Photogeneration and quenching of singlet molecular oxygen by bacterial C40 carotenoids with long chain of conjugated double bonds

Measurement of photosensitized luminescence of singlet oxygen has been applied to studies of singlet oxygen generation and quenching by C40 carotenoids (neurosporene, lycopene, rhodopin, and spirilloxanthin) with long chain of conjugated double bonds (CDB) using hexafluorobenzene as a solvent. It has been found that neurosporene, lycopene, and rhodopin are capable of the low efficient singlet oxygen generation in aerated solutions upon photoexcitation in the spectral region of their main absorption maxima. The quantum yield of this process was estimated to be (1.5-3.0) × 10-2. This value is near the singlet oxygen yields in solutions of ζ-carotene (7 CDB) and phytoene (3 CDB) and many-fold smaller than in solutions of phytofluene (5 CDB) (Ashikhmin et al. Biochemistry (Mosc) 85:773-780, https://doi.org/10.1134/S0006297920070056 , 2020, Biochemistry (Mosc) 87:1169-1178, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1134/S00062979221001082022 ). Photogeneration of singlet oxygen was not observed in spirilloxanthin solutions. A correlation was found between the singlet oxygen yields and the quantum yields and lifetimes of the fluorescence of the carotenoid molecules. All carotenoids were shown to be strong physical quenchers of singlet oxygen. The rate constants of 1O2 quenching by the carotenoids with long chain of CDB (9-13) were close to the rate constant of the diffusion-limited reactions ≈1010 M-1 s-1, being many-fold greater than the rate constants of 1O2 quenching by the carotenoids with the short chain of CDB (3-7) phytoene, phytofluene, and ζ-carotene studied in prior papers of our group (Ashikhmin et al. 2020, 2022). To our knowledge, the quenching rate constants of rhodopin and spirilloxanthin have been obtained in this paper for the first time. The mechanisms of 1O2 photogeneration by carotenoids in solution and in the LH2 complexes of photosynthetic cells, as well as the efficiencies of their protective action are discussed.

Photodynamic activity rather than drilling causes membrane damage by a light-powered molecular nanomotor

The chase toward endowing chemical compounds with machine-like functions mimicking those of biological molecular machineries has yielded a variety of artificial molecular motors (AMMs). Pharmaceutical applications of photoexcited monomolecular unidirectionally-rotating AMMs have been envisioned in view of their ability to permeabilize biological membranes. Nonetheless, the mechanical properties of lipid membranes render the proposed drilling activity of AMMs doubtful. Here, we show that singlet oxygen released by a photoexcited "molecular drill" oxidized unsaturated lipids composing giant unilamellar vesicles. In contrast, giant liposomes built of saturated lipids were inert to AMM photoactuation. The AMM did not mechanically destroy gramicidin A ion channels in planar bilayer lipid membranes but instead photoinactivated them. Sodium azide, a singlet oxygen quencher, reduced both AMM-mediated light-induced dye release from unsaturated large unilamellar vesicles and protected gramicidin A from photoinactivation. Upon additional consideration of the underlying bilayer mechanics, we conclude that AMMs' envisioned therapeutic and pharmaceutical applications rely on their photodynamic activity rather than their nanomechanical drilling abilities.

In memory of Vladimir Anatolievich Shuvalov (1943-2022): an outstanding biophysicist

We present here a tribute to one of the foremost biophysicists of our time, Vladimir Anatolievich Shuvalov, who made important contributions in bioenergetics, especially on the primary steps of conversion of light energy into charge-separated states in both anoxygenic and oxygenic photosynthesis. For this, he and his research team exploited pico- and femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy, photodichroism & circular dichroism spectroscopy, light-induced FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared) spectroscopy, and hole-burning spectroscopy. We remember him for his outstanding leadership and for being a wonderful mentor to many scientists in this area. Reminiscences by many [Suleyman Allakhverdiev (Russia); Robert Blankenship (USA); Richard Cogdell (UK); Arvi Freiberg (Estonia); Govindjee Govindjee (USA); Alexander Krasnovsky, jr, (Russia); William Parson (USA); Andrei Razjivin (Russia); Jian- Ren Shen (Japan); Sergei Shuvalov (Russia); Lyudmilla Vasilieva (Russia); and Andrei Yakovlev (Russia)] have included not only his wonderful personal character, but his outstanding scientific research.

"Fundamental principles of photodynamic, laser and PUVA therapy": a session of the Russian Photobiology Society 9th Congress (Shepsi, Krasnodar region, Russia; September, 12-19, 2021)

At the section "Fundamentals of photodynamic, laser and PUVA therapy," 32 reports were presented in full-time and on-line format. Representatives of various scientific schools reported on the results of fundamental and applied research on the processes occurring at the cellular and organismal levels upon irradiation with low-intensity red light and upon the introduction of photosensitizers of various nature, followed by laser irradiation. Scientific reports proposed new photosensitizers, as well as their conjugates with biologically active molecules for fluorescent diagnostics and photodynamic therapy of oncological diseases. Plenary reports were presented by Professor Mikhail Grin "Natural chlorins as a promising platform for creating drugs with photoinduced antitumor and antimicrobial activity," Professor Alexander Krasnovsky "Laser activation of dissolved oxygen in natural conditions," and Professor Elena Filonenko "Photodynamic therapy in the treatment of demodicosis of the facial skin with topical application of a gel based on 5-ALA." At the poster section, young scientists presented 18 posters, which describe in detail the research voiced in the section reports.

