Effects of particle size and phytase supplementation on apparent and standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in hybrid rye fed to growing pigs

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of particle size (PS) and levels of phytase supplementation on the apparent (ATTD) and standardized (STTD) total tract digestibility of P in hybrid rye fed to growing pigs. Thirty-six growing barrows (23.6 ± 1.5 kg initial BW) were individually housed in metabolism crates and randomly allotted to one of six dietary treatments to give six replicates per treatment. The six dietary treatments were arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial with main effects of PS and phytase supplementation levels (0, 500, or 2,500 FTU/kg). Hybrid rye was ground using a hammermill mounted with 4.0-mm and 3.2-mm screens to obtain material with coarse and fine PS, respectively. Pigs were fed experimental diets for 11 d, including 5 d for adaptation and 6 d for total collection of feces. All data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS with PS, phytase, and their interaction as fixed effects. Orthogonal polynomial contrasts were used to test linear and quadratic effects of phytase level in both coarse and fine hybrid rye diets. The ATTD and STTD of P were greater (P < 0.05) in diets with fine than in those with coarse hybrid rye. Increasing levels of phytase supplementation linearly (P < 0.01) and quadratically (P < 0.01) improved the ATTD and STTD of P in hybrid rye diets. There were no interaction effects between PS and phytase supplementation on the ATTD and STTD of P in hybrid rye diets. In conclusion, PS reduction improved the digestibility of P in hybrid rye, and supplementing increasing levels of phytase improved P digestibility in linear and quadratic manner in growing pigs fed hybrid rye diets.

Evaluating the standardized ileal digestible lysine requirement of 7- to 15-kg weanling pigs fed corn-soybean meal-based diets

Continued genetic improvement necessitates the verification of nutrient requirements for newly developed pig genotypes. Therefore, the objective of this research was to determine the standardized ileal digestible (SID) lysine (Lys) requirement of 7- to 15-kg weanling pigs (TN70 × TN Tempo; Topigs Norsvin) fed a corn-soybean meal-based diet. A total of 144 piglets with an initial BW of 6.51 ± 0.56 kg (mean ± SD) were assigned to one of six diets using a randomized complete block design based on BW to give eight replicate pens with three pigs per pen. The six diets contained 1.00, 1.16, 1.32, 1.48, 1.64, and 1.80% SID Lys, achieved by adding crystalline l-Lys·HCl at the expense of cornstarch. Other indispensable amino acids were provided to meet the requirements. Piglets had free access to diets and water for 21 days. Individual BW of pigs and feed disappearance were recorded weekly and blood samples were collected on day 1, 14, and 21. Average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake were not affected by dietary SID Lys content during the first 7 days. However, the addition of dietary SID Lys quadratically increased (P < 0.05) gain:feed (G:F) during the first 7 days of the experiment. A quadratic increase (P < 0.05) was found in both ADG and G:F when SID Lys content increased in the diets from day 14 to 21. During the overall experimental period, increasing dietary Lys content quadratically increased (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F, whereas plasma urea nitrogen quadratically decreased (P < 0.05) as SID Lys content increased. The SID Lys requirements were estimated for linear and quadratic broken-line models. In conclusion, the SID Lys requirement for optimal growth performance of 7- to 15-kg weanling pigs fed corn-soybean meal-based diets based on linear and quadratic broken-line models were 1.27% (95% confidence interval (CI): [1.01, 1.53]) and 1.30% (95% CI: [0.94, 1.66]) for ADG and 1.27% (95% CI: [1.14, 1.40]) and 1.43% (95% CI: [1.11, 1.75]) for G:F, respectively, thus giving an overall average value of 1.32%.

