillo-Salinas F, Pagani A, Gómez-Cañas M, Negri R, Navarrete C, Mecha M, Mestre L, Fiebich BL, Cantarero I, Calzado MA, Bellido ML, Fernandez-Ruiz J, Appendino G, Guaza C, Muñoz E. A cannabigerol quinone alleviates neuroinflammation in a chronic model of multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2012; 7:1002-16. [PMID: 22971837 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-012-9399-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2012] [Accepted: 09/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Phytocannabinoids like ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) show a beneficial effect on neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative processes through cell membrane cannabinoid receptor (CBr)-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Natural and synthetic cannabinoids also target the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARγ), an attractive molecular target for the treatment of neuroinflammation. As part of a study on the SAR of phytocannabinoids, we have investigated the effect of the oxidation modification in the resorcinol moiety of cannabigerol (CBG) on CB(1), CB(2) and PPARγ binding affinities, identifying cannabigerol quinone (VCE-003) as a potent anti-inflammatory agent. VCE-003 protected neuronal cells from excitotoxicity, activated PPARγ transcriptional activity and inhibited the release of pro-inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated microglial cells. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) model of multiple sclerosis (MS) was used to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity of this compound in vivo. Motor function performance was evaluated and the neuroinflammatory response and gene expression pattern in brain and spinal cord were studied by immunostaining and qRT-PCR. We found that VCE-003 ameliorated the symptoms associated to TMEV infection, decreased microglia reactivity and modulated the expression of genes involved in MS pathophysiology. These data lead us to consider VCE-003 to have high potential for drug development against MS and perhaps other neuroinflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aitor G Granja
- Vivacell Biotechnology España S.L. Parque Científico Tecnológico Rabanales 21, c/Cecilia Payne, Parcela ID 8.1, 14014, Córdoba, Spain
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Gerhauser I, Hansmann F, Puff C, Kumnok J, Schaudien D, Wewetzer K, Baumgärtner W. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus induced phenotype switch of microglia in vitro. J Neuroimmunol 2012; 252:49-55. [PMID: 22967352 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2012] [Revised: 07/21/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The present in vitro study aimed to define the involvement of astrocytes and microglia in the initial inflammatory response of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis (TME), a virus-induced mouse model of multiple sclerosis, and whether intralesional microglia exert pro- (M1) or anti-inflammatory (M2) effects following TME virus (TMEV) infection. Therefore astrocytes and microglia were purified from neonatal murine brains and inoculated either with TMEV or mock-solution. Gene expression of IL-1, IL-2, IL-10, IL-12, TNF, TNF receptors (TNFR1, TNFR2), TGFβ1, IFNγ and transcription factors NF-κB (p50, p65) and AP-1 (c-jun, c-fos) were quantified using RT-qPCR at 6, 48, and 240h post infection (hpi). In addition, IL-1, IL-10, IL-12, TNF and TGFβ1 mRNA transcripts were investigated at 168 hpi in TMEV- and mock-infected SJL/J mice. Overall in vitro astrocytes showed a significant higher amount of viral RNA compared to microglia. In addition, TMEV-infected astrocytes showed higher numbers of IL-1, IL-12 and TNF transcripts at 48 hpi. In microglia high IL-10 and low IL-12 mRNA levels were detected at 48 hpi, while the opposite was the case at 240 hpi. In addition, TNF mRNA was increased in microglia at 240 hpi. In addition, the observed up-regulation of IL-1, IL-12 and IL-10 in the early phase of TME in vivo substantiates the relevance of these cytokines during the disease induction. Summarized data indicate that TMEV infection of microglia induces a switch from the anti-inflammatory (M2) during the early phase to the pro-inflammatory (M1) phenotype in the later phase of the infection. The simultaneous expression of TNF and its receptors by both cell types might generate autocrine feedback loops possibly associated with pro-inflammatory actions of astrocytes via TNFR1.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Gerhauser
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, D-30559 Hannover, Germany.