Chlorin Endogenous to the North Pacific Brittle Star Ophiura sarsii for Photodynamic Therapy Applications in Breast Cancer and Glioblastoma Models

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) represents a powerful avenue for anticancer treatment. PDT relies on the use of photosensitizers—compounds accumulating in the tumor and converted from benign to cytotoxic upon targeted photoactivation. We here describe (3S,4S)-14-Ethyl-9-(hydroxymethyl)-4,8,13,18-tetramethyl-20-oxo-3-phorbinepropanoic acid (ETPA) as a major metabolite of the North Pacific brittle stars Ophiura sarsii. As a chlorin, ETPA efficiently produces singlet oxygen upon red-light photoactivation and exerts powerful sub-micromolar phototoxicity against a panel of cancer cell lines in vitro. In a mouse model of glioblastoma, intravenous ETPA injection combined with targeted red laser irradiation induced strong necrotic ablation of the brain tumor. Along with the straightforward ETPA purification protocol and abundance of O. sarsii, these studies pave the way for the development of ETPA as a novel natural product-based photodynamic therapeutic.

Activation of oxygen molecules by 1070 nm laser radiation in aerated solvents

Population of the chemically active singlet ¹Δ_g(0) state of molecular oxygen occurring due to direct laser excitation of the ¹Δ_g(1)←³Σg-(0) transition has been observed for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, in oxygen molecules dissolved in organic solvents saturated with air under natural conditions (room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure). The data were obtained in 1 cm spectrophotometric cells due to the application of a set of high-power IR fiber and diode lasers. The rate of laser generation of the singlet (¹Δ_g(0)) states in oxygen molecules was monitored by a chemical trapping method. It was found that the action spectra of singlet oxygen generation have one distinct band with a maximum at 1070 nm and half-width of ∼10nm. The absorption coefficients at 1070 nm were shown to be 100-110-fold lower than those at the main oxygen absorption peak (1273 nm) corresponding to the ¹Δ_g(0)←³Σg-(0) transition. Under excitation at 810-1061 nm, very low trapping rates were observed, which did not depend on excitation wavelengths being probably caused by thermal effects. There was no reliable increase in the trapping rate under irradiation at 810 and 920 nm corresponding to the ¹Δ_g(2,3)←³Σg-(0) transitions. This fact suggests that absorbance corresponding to these transitions is much lower than that at 1070 nm. The obtained results are important for both spectroscopy of oxygen and mechanistic studies of biological and therapeutic action of laser radiation.

Phytofluene as a Highly Efficient UVA Photosensitizer of Singlet Oxygen Generation

Phytoene and phytofluene - uncolored C₄₀ carotenoids with short chain of conjugated double bonds (3 and 5, respectively) - are known to be universal precursors in biosynthesis of colored carotenoids in photosynthesizing organisms. It is commonly recognized that C₄₀ carotenoids are photoprotectors of cells and tissues. We have shown that phytofluene is an exception to this rule. By measuring photosensitized phosphorescence of singlet oxygen (¹O₂) we found out that phytofluene was very effective photosensitizer of ¹O₂ formation in aerated solutions under UVA irradiation (quantum yield of 85 ± 5%), whereas phytoene was almost inactive in this process. It was demonstrated that both carotenoids quench singlet oxygen in the dark. The obtained quenching rate constants [(4 ± 1) × 10⁶ M^-1·s^-1 for phytoene and (2 ± 0.5) × 10⁷ M^-1·s^-1 for phytofluene] were smaller than the rate constant of the diffusion-controlled reactions by 3-4 orders of magnitude. Thus, both carotenoids displayed rather weak protector properties. Moreover, phytofluene due to its high photosensitizing activity might be considered as a promoter of cell photodamage and a promising UVA photosensitizer for medical purposes.

Kinetic Measurements of Singlet Oxygen Phosphorescence in Hydrogen-Free Solvents by Time-Resolved Photon Counting

Solvents lacking hydrogen atoms are very convenient models for elucidating the properties of singlet oxygen, since the lifetime of singlet oxygen in these solvents reaches tens milliseconds. Measuring intrinsic infrared (IR) phosphorescence of singlet oxygen at 1270 nm is the most reliable method of singlet oxygen detection. However, efficient application of the phosphorescence method to these models requires an equipment allowing reliable measurement of the phosphorescence kinetic parameters in the millisecond time range at low rates of singlet oxygen generation, which is a technically difficult problem. Here, we describe a highly sensitive LED (laser) spectrometer recently constructed in our laboratory for the steady-state and time-resolved measurements of the millisecond phosphorescence of singlet oxygen. In the steady-state mode, this spectrometer allows detection of singlet oxygen phosphorescence upon direct excitation of oxygen molecules in the region of dark-red absorption bands at 690 and 765 nm. For kinetic measurements, we used phenalenone as a photosensitizer, microsecond pulses of violet (405 nm) LED for excitation (irradiance intensity, ≤50 μW/cm²), a photomultiplier and a computer multichannel scaler for time-resolved photon counting. The decays of singlet oxygen in air-saturated CCl4, C₆F₆, and Freon 113 and quenching of singlet oxygen by phenalenone and dissolved molecules of triplet oxygen were measured. The relative values of the radiative rate constants of singlet oxygen in these media were determined. The results were compared with the absorption coefficients of oxygen measured by our group using the methods of laser photochemistry. Critical discussion of the obtained results and the data of other researchers is presented.