Relative bioavailability of phosphorus in high-protein sunflower meal for broiler chickens and effects of dietary phytase supplementation on bone traits, growth performance, and apparent ileal digestibility of nutrients

An experiment was conducted to determine the relative bioavailability (RBV) of P in high-protein sunflower meal (HP-SFM) fed to broiler chickens based on bone traits and to determine the effects of dietary phytase supplementation and increasing levels of HP-SFM as a P source on bone traits, growth performance, and apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of DM and nutrients. In total, 240 broiler chicks were randomly allotted to 1 of 10 experimental diets with 6 replicate cages of 4 birds each and fed experimental diets from day 14 to 21 of age. Diets included a corn-soybean meal-based basal diet (0.35% total P; P-deficient diet), or the basal diet supplemented with 0.05, 0.10, or 0.15% P from either monosodium phosphate (MSP) or HP-SFM. Another 3 diets were formulated by supplementing the HP-SFM-containing diets with 500 phytase unit/kg of phytase. The bone mineral content (BMC), bone area (BA), and bone mineral density (BMD) of femur and tibia and tibia ash content increased (linear, P < 0.01) with increasing dietary P content from MSP. A linear increase in femur and tibia BMC, femur BA, and tibia BMD was also observed (P < 0.01) with increasing level of dietary P from HP-SFM. The RBV of P in HP-SFM based on femur and tibia BMC were 41 and 44%, respectively. Dietary phytase supplementation increased (P < 0.01) most of bone traits of the birds except for femur BMD. In addition, birds fed the diets supplemented with dietary phytase had greater (P < 0.05) BW gain, feed efficiency, and AID of P than those fed the diets without dietary phytase. In conclusion, the estimated RBV of P in HP-SFM to P in MSP were 41 and 44% based on femur and tibia BMC, respectively. Also, dietary phytase supplementation increased AID of P, growth performance, and bone traits of the birds fed P-deficient diets containing increasing inclusion level of HP-SFM as a P source.

Evaluation of pea protein isolates as a protein source for broilers

A study was conducted to determine the effect of including pea protein isolate (PPI) in diets for broilers on performance, visceral organ weights, and nutrient digestibility. A total of 192 day-old chicks were assigned to 4 diets with 6 birds per cage and 8 replicates per treatment for a 21-d study. The diets included a corn-soybean meal-based basal diet with 0, 5, 10, or 15% of PPI. Total BW and feed disappearance were monitored weekly to determine ADG, ADFI, and feed conversion ratio per cage basis. Excreta samples were collected during the last 3 d of the experiment to determine the apparent total tract retention (ATTR) of protein and energy. On day 21, 3 birds from each cage were euthanized to collect ileal digesta to determine the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of energy and amino acids (AA), and visceral organs were weighed. Increasing dietary inclusion of PPI resulted in a linear decrease in overall ADFI (P = 0.002) and ADG (P = 0.001), and a linear increase in feed conversion ratio (P = 0.013). Dietary PPI quadratically increased (P = 0.005) the spleen weight. The weight of proventriculus showed both linear (P = 0.023) and quadratic (P = 0.005) reduction while the weight of gizzard was quadratically reduced (P = 0.002) with the increase in dietary PPI content. Weights of small and large intestine showed both linear (P < 0.05) and quadratic (P < 0.05) reduction with increasing dietary PPI content. An increase in the dietary level of PPI resulted in a quadratic reduction (P < 0.05) in ATTR of DM and CP. The AID of His, Asp, Glu, Gly, and Ser showed a quadratic reduction (P < 0.05), Tyr a linear reduction (P = 0.031) and Cys and Pro both linear (P < 0.05) and quadratic (P < 0.05) reduction with dietary inclusion of PPI. In conclusion, formulating diets with increasing PPI linearly decreased the growth performance of broilers.