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Abstract
Viral infections of laboratory mice have considerable impact on research results, and prevention of such infections is therefore of crucial importance. This chapter covers infections of mice with the following viruses: herpesviruses, mousepox virus, murine adenoviruses, polyomaviruses, parvoviruses, lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, mammalian orthoreovirus serotype 3, murine hepatitis virus, murine norovirus, murine pneumonia virus, murine rotavirus, Sendai virus, and Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus. For each virus, there is a description of the agent, epizootiology, clinical symptoms, pathology, methods of diagnosis and control, and its impact on research.
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Jin YH, Kim SJ, So EY, Meng L, Colonna M, Kim BS. Melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 is critical for protection against Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease. J Virol 2012; 86:1531-43. [PMID: 22090123 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.06457-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of dendritic and glial cells with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces various cytokines via Toll-like receptor- and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5)-dependent pathways. However, the involvement and role of MDA5 in cytokine gene activation and the pathogenesis of TMEV-induced demyelinating disease are largely unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that MDA5 plays a critical role in the production of TMEV-induced alpha interferon (IFN-α) during early viral infection and in protection against the development of virus-induced demyelinating disease. Our results indicate that MDA5-deficient 129SvJ mice display significantly higher viral loads and apparent demyelinating lesions in the central nerve system (CNS) accompanied by clinical symptoms compared with wild-type 129SvJ mice. During acute viral infection, MDA5-deficient mice produced elevated levels of chemokines, consistent with increased cellular infiltration, but reduced levels of IFN-α, known to control T cell responses and cellular infiltration. Additional studies with isolated CNS glial cells from these mice suggest that cells from MDA5-deficient mice are severely compromised in the production of IFN-α upon viral infection, which results in increased cellular infiltration and viral loads in the CNS. Despite inadequate stimulation, the overall T cell responses to the viral determinants were significantly elevated in MDA5-deficient mice, reflecting the increased cellular infiltration. Therefore, the lack of MDA5-mediated IFN-α production may facilitate a massive viral load and elevated cellular infiltration in the CNS during early viral infection, leading to the pathogenesis of demyelinating disease.
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Gao Z, Tsirka SE. Animal Models of MS Reveal Multiple Roles of Microglia in Disease Pathogenesis. Neurol Res Int 2011; 2011:383087. [PMID: 22203900 DOI: 10.1155/2011/383087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 09/05/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive inflammatory and demyelinating disease that affects more than 2.5 million people worldwide every year. Current therapies use mostly disease-modifying drugs, focusing on blocking and regulating systemic functions and the central nervous system (CNS) infiltration of immune cells; however, these therapies only attenuate or delay MS symptoms, but are not effective in halting the disease progression. More recent evidence indicated that regulation of inflammation within the CNS might be a better way to approach the treatment of the disease and microglia, the resident immune cells, may be a promising target of therapeutic studies. Microglia activation classically accompanies MS development, and regulation of microglia function changes the outcome of the disease. In this paper, we review the contributions of microglia to MS pathogenesis and discuss microglial functions in antigen presentation, cytokine release, and phagocytosis. We describe data both from animal and human studies. The significant impact of the timing, intensity, and differentiation fate of activated microglia is discussed, as they can modulate MS outcomes and potentially be critically modified for future therapeutic studies.
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Kang SS, McGavern DB. Microbial induction of vascular pathology in the CNS. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2010; 5:370-86. [PMID: 20401700 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-010-9208-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2009] [Accepted: 03/10/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) is a finely tuned organ that participates in nearly every aspect of our day-to-day function. Neurons lie at the core of this functional unit and maintain an active dialogue with one another as well as their fellow CNS residents (e.g. astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia). Because of this complex dialogue, it is essential that the CNS milieu be tightly regulated in order to permit uninterrupted and efficient neural chemistry. This is accomplished in part by anatomical barriers that segregate vascular components from the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and brain parenchyma. These barriers impede entry of noxious materials and enable the CNS to maintain requisite protein and ionic balances for constant electrochemical signaling. Under homeostatic conditions, the CNS is protected by the presence of specialized endothelium/epithelium, the blood brain barrier (BBB), and the blood-CSF barrier. However, following CNS infection these protective barriers can be comprised, sometimes resulting in severe neurological complications triggered by an imbalance or blockage of neural chemistry. In some instances, these disruptions are severe enough to be fatal. This review focuses on a selection of microbes (both viruses and parasites) that compromise vascular barriers and induce neurological complications upon gaining access to the CNS. Emphasis is placed on CNS diseases that result from a pathogenic interplay between host immune defenses and the invading microbe.