Remembering Navasard V. Karapetyan (1936-2015)

Navasard Vaganovich Karapetyan (September 6, 1936-March 6, 2015) began his scientific career at the Bach Institute of Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, and was associated with this institute for over 56 years. He worked in the area of biochemistry and biophysics of photosynthesis and was especially known for his studies on chlorophyll a fluorescence in higher plants and cyanobacteria, molecular organization of Photosystem I, photoprotective energy dissipation, and dynamics of energy migration in the two photosystems. We present here a brief biography and comments on the work of Navasard Karapetyan. We remember him as an enthusiastic person who had an unflagging curiosity, energy and profound sincere interest in many aspects of photosynthesis research.

Characterization of the low-temperature triplet state of chlorophyll in photosystem II core complexes: Application of phosphorescence measurements and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

Phosphorescence measurements at 77 K and light-induced FTIR difference spectroscopy at 95 K were applied to study of the triplet state of chlorophyll a ((3)Chl) in photosystem II (PSII) core complexes isolated from spinach. Using both methods, (3)Chl was observed in the core preparations with doubly reduced primary quinone acceptor QA. The spectral parameters of Chl phosphorescence resemble those in the isolated PSII reaction centers (RCs). The main spectral maximum and the lifetime of the phosphorescence corresponded to 955±1 nm and of 1.65±0.05 ms respectively; in the excitation spectrum, the absorption maxima of all core complex pigments (Chl, pheophytin a (Pheo), and β-carotene) were observed. The differential signal at 1667(-)/1628(+)cm(-1) reflecting a downshift of the stretching frequency of the 13(1)-keto C=O group of Chl was found to dominate in the triplet-minus-singlet FTIR difference spectrum of core complexes. Based on FTIR results and literature data, it is proposed that (3)Chl is mostly localized on the accessory chlorophyll that is in triplet equilibrium with P680. Analysis of the data suggests that the Chl triplet state responsible for the phosphorescence and the FTIR difference spectrum is mainly generated due to charge recombination in the reaction center radical pair P680(+)PheoD1(-), and the energy and temporal parameters of this triplet state as well as the molecular environment and interactions of the triplet-bearing Chl molecule are similar in the PSII core complexes and isolated PSII RCs.

Low-temperature (77 K) phosphorescence of triplet chlorophyll in isolated reaction centers of photosystem II

Phosphorescence characterized by the main emission band at 952 ± 1 nm (1.30 eV), the lifetime of 1.5 ± 0.1 ms and the quantum yield nearly equal to that for monomeric chlorophyll a in aqueous detergent dispersions, has been detected in isolated reaction centers (RCs) of spinach photosystem II at 77 K. The excitation spectrum shows maxima corresponding to absorption bands of chlorophyll a, pheophytin a, and β-carotene. The phosphorescence intensity strongly depends upon the redox state of RCs. The data suggest that the phosphorescence signal originates from the chlorophyll triplet state populated via charge recombination in the radical pair [Formula: see text].

[measurement of optical density in infrared absorption maxima of oxygen molecules based on their photochemical activity upon direct laser excitation]

Generation of singlet oxygen upon excitation of oxygen molecules by infrared diode lasers has been studied in organic media (carbon tetrachloride and acetone) saturated by air under normal pressure and temperature. A new approach to analysis of the experimental data has been developed taking into account a degree of overlapping of the spectral bands of oxygen and laser radiation. Optical density, molar absorption coefficient and the cross section of light absorption were determined for the main absorption maxima of O2 at 765 and 1273 nm. The results are compared with the data of previous studies. A significance of the obtained results for elucidation of photophysics and photochemistry of oxygen molecules and investigation of biological action of laser radiation is discussed.

New heterogeneous photosensitizers with phthalocyanine molecules covalently linked to aminopropyl silica gel

New heterogeneous photosensitizers were synthesized, in which phthalocyanines of zinc and aluminum, tetrasubstituted at non-peripheral positions with modified thiophenyl groups, were grafted to aminopropyl silica gel. The absorption and fluorescence spectra, and the quantum yields of fluorescence and photosensitized singlet oxygen generation were estimated for aqueous suspensions of these sensitizers. It is shown that upon photoexcitation, silica gel-bound phthalocyanines produce singlet oxygen and display photobactericidal activity against bacteria E. coli.