Improvement of the nutritional value of high-protein sunflower meal for broiler chickens using multi-enzyme mixtures

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of replacing soybean meal (SBM) with a high-protein sunflower meal (HiSFM) without or with multi-enzyme mixtures on growth performance, nutrient utilization, jejunal digesta viscosity, and excreta moisture in broiler chickens. In experiment 1, 400 chicks were divided into 40 replicates of 10 birds and fed for 35 d a corn-soybean meal (CSBM) control diet or CSBM with 25 (HiSFM25), 50 (HiSFM50), 75 (HiSFM75), or 100% (HiSFM100) of total SBM replaced by HiSFM. During d 0 to 35, increasing HiSFM content in diets linearly reduced (P < 0.0001) BW, FI, and BW gain (BWG). Feeding HiSFM25 or HiSFM50 resulted in similar growth performance as CSBM (P > 0.05). In experiment 2, 120 chicks were divided into 24 replicates of 5 birds and fed CSBM or HiSFM75 diet without or with enzyme A (supplying 4,000, 500, and 8,000 U/kg of xylanase, alpha-amylase, and protease, respectively) or enzyme B (supplying 1,700, 1,100, 240, 30, 1,200, 360, 1,500, and 120 U/kg of cellulase, pectinase, mannanase, galactanase, xylanase, glucanase, amylase, and protease, respectively) for 21 days. Excreta moisture content was determined weekly, and birds were euthanized on d 22 to collect jejunal and ileal digesta for viscosity and apparent ileal digestibility (AID) measurements, respectively. Compared with CSBM, feeding HiSFM75 reduced (P < 0.05) BWG and G: F, enzymes A and D alleviated BWG and G: F reduction (P < 0.05), and enzyme A reduced (P = 0.037) the excreta moisture content, whereas the treatments did not influence AID or jejunal digesta viscosity measurements. In conclusion, experiment 1 results show that HiSFM can replace up to 50% of SBM without depressing growth performance in either the starter or finisher phase, whereas experiment 2 shows that enzymes A and B supplementation can alleviate the growth depression associated with feeding HiSFM75. These results suggest that enzyme supplementation can enhance HiSFM inclusion in broiler diets without affecting productivity or barn hygiene management.

Effects of extrusion and microbial phytase on the apparent and standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in hemp hulls fed to growing pigs

An experiment was carried out to determine the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P and the effects of extrusion and microbial phytase on ATTD and STTD of P in hemp hulls (HH). Thirty-six pigs (30.3 ± 2.7 kg) were randomly allotted to 1 of 6 experimental diets in a complete randomized design with 6 replicates per diet. A corn-soybean meal (SBM)-based basal diet was formulated. Two additional diets were formulated by replacing 40% of corn and SBM (on a 100% of total diet basis) with HH or extruded HH (EHH). The test ingredients, corn, and SBM were the only sources of P in the diets. Three additional diets were also prepared by supplementing 500 unit/kg of microbial phytase to the initial 3 diets (the corn-SBM basal diet and diets containing test ingredients). Pigs were fed experimental diets at 3 times the maintenance energy requirement (197 kcal ME/kg BW0.60). Results indicated that fecal P concentration and daily P output were reduced (P < 0.05) from pigs fed diets with dietary phytase compared with pigs fed diets without dietary phytase. The ATTD and STTD of P in experimental diets were not different. However, the ATTD and STTD of P in experimental diets supplemented with dietary phytase were increased (P < 0.05) compared with the diets without phytase. The ATTD and STTD of P in HH were 18.8% and 22.0%, respectively, whereas respective values for EHH were 22.5% and 26.3%. Extrusion had no effects on ATTD and STTD of P in HH. However, the ATTD and STTD of P in HH and EHH increased (P < 0.05) when dietary phytase was added to the diets. The concentration of Ca in feces and daily Ca output were reduced (P < 0.05) as a result of phytase supplementation. Addition of dietary phytase increased (P < 0.05) the ATTD of Ca in all experimental diets. In conclusion, the ATTD and STTD of P in HH fed to growing pigs were 18.8% and 22.0%, respectively. Respective values for EHH were 22.5% and 26.3%. Extrusion did not affect the ATTD and STTD of P in HH. However, the addition of microbial phytase to experimental diets increased the ATTD and STTD of P in diets and test ingredients and decreased fecal P output from pigs fed experimental diets. There was no interaction between extrusion and dietary phytase supplementation.