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Merson TD, Binder MD, Kilpatrick TJ. Role of cytokines as mediators and regulators of microglial activity in inflammatory demyelination of the CNS. Neuromolecular Med 2010; 12:99-132. [PMID: 20411441 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-010-8112-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2009] [Accepted: 02/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As the resident innate immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), microglia fulfil a critical role in maintaining tissue homeostasis and in directing and eliciting molecular responses to CNS damage. The human disease Multiple Sclerosis and animal models of inflammatory demyelination are characterized by a complex interplay between degenerative and regenerative processes, many of which are regulated and mediated by microglia. Cellular communication between microglia and other neural and immune cells is controlled to a large extent by the activity of cytokines. Here we review the role of cytokines as mediators and regulators of microglial activity in inflammatory demyelination, highlighting their importance in potentiating cell damage, promoting neuroprotection and enhancing cellular repair in a context-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias D Merson
- Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Centre for Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.
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Ulrich R, Kalkuhl A, Deschl U, Baumgärtner W. Machine learning approach identifies new pathways associated with demyelination in a viral model of multiple sclerosis. J Cell Mol Med 2009; 14:434-48. [PMID: 19183246 PMCID: PMC3837619 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00646.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis is an experimentally virus-induced inflammatory demyelinating disease of the spinal cord, displaying clinical and pathological similarities to chronic progressive multiple sclerosis. The aim of this study was to identify pathways associated with chronic demyelination using an assumption-free combined microarray and immunohistology approach. Movement control as determined by rotarod assay significantly worsened in Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis -virus-infected SJL/J mice from 42 to 196 days after infection (dpi). In the spinal cords, inflammatory changes were detected 14 to 196 dpi, and demyelination progressively increased from 42 to 196 dpi. Microarray analysis revealed 1001 differentially expressed genes over the study period. The dominating changes as revealed by k-means and functional annotation clustering included up-regulations related to intrathecal antibody production and antigen processing and presentation via major histocompatibility class II molecules. A random forest machine learning algorithm revealed that down-regulated lipid and cholesterol biosynthesis, differentially expressed neurite morphogenesis and up-regulated toll-like receptor-4-induced pathways were intimately associated with demyelination as measured by immunohistology. Conclusively, although transcriptional changes were dominated by the adaptive immune response, the main pathways associated with demyelination included up-regulation of toll-like receptor 4 and down-regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis. Cholesterol biosynthesis is a rate limiting step of myelination and its down-regulation is suggested to be involved in chronic demyelination by an inhibition of remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reiner Ulrich
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg, Hannover, Germany.
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Kang MH, So EY, Park H, Kim BS. Replication of Theiler's virus requires NF-kappa B-activation: higher viral replication and spreading in astrocytes from susceptible mice. Glia 2008; 56:942-53. [PMID: 18383344 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
To investigate viral replication and cell-cell spreading in astrocytes, recombinant Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) during the replication was generated. GFP and TMEV proteins were processed correctly in infected cells and production of viral proteins could be tracked by fluorescent microscopy. Viral replication of both wild-type TMEV and GFP-TMEV was dependent on the activation of NF-kappaB and partially MAP kinase, based on chemical inhibition studies. Viral replication was significantly reduced in primary astrocytes from NF-kappaB1 (p105)-deficient mice compared with that from wild-type control mice, whereas cytokine production was enhanced. These results suggest an association of canonical NF-kappaB subunits in viral replication, but not cytokine production. Viral replication was also suppressed in both IKKalpha and IKKbeta-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), compared