Singlet-oxygen-sensitized delayed fluorescence of phthalocyanines caused by photosensitized and direct excitation of dissolved oxygen by laser radiation

This paper provides a brief account of the prior studies of singlet-oxygen-sensitized delayed fluorescence (SOSDF) of phthalocyanines and related compounds caused by photosensitized singlet oxygen generation in dye solutions, and presents new results, which unambiguously demonstrate that SOSDF also appears in phthalocyanine solutions upon direct excitation of dissolved oxygen by 1270 nm laser radiation. In all cases, light emission was shown to appear owing to the unique property of phthalocyanine molecules to efficiently accumulate energy of two molecules of singlet oxygen. Dependences of the IR-excited SOSDF on the phthalocyanine concentration, laser power and addition of singlet oxygen quenchers have been studied and kinetic equations are proposed for analyses of these data.

Phosphorescence study of chlorophyll d photophysics. Determination of the energy and lifetime of the photo-excited triplet state. Evidence of singlet oxygen photosensitization

Chlorophyll d (Chl d) is the major pigment in both photosystems (PSI and II) of the cyanobacterium Acaryochloris marina, whose pigment composition represents an interesting alternative in oxygenic photosynthesis. While abundant information is available relative to photophysical properties of Chl a , the understanding of Chl d photophysics is still incomplete. In this paper, we present for the first time a characterization of Chl d phosphorescence, which accompanies radiative deactivation of the photoexcited triplet state of this pigment. Reliable information was obtained on the energy and lifetime of the Chl d triplet state in frozen solutions at 77 K using diethyl ether and aqueous dispersions of Triton X100 as solvents. It is shown that triplet Chl d is effectively populated upon photoexcitation of pigment molecules and efficiently sensitizes singlet oxygen phosphorescence in aerobic solutions under ambient conditions. The data obtained are compared with the previous results of the phosphorescence studies of Chl a and Pheo a, and their possible biological implications are discussed.

Activation of molecular oxygen by infrared laser radiation in pigment-free aerobic systems

With the goal of mimicking the mechanisms of the biological effects of low energy laser irradiation, we have shown that infrared low intensity laser radiation causes oxygenation of the chemical traps of singlet oxygen dissolved in organic media and water saturated by air at normal atmospheric pressure. The photooxygenation rate was directly proportional to the oxygen concentration and strongly inhibited by the singlet oxygen quenchers. The maximum of the photooxygenation action spectrum coincided with the maximum of the oxygen absorption band at 1270 nm. The data provide unambiguous evidence that photooxygenation is determined by the reactive singlet (1)Delta(g )state formed as a result of direct laser excitation of molecular oxygen. Hence, activation of oxygen caused by its direct photoexcitation may occur in natural systems.

Chlorophyll isolation, structure and function: major landmarks of the early history of research in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union

This paper covers major events of the early history of chlorophyll research in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union from 1771 until 1952, when the modern period of studies on photosynthesis began in full swing. Short biographical sketches of key scientists, reviews of their major research contributions and some selected photographs are included.

The photophysics of monomeric bacteriochlorophylls c and d and their derivatives: properties of the triplet state and singlet oxygen photogeneration and quenching

Measurements of pigment triplet-triplet absorption, pigment phosphorescence and photosensitized singlet oxygen luminescence were carried out on solutions containing monomeric bacteriochlorophylls (Bchl) c and d, isolated from green photosynthetic bacteria, and their magnesium-free and farnesyl-free analogs. The energies of the pigment triplet states fell in the range 1.29-1.34 eV. The triplet lifetimes in aerobic solutions were 200-250 ns; they increased to 280 +/- 70 microseconds after nitrogen purging in liquid solutions and to 0.7-2.1 ms in a solid matrix at ambient or liquid nitrogen temperatures. Rate constants for quenching of the pigment triplet state by oxygen were (2.0-2.5) x 10(9) M-1 s-1, which is close to 1/9 of the rate constant for diffusion-controlled reactions. This quenching was accompanied by singlet oxygen formation. The quantum yields for the triplet state formation and singlet oxygen production were 55-75% in air-saturated solutions. Singlet oxygen quenching by ground-state pigment molecules was observed. Quenching was the most efficient for magnesium-containing pigments, kq = (0.31-1.2) x 10(9) M-1 s-1. It is caused mainly by a physical process of singlet oxygen (1O2) deactivation. Thus, Bchl c and d and their derivatives, as well as chlorophyll and Bchl a, combine a high efficiency of singlet oxygen production with the ability to protect photochemical and photobiological systems against damage by singlet oxygen.

Photosensitization of singlet oxygen formation by pterins and flavins. Time-resolved studies of oxygen phosphorescence under laser excitation

To elucidate the biochemical roles of singlet molecular oxygen (1(O2)) in the light-dependent reactions photosensitized by biological blue-light photoreceptors, time-resolved measurements of photosensitized 1O2 phosphorescence (1270 nm) were performed in air-saturated aqueous ((D2)O) solutions of pterins (2-amino-4-hydroxy-6,7-dimethylpteridine (DMP) and 2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-tetrahydroxybutyl-(D-arabo)pteridine (TOP)) and flavins (riboflavin and flavin mononucleotide (FMN)) under excitation with nitrogen laser (337.1 nm) pulses. The 1(O2) quantum yields were found to be 0.16, 0.20, 0.50, and 0.50 for DMP, TOP, riboflavin, and FMN, respectively. The data indicate that pterins and flavins are rather efficient photosensitizers of 1(O2) production that might be important for their photobiological functions.

Singlet molecular oxygen in photobiochemical systems: IR phosphorescence studies

Singlet molecular oxygen (1O2) is one of the most active intermediates involved in photosensitized oxygenation reactions in chemical and biological systems. Deactivation of singlet oxygen is accompanied by infrared phosphorescence (1270 nm) which is widely employed for 1O2 detection and study. This review considers techniques for phosphorescence detection, phosphorescence spectra, quantum yields and kinetics under laser excitation, the radiative and real 1O2 lifetimes in organic solvents and water, 1O2 quenching by biomolecules, and estimation of singlet oxygen lifetimes, diffusion lengths and phosphorescence quantum yields in blood plasma, cell cytoplasm, erythrocyte ghosts, retinal rod outer segments and chloroplast thylakoids. The experiments devoted to 1O2 phosphorescence detection in photosensitizer-containing living cells are discussed in detail. Information reviewed is important for understanding the mechanisms of photodestruction in biological systems and various applied problems of photobiology and photomedicine.

Quenching of singlet molecular oxygen by carnosine and related antioxidants. Monitoring 1270-nm phosphorescence in aqueous media

In order to elucidate the biochemical roles of imidazol-containing dipeptides, we have studied quenching of singlet molecular oxygen (1O2) by carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine), its structural components (L-histidine, imidazole, and beta-alanine), and related natural free-radical scavengers-L-anserine (beta-alanyl-1-methyl-histidine), ergothioneine (2-thiol-L-histidine-betaine), and taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) in aqueous (D2O, pD 7) solutions by using monitoring of 1O2-phosphorescence (1270-nm). The rate constants of 1O2 quenching (Kq) by carnosine, anserine, and ergothioneine were shown to be similar [(3 +/- 1) x 10(7) M-1s-1]. Their values resembled those of free-L-histidine [Kq = (4 +/- 1) x 10(7) M-1s-1] and imidazole [Kq = (2 +/- 1) x 10(7) M-1s-1]. Non-aromatic amino acids-taurine and beta-alanine-showed very low quenching activities (Kq < 3 x 10(3) M-1c-1). The Kq values did not correlate with the literature data on abilities of the tested compounds to stimulate muscle working capacities and inhibit myeloperoxidase-catalyzed oxygenation. Thus, the dipeptides can be used as potent water-soluble protectors against 1O2 attack whereas their natural biochemical functions are most probably determined by the processes of different nature.

Generation and quenching of singlet molecular oxygen by aggregated bacteriochlorophyll d in model systems and chlorosomes

Both photogeneration and quenching of singlet oxygen by monomeric and aggregated (dimeric and oligomeric) molecules of bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) d have been studied in solution and in chlorosomes isolated from the green photosynthetic bacterium Chlorobium vibrioforme f. thiosulfatophilum. The yield of singlet-oxygen photogeneration by pigment dimers was about 6 times less than for monomers. Singlet oxygen formation was not observed in oligomer-containing solutions or in chlorosomes. To estimate the efficiency of singlet oxygen quenching an effective rate constant for (1)O2 quenching by BChl molecules (kq (M)) was determined using the Stern-Volmer equation and the total concentration of BChl d in the samples. In solutions containing only monomeric BChl, the kq (M) values coincide with the real values for (1)O2 quenching rate constants by BChl molecules. Aggregation weakly influenced the kq (M) values in pigment solutions. In chlorosomes (which contain both BChl and carotenoids) the kq (M) value was less than in solutions of BChl alone and much less than in acetone extracts from chlorosomes. Thus (1)O2 quenching by BChl and carotenoids is much less efficient in chlorosomes than in solution and is likely caused primarily by BChl molecules which are close to the surface of the large chlorosome particles. The data allow a general conclusion that monomeric and dimeric chlorophyll molecules are the most likely sources of (1)O2 formation in photosynthetic systems and excitation energy trapping by the long wavelength aggregates as well as (1)O2 physical quenching by monomeric and aggregated chlorophyll can be considered as parts of the protective system against singlet oxygen formation.

Metal as a novel type of the enzyme substrate. Metallic cadmium photogenerated in the system CdS-formate as a substrate of the NAD-dependent hydrogenase

The process of NAD+ photoreduction under the coupled action of CdS semiconductor and NAD-dependent hydrogenase from hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium Alcaligenes eutrophus may be divided into light and dark stages. At the first stage, illumination of the system leads to the photooxidation of the sacrificial electron donor and results in the reduction of the semiconductor surface. At the second dark stage NAD+ is reduced to NADH in the presence of hydrogenase. Atoms of metallic Cd(0) are shown to be the true substrate of the enzymatic reaction. The prerequisite for the electron transfer from Cd(0) to hydrogenase is enzyme adsorption on the semiconductor surface. The redox center of the hydrogenase reacting with Cd(0) atoms resides on the flavin-containing heterodimer of the protein. The activity of the hydrogenase immobilized on CdS in the reaction of NAD+ reduction by metallic Cd is close to the enzyme activity with the physiological substrates in solution. Thus, the first example of a metal being the substrate of the enzymatic process is presented.