with that in wild-type MEF. However, the inhibition was significantly greater in IKKbeta-deficient MEF, suggesting that IKKbeta plays a stronger role in supporting viral replication. Interestingly, viral replication and spreading in primary astrocytes from susceptible SJL/J mice were several-fold higher than those in astrocytes from resistant C57BL/6 mice, suggesting that higher viral replication levels in astrocytes may also contribute to the viral persistence in the central nervous system (CNS) of susceptible SJL/J mice. A relatively higher level of activated NF-kappaB was found in the nuclei of virus-infected SJL astrocytes compared with C57BL/6 astrocytes suggest that the NF-kappaB activation level affects on viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Hyung Kang
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
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Steurbaut S, Merckx E, Rombaut B, Vrijsen R. Modulation of viral replication in macrophages persistently infected with the DA strain of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. Virol J 2008; 5:89. [PMID: 18680564 PMCID: PMC2515842 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-5-89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2008] [Accepted: 08/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Demyelinating strains of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) such as the DA strain are the causative agents of a persistent infection that induce a multiple sclerosis-like disease in the central nervous system of susceptible mice. Viral persistence, mainly associated with macrophages, is considered to be an important disease determinant that leads to chronic inflammation, demyelination and autoimmunity. In a previous study, we described the establishment of a persistent DA infection in RAW macrophages, which were therefore named DRAW. Results In the present study we explored the potential of diverse compounds to modulate viral persistence in these DRAW cells. Hemin was found to increase viral yields and to induce cell lysis. Enviroxime and neutralizing anti-TMEV monoclonal antibody were shown to decrease viral yields, whereas interferon-α and interferon-γ completely cleared the persistent infection. We also compared the cytokine pattern secreted by uninfected RAW, DRAW and interferon-cured DRAW macrophages using a cytokine protein array. The chemokine RANTES was markedly upregulated in DRAW cells and restored to a normal expression level after abrogation of the persistent infection with interferon-α or interferon-γ. On the other hand, the chemokine MCP-1 was upregulated in the interferon-cured DRAW cells. Conclusion We have identified several compounds that modulate viral replication in an in vitro model system for TMEV persistence. These compounds now await further testing in an in vivo setting to address fundamental questions regarding persistent viral infection and immunopathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephane Steurbaut
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
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Myoung J, Bahk YY, Kang HS, Dal Canto MC, Kim BS. Anticapsid immunity level, not viral persistence level, correlates with the progression of Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in viral P1-transgenic mice. J Virol 2008; 82:5606-17. [PMID: 18353953 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.02442-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracranial infection of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces demyelination and a neurological disease in susceptible SJL/J (SJL) mice that resembles multiple sclerosis. While the virus is cleared from the central nervous system (CNS) of resistant C57BL/6 (B6) mice, it persists in SJL mice. To investigate the role of viral persistence and its accompanying immune responses in the development of demyelinating disease, transgenic mice expressing the P1 region of the TMEV genome (P1-Tg) were employed. Interestingly, P1-Tg mice with the B6 background showed severe reductions in both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell responses to capsid epitopes, while P1-Tg mice with the SJL background displayed transient reductions following viral infection. Reduced antiviral immune responses in P1-Tg mice led to >100- to 1,000-fold increases in viral persistence at 120 days postinfection in the CNS of mice with both backgrounds. Despite the increased CNS TMEV levels in these P1-Tg mice, B6 P1-Tg mice developed neither neuropathological symptoms nor demyelinating lesions, and SJL P1-Tg mice developed significantly less severe TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. These results strongly suggest that viral persistence alone is not sufficient to induce disease and that the level of T-cell immunity to viral capsid epitopes is critical for the development of demyelinating disease in SJL mice.