Excited chlorophyll and related problems

A historical outline is presented of the primary light energy conversion in photosynthesis studied by our research group. We found that photoexcited chlorophylls, pheophytins and porphyrins are capable of reversible and irreversible oxido-reduction. The mechanism of the photosensitized electron transfer from donor to acceptor molecule is based on the reversible photochemical oxido-reduction of the pigment-sensitizer. This property of the excited pigments is realized in the reaction centres of photosynthetic cells when photooxidation of bacteriochlorophyll(s) or chlorophyll of Photosystem II is coupled to pheophytin reduction leading to the final charge separation.The studies of the state and function of pigments in the course of chlorophyll biosynthesis in cellular and non-cellular systems revealed different monomeric and aggregated forms of pigments and the phenomenon of self-assembly of various forms of chlorophylls, bacteriochlorophylls and protochlorophylls. The discovery of protochlorophyll photoreduction in non-cellular system allowed the study of the molecular mechanisms of this reaction.In order to construct models of photosynthetic charge separation, we used inorganic photocatalysts-semiconductors, mainly titanium dioxide, and pigments incorporated into detergent micelles or lipid vesicles. To prevent back reactions we used heterogeneous systems where primary unstable products were spatially separated; coupling of solubilized chlorophylls or semiconductor particles with bacterial hydrogenase led to molecular hydrogen photoproduction. Light excitation of some coenzymes, mainly NADH and NADPH, was considered from the point of view of early events of chemical evolution.Now we are interested in the creation of photobiochemical systems using principles of photosynthesis for the conversion and storage of solar energy.

Photogeneration of NADH under coupled action of CdS semiconductor and hydrogenase from Alcaligenes eutrophus without exogenous mediators

Photoreduction of NAD has been accomplished by a system consisting of the NAD-dependent hydrogenase from Alcaligenes eutrophus immobilized on CdS particles with formate as artificial electron donor. Enzymatically active NADH is formed under illumination of this system by visible light. Accumulation of the coenzyme dimer (NAD)2 was not detected. NAD photoreduction is supposed to proceed via the direct electron transfer from the semiconductor to the enzyme electron transport chain. However, NADH formation as a result of hydrogenase interaction with anion-radicals (CO2.-) formed in the course of formate photooxidation cannot at present be excluded.

Quenching of singlet molecular oxygen by phthalocyanines and naphthalocyanines

Using the direct measurement of the photosensitized luminescence of singlet molecular oxygen (1O2) the rate constants (kq) have been determined for 1O2 quenching by the monomeric molecules of the following phthalocyanines and naphthalocyanines in chloroform: tetra-(4-tert-butyl) phthalocyanine (I); octa-(3,6-butoxy) phthalocyanine (II), tetra-(6-tert-butyl)-2,3 naphthalocyanine (III), aluminium tetra-(1-tert-phenyl)-2,3 naphthalocyanine (IV), tri-(n-hexyl-siloxy) derivatives of silicon- (V), tin- (VI), aluminium- (VII) and gallium- (VIII) 2,3 naphthalocyanine. The following kq values were obtained (kq x 10(-8) M-1 s-1): 2.9 (I), 59 (II), 100 (III), 20 (IV), 3.9 (V), 53 (VI), 33 (VII), 110 (VIII). As most of the quenchers have the low-lying triplet levels, a contribution of the quenching mechanism based on the energy transfer from 1O2 to these levels has been analysed. A formula is proposed describing the relation between kq values caused by this mechanism, and photophysical constants of the quencher triplet state. This formula was applied to phthalocyanines, naphthalocyanines, beta-carotene and bacterochlorophyll a. The data suggest that the energy transfer can fully explain the activity of V and strongly contributes into the activities of II, III and VI-VIII. A charge transfer interaction might be an additional mechanism involved in 1O2 quenching by compounds studied. As some phthalocyanines and naphthalocyanines are strong physical quenchers of singlet oxygen they can be used as efficient inhibitors for photodestructive processes in photochemical systems.

Phosphorescence of protochlorophyll(ide) and chlorophyll(ide) in etiolated and greening bean leaves : Assignment of spectral bands

The assignment is presented for the principal phosphorescence bands of protochlorophyll(ide), chlorophyllide and chlorophyll in etiolated and greening bean leaves measured at -196°C using a mechanical phosphoroscope. Protochlorophyll(ide) phosophorescence spectra in etiolated leaves consist of three bands with maxima at 870, 920 and 970 nm. Excitation spectra show that the 870 nm band belongs to the short wavelength protochlorophyll(ide), P627. The latter two bands correspond to the protochlorophyll(ide) forms, P637 and P650. The overall quantum yield for P650 phosphorescence in etiolated leaves is near to that in solutions of monomeric protochlorophyll, indicating a rather high efficiency of the protochlorophyll(ide) triplet state formation in frozen plant material. Short-term (2-20 min) illumination of etiolated leaves at the temperature range from -30 to 20°C leads to the appearance of new phosphorescence bands at about 990-1000 and 940 nm. Judging from excitation and emission spectra, the former band belongs to aggregated chlorophyllide, the latter one, to monomeric chlorophyll or chlorophyllide. This indicates that both monomeric and aggregated pigments are formed at this stage of leaf greening. After preillumination for 1 h at room temperature, chlorophyll phosphorescence predominates. The spectral maximum of this phosphorescence is at 955-960 nm, the lifetime is about 2 ms, and the maximum of the excitation spectrum lies at 668 nm. Further greening leads to a sharp drop of the chlorophyll phosphorescence intensity and to a shift of the phosphorescence maximum to 980 nm, while the phosphorescence lifetime and a maximum of the phosphorescence excitation spectrum remains unaltered. The data suggest that chlorophyll phosphorescence belongs to the short wavelength, newly synthesized chlorophyll, not bound to chloroplast carotenoids. Thus, the phosphorescence measurement can be efficiently used to study newly formed chlorophyll and its precursors in etiolated and greening leaves and to address various problems arising in the analysis of chlorophyll biosynthesis.