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Gerhauser I, Ulrich R, Alldinger S, Baumgärtner W. Induction of activator protein-1 and nuclear factor-kappaB as a prerequisite for disease development in susceptible SJL/J mice after theiler murine encephalomyelitis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2007; 66:809-18. [PMID: 17805011 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e3181461f31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler murine encephalomyelitis (TME) represents an important mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Activator protein and nuclear factor-kappaB proteins are interacting transcription factors controlling the expression of cytokines involved in the demyelination process. However, specific expression patterns of these transcription factors in susceptible and resistant mouse strains and their relationship to demyelination remains to be determined. The expression of activator protein-1 (c-fos and c-jun) and nuclear factor-kappaB (p50 and p65) genes, TME virus, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interferon-gamma was investigated in the spinal cord of TME virus (BeAn strain)-infected SJL/J and C57BL/6 mice until 196 days postinfection (dpi) using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Additionally, c-fos, c-jun, and p50 expression was examined by applying immunohistochemistry. In susceptible SJL/J mice, in contrast to resistant C57BL/6 mice, all investigated mRNA transcripts were upregulated in the early (0-7 days dpi) and late phases (28-196 days dpi) of TME. In addition, white matter lesions of SL/J mice were characterized by c-jun-positive astrocytes and p50-positive mononuclear immune cells. Upregulation of activator protein-1 and nuclear factor-kappaB in resident glial cells in the early phase followed by strong downstream tumor necrosis factor-alpha production might account for disease development in susceptible SJL/J mice. In the late phase, the formation of JUN/JUN homodimers in intralesional astrocytes might contribute to the sustained release of proinflammatory cytokines, thereby promoting disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingo Gerhauser
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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Jin YH, Mohindru M, Kang MH, Fuller AC, Kang B, Gallo D, Kim BS. Differential virus replication, cytokine production, and antigen-presenting function by microglia from susceptible and resistant mice infected with Theiler's virus. J Virol 2007; 81:11690-702. [PMID: 17715222 PMCID: PMC2168808 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01034-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) in the central nervous system (CNS) causes an immune system-mediated demyelinating disease similar to human multiple sclerosis in susceptible but not resistant strains of mice. To understand the underlying mechanisms of differential susceptibility, we analyzed viral replication, cytokine production, and costimulatory molecule expression levels in microglia and macrophages in the CNS of virus-infected resistant C57BL/6 (B6) and susceptible SJL/J (SJL) mice. Our results indicated that message levels of TMEV, tumor necrosis factor alpha, beta interferon, and interleukin-6 were consistently higher in microglia from virus-infected SJL mice than in those from B6 mice. However, the levels of costimulatory molecule expression, as well as the ability to stimulate allogeneic T cells, were significantly lower in TMEV-infected SJL mice than in B6 mice. In addition, microglia from uninfected naïve mice displayed differential viral replication, T-cell stimulation, and cytokine production, similar to those of microglia from infected mice. These results strongly suggest that different levels of intrinsic susceptibility to TMEV infection, cytokine production, and T-cell activation ability by microglia contribute to the levels of viral persistence and antiviral T-cell responses in the CNS, which are critical for the differential susceptibility to TMEV-induced demyelinating disease between SJL and B6 mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Hee Jin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg Medical School, 303 E. Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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Gerhauser I, Alldinger S, Baumgärtner W. Ets-1 represents a pivotal transcription factor for viral clearance, inflammation, and demyelination in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2007; 188:86-94. [PMID: 17599467 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2007] [Revised: 05/23/2007] [Accepted: 05/23/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Demyelination of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis (TME) depends on viral persistence and on the mouse genotype. Ets-1 expression, a transcription factor involved in T cell activation and cytokine expression, was investigated in the spinal cord during TME using RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry. Resistant C57BL/6 mice lacking virus persistence and demyelination demonstrated a stronger upregulation of Ets-1 mRNA transcripts in the early phase of TME compared to susceptible SJL/J mice probably linked to viral clearance. Though strong Ets-1 expression in resident glial cells such as astrocytes might inhibit lesion development, delayed Ets-1 activation in inflammatory cells seemed to promote demyelination in the late phase of TME in SJL/J mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingo Gerhauser
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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Mohindru M, Kang B, Kim BS. Initial capsid-specific CD4(+) T cell responses protect against Theiler's murine encephalomyelitisvirus-induced demyelinating disease. Eur J Immunol 2006; 36:2106-15. [PMID: 16761311 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200535785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) infection by Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) causes an immune-mediated demyelinating disease similar to human multiple sclerosis in susceptible mice. To understand the pathogenic mechanisms, we analyzed the level, specificity, and function of CD4(+) Th cells in susceptible SJL/J and resistant C57BL/6 mice. Compared to resistant mice, susceptible mice have three- to fourfold higher levels of overall CNS-infiltrating CD4(+) T cells during acute infection. CD4(+) T cells in the CNS of both strains display various activation markers and produce high levels of IFN-gamma upon stimulation with anti-CD3 antibody. However, susceptible mice display significantly fewer (tenfold) IFN-gamma-producing Th1 cells specific for viral capsid epitopes as compared to resistant mice. Furthermore, preimmunization with capsid-epitope peptides significantly increased capsid-specific CD4(+) T cells in the CNS during the early stages of viral infection and delayed the development of demyelinating disease in SJL/J mice. This suggests a protective role of capsid-reactive Th cells during early viral infection. Therefore, a low level of the protective Th1 response to viral capsid proteins, in conjunction with Th1 responses to unknown epitopes may delay viral clearance in susceptible mice leading to pathogenesis of demyelination during acute infection, as compared to resistant mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mani Mohindru
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg Medical School, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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So EY, Kang MH, Kim BS. Induction of chemokine and cytokine genes in astrocytes following infection with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus is mediated by the Toll-like receptor 3. Glia 2006; 53:858-67. [PMID: 16586493 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection in the central nervous system (CNS) induces a demyelinating disease similar to human multiple sclerosis. TMEV infection results in activation of various chemokine and cytokine genes that are important in the initiation of an inflammatory response. We have previously shown that the production of these chemokines and cytokines in astrocytes is induced via the NF-kappaB pathway following TMEV and Coxsackie virus infection. In this study, we investigated whether the NF-kappaB-dependent inflammatory responses after TMEV infection is triggered through TLR3 and/or TLR7. The activation of NF-kappaB or IRF/ISRE, as well as the production of both MCP-1/CCL2 and IL-8/CXCL8, was observed in only TLR3-transfected HEK 293 cells, but not in TLR7-tranfected cells. The potential involvement of TLR3 in mouse embryonic fibroblasts and primary astrocytes was further investigated following transfection with wildtype or dominant negative form of TLRs and MyD88, as well as astrocytes from TLR3- and MyD88-deficient mice. Similarly, the activation of transcription factors and chemokine genes is induced in these mouse cells through primarily TLR3 signaling pathway, but not TLR7 or other MyD88-mediated pathways following TMEV infection. However, the TLR3-mediated cellular activation does not appear to affect the level of viral replication in astrocytes. These results strongly suggest that TLR3-signaling by TMEV alone is sufficient to induce the initial inflammatory cytokine responses that could be very important for the outcome of virus-induced encephalitis and/or demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eui Young So
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Abstract
Theiler's virus causes a persistent and demyelinating infection of the central nervous system of the mouse, which is one of the best animal models to study multiple sclerosis. This review focuses on the mechanism of persistence. The virus infects neurons for a few weeks and then shifts to white matter, where it persists in glial cells and macrophages. Oligodendrocytes are crucial host cells, as shown by the resistance to persistent infection of mice bearing myelin mutations. Two viral proteins, L and L*, contribute to persistence by interfering with host defenses. L, a small zinc-finger protein, restricts the production of interferon. L*, a unique example of a picornaviral protein translated from an overlapping open reading frame, facilitates the infection of macrophages. Susceptibility to persistent infection, which varies among inbred mouse strains, is multigenic. H2 class I genes have a major effect on susceptibility. Among several non-H2 susceptibility loci, Tmevp3 appears to regulate the expression of important cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Brahic
- Unité des Virus Lents, URA CNRS 1930, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.
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Abstract
In recent years, West Nile virus (WNV) has emerged as a major cause of encephalitis in the United States. However, the neuropathogenesis of this flavivirus is poorly understood. In the present study, the authors used primary human brain cell cultures to investigate two neuropathogenic features: viral replication and induction of cytokines. Although neurons and astrocytes were found to support productive WNV infection, viral growth was poorly permissive in microglial cells. Compared to neuronal cultures that sustained viral growth for at least 2 weeks, replication peaked in astrocytes by 72 h post infection. In response to viral infection, astrocytes produced chemokines (CXCL10 and CCL5), but none of the cytokines (tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-alpha, interleukin [IL]-1beta, IL-6, interferon alpha or gamma) tested could be detected. Although microglial cells failed to support viral replication, WNV induced production of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-alpha. Microglial cells also released robust amounts of the chemokines CXCL10 and CCL2, as well as lower levels of CCL5, in response to WNV infection. WNV-induced chemokine and cytokine production by microglia was coupled with activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) intracellular signaling pathways. Inhibition of p38 MAPK decreased chemokine production in response to WNV. Taken together, these findings suggest that microglial cell responses may influence the neuropathogenesis of WNV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim C-J Cheeran
- Neuroimmunology Laboratory, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, University of Minnesota Medical School, 55455, USA.
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