Photophysical studies of pheophorbide a and pheophytin a. Phosphorescence and photosensitized singlet oxygen luminescence

The triplet states of pheophorbide a and pheophytin a were studied in several environments by direct measurement of the phosphorescence of the pigments and photosensitized singlet oxygen (1O2) luminescence. The spectra, lifetimes and quantum yields of phosphorescence and the quantum yields of 1O2 generation were determined. These parameters are similar for monomeric molecules of both pigments in all the environments studied. Aggregation of the pigment molecules leads to a strong decrease in the phosphorescence and 1O2 luminescence intensities, which is probably due to a large decrease in the triplet lifetime and triplet quantum yield in the aggregates. The results obtained for pheophorbide a and pheophytin a are compared with those previously reported for chlorophyll alpha. The data suggest that the photodynamic activity of the pigments in living tissues is probably determined by the monomeric pigment molecules formed in hydrophobic cellular structures. Aggregated molecules seem to have a much lower activity.

Hydrogen evolution by subchloroplast preparations of photosystem II from pea and spinach,

Hydrogen (H,) evolution rates were measured by the gas chromatographic technique upon illumination of different subchloroplast preparations of higher plants without exogenous hydrogenase under anaerobic conditions. Subchloroplast preparations enriched in photosystem II (PS II) in the presence of an electron donor TMPD (N,N,N,W-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine)are shown to have higher Hz-evolution rates (up to 30 nmol/mg Chl per h) than preparations enriched in PS I under the same conditions. The data on the suppression of & evolution by well-known inhibitors of PS II (dinoseb,atrazine) prove that the Hz photoproduction is sensitized by PS II reaction centers.

Molecular arrangement of pigment-protein complex of photosystem 1

The circular dichroism (CD) method was applied to study the molecular organization of P700, antenna chlorophyll and protein of photosystem 1 complexes (CP1), isolated from chloroplasts under mild treatment with Triton X-100. Analysis of CD spectra and protein: chlorophyll: P700 ratios for CP1 complexes that were different in their chlorophyll content indicate that CP1 preparations can be considered as a mixture of CP1-RC, containing P700 (10-20%), and CP1-LH without P700 (80-90%). Both types of complexes contain approximately 25 chlorophyll molecules, and the destruction of their spatial organization with detergents represents a cooperative transition. The rate of chlorophyll destruction in CP1-LH is much higher than that in CP1-RC. In both complexes a 65 kDa polypeptide predominates, whose secondary structure (typical for α/β proteins) is stable to Triton X-100 and does not depends on the chlorophyll content. Chlorophyll seems to be grouped in clusters (5-7 molecules) in the hydrophobic cores of 2-3 parallel α/β domains of the 65 kDa protein. Only one of the clusters in CP1-RC includes P700; on P700 photooxidation the change of its interaction with the nearest pigment environment results in a complicated shape of the light-induced CD spectra.

Dark oxidation of unsaturated lipids by the photo-oxidized 8-methoxypsoralen

8-Methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) in ethanol, acetone, benzene, or CC14 is photo-oxidized under UV-irradiation (320-400 nm). Photo-oxidized 8-MOP (O2-8-MOP) is stable in the organic solvents, but it is destructed in water or in liposome suspension. The destruction rate constants are 0.04 s(-1) in water and 0.004 s(-1) in liposome membranes as estimated by the kinetics of the chemiluminescence accompanying the destruction. In course of O2-8-MOP destruction the residues of phospholipid unsaturated fatty acids are oxidized . Generation of the singlet oxygen (1 delta g) by excited 8-MOP is observed neither nor in ethanol. Quantum yield of 1 delta g) formation in CCl4 is less than 3%. A pattern is proposed for 8-MOP-sensitized oxidation of unsaturated lipids proceeding without direct attack of lipids by singlet oxygen.

Evolution of uphill electron transfer

The evolution of photosynthetic energy storage is considered. The primary event in primordial inorganic or organic photoreceptors was charge separation at the expense of light quantum energy. The subsequent improvement of energy storage was attained by separately channeling electrons and "holes" to prevent back reactions. The anisotropic arrangement of photoreceptors in the primary membrane caused a coupling of photochemical charge separation to subsequent ion dislocation and was a prerequisite of primary photophosphorylation. The gradual improvement of the molecular organization of photoreceptor units resulted in antenna and reaction center development. The "hole" was primary located on a peculiar photoreceptor form and the electron passed by tunneling through the chain of intermediate carriers (chlorophylls and pheophytins); thus long-lived charge separation was achieved. The use of the electrons and the "holes" stored in reaction centers for the functioning of the photosynthetic electron transfer chain was realized by cyclic and non-cyclic pathways when the coupling of two photochemical events became the more perfect mechanism to use water molecule as an ultimate electron donor. The appearance of primitive cells inevitably required the coupling of the solar energy conversion mechanism to the reproduction mechanism which used stored solar energy.

Efficiency of hydrogen photoproduction by chloroplast-bacterial hydrogenase systems

A comparative study of H(2) photoproduction by chloroplasts and solubilized chlorophyll was performed in the presence of hydrogenase preparations of Clostridium butyricum. The photoproduction of H(2) by chloroplasts in the absence of exogenous electron donors, and with irreversibly oxidized dithiothreitol and cysteine, is thought to be limited by a cyclic transport of electrons wherein methylviologen short-circuits the electron transport in photosystem I. The efficiency of H(2) photoproduction by chloroplasts with ascorbate and NADPH is limited by a back reaction between light-reduced methylviologen and the oxidized electron donors. The use of a combination of electron donors (dithiothreitol and ascorbate), providing anaerobiosis without damage to chloroplasts, makes it possible to avoid consumption of reduced methylviologen for the reduction of oxidized electron donors and to exclude the short-circuiting of electron transfer. Under these conditions, photoproduction of H(2) was observed to occur with a rate of 350 to 400 micromoles H(2) per milligram chlorophyll per hour. In this case, the full electron-transferring capability of photosystem I (measured by irreversible photoreduction of methyl red or O(2)) is used to produce H(2).

Chemical evolution of photosynthesis

The principles of biological evolution of photosynthesis are established, but the ways of chemical evolution are unclear yet. The model systems will help to elucidate the problem. Every type of photosynthesis requires photoreceptor absorbing solar radiation. We studied as photoreceptors inorganic components of Earth crust, some coenzymes and porphyrins of abiogenic and biogenic origin. By the aid of inorganic photosensitizers (TiO2, ZnO) the models of photosystems I and II were constructed. Photochemical activation of some coenzymes may serve as an intermediate step from heterotrophic 'dark' to 'light' metabolism. The further evolution led to the separation of catalytic and photosensitizing functions. Porphin, chlorin and bacteriochlorin were formed by abiogenic synthesis. Magnesium complexes of porphyrins are active being excited by light. They are capable to reversible acceptance or donation of an electron to partner molecule. Excited Mg-complexes of porphyrins (P) are capable to transfer an electron from electron-donor (D) to electron-acceptor (A) accompanied by conversion of light quanta energy into potential chemical energy. The primary electron transfer unit (D-P-A) was incorporated into primary membrane. The transition from random to anisotropic arrangement of (D-P-A) in the membrane was plausable as a step of evolution; charge translocation appeared. (D-P-A) units created in the period of chemical evolution were probably used in the course of biological evolution. The (D-P-A) units were coupled with noncyclic and cyclic electron transfer resulting in ATP formation; coupling of two (D-P-A) units led to H2O oxidation and NADP reduction in photosynthetic organisms. The improvement of pigments biosynthesis created the phenomenon of excitation energy migration from the bulk of the pigment to (D-P-A) unit, being reactive center. The models described points the plausible steps of chemical evolution; the real sequence of events will be probably disclosed in the studies of precambrian rocks and space exploration.

The fragments of the photosynthetic electron transfer chain in model systems

In this paper the recent research from our laboratory is reviewed. Short fragments of the photochemical electron transfer chain of photosynthesis were reproduced in aqueous detergent solutions or in organic solvents. The function of photosystem I is reproduced in a ternary system of chlorophylls, electron donors (dienols, sulfhydryl compounds, hydrazine, etc.), and electron acceptors (viologens, nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide [NAD], flavines, etc.). Chlorophyll-photosensitized reduction of viologens in some cases is activated by oxygen at the expense of active reductants formed during the photosensitized oxidation of an initial electron donor (thiourea). Chlorophyll-photosensitized oxidoreduction of cytochromes is activated by flavines, viologens, vitamin K derivatives, and some other redox systems (cofactors of cyclic photophosphorylation). The primary mechanism of the reactions studied depends on the reversible chlorophyll photooxidoreduction. In binary systems, chlorophyll (monomeric or aggregated) and electron donor or electron acceptor, reversible photoreduction or photooxidation is observed. Irreversible bacteriochlorophyll oxidation leads to the formation of chlorophyll and protochlorophyll analogues; irreversible protochlorophyll photoreduction results in chlorophyll-like pigment appearance. The photodisaggregation of chlorophyll was observed. The models of photosystem II studied were the photochemical oxygen evolution in aqueous solutions of electron acceptors (ferric compounds, quinone), photosensitized in the near UV part of the spectrum by inorganic semiconductors (tungsten, titanium, and zinc oxides). All reactions described are based on electron (hydrogen) transfer photosensitized by pigment system.