Net energy content of canola meal fed to growing pigs and effect of experimental methodology on energy values

An experiment was conducted to determine the digestible energy (DE), metabolizable energy (ME), and net energy (NE) contents of canola meal (CM) and to investigate the effects of basal diet [corn diet vs. corn-soybean meal (SBM) diet] and methodology (difference method vs. regression method) on energy values of CM. Thirty-six growing barrows (20.8 ± 1.0 kg initial body weight [BW]) were individually housed in metabolism crates and randomly allotted to one of six dietary treatments to give six replicates per treatment. The six experimental diets included a corn diet, a corn-SBM diet, a corn diet with 15 or 30% of CM, and a corn-SBM diet with 15 or 30% of CM. The DE, ME, and NE of CM were determined using the corn diet or the corn-SBM diet as a basal diet. In each basal diet, two additional diets containing 15 or 30% of CM were formulated to compare the determined energy values by the difference method and estimated energy values from the regression method. Feeding level was set at 550 kcal ME/kg BW0.6 per day. Pigs were fed experimental diets for 16 d including 10 d for adaptation and 6 d for total collection of feces and urine. Pigs were then moved into indirect calorimetry chambers to determine 24 h heat production (HP) and 12 h fasting HP. The DE, ME, and NE of CM determined by the difference method were within the 95% confidence intervals estimated for the DE, ME, and NE of CM by the regression method regardless of the basal diets used, which indicates that the difference and regression methods give equivalent DE, ME, and NE of CM. However, when the goodness of fit for the linear model was compared, the r2 of the regression analysis from the corn-SBM diet (0.78) was relatively greater than that from corn diet (0.40). The estimated NE of CM by the prediction equations generated by either the corn diet or corn-SBM diets were 2,096 kcal/kg and 1,960 kcal/kg (as-fed basis), respectively, whereas those values determined by the difference method were 2,233 kcal/kg and 2,106 kcal/kg (as-fed basis), respectively. In conclusion, the NE of CM determined in the current study was, on average, 2,099 kcal/kg (as-fed basis). The difference and regression methods do not give different NE value of CM fed to growing pigs. Although the NE values of CM determined using either the corn diet or the corn-SBM diet were not different, the greater r2 of the regression analysis from the corn-SBM diet than that from the corn diet suggests that the corn-SBM diet is a more appropriate basal diet for NE determination of ingredients.

Effect of increasing dietary canola meal inclusion on lactation performance, milk composition, and nutrient digestibility of lactating sows

The aim was to determine the effects of increasing dietary canola meal in substitution for soybean meal in lactation sow diets. Forty-five sows with an average parity of 1.8 (SD = 0.83) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 dietary treatments ( = 15) consisting of a corn-based control diet and 2 diets with 15% and 30% canola meal formulated by replacing soybean meal with canola meal. Diets were formulated to be similar in standardized ileal digestible AA content and NE value and to meet or exceed nutrient recommendations for lactating sows. Sows were moved to farrowing on d 111 of gestation and fed the experimental diets until weaning on d 21. Sows were fed 3.0 kg/d from d 111 of gestation until parturition. After farrowing, feed was gradually increased through d 6 after which the diets were offered on an ad libitum basis until weaning. Sows were weighed and backfat thickness measured on d 111 of gestation and also on d 0, 7, and 21 postfarrowing. Litters were weighed on d 0, 7, and 21. Weaning to estrus interval in sows was also recorded. Blood and milk samples were collected 2 h postfeeding from sows on d 0, 7, and 21 and analyzed for plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) and milk composition. Fecal samples were collected on d 10, 11, and 12 postfarrowing to determine energy and nutrient digestibility. There were no dietary effects on lactation feed intake, sow BW and backfat change, weaning to estrus interval, and milk fat, protein, lactose, and urea composition. Also, there were no dietary effects on piglet ADG ( 0.10). Sows fed diets containing 15% and 30% canola meal had lower (linear, < 0.05) PUN values compared with those fed the control diet on d 0, 7, and 21 postfarrowing. Apparent total tract digestibility of DM, GE, CP, and P were reduced linearly ( < 0.05) with increasing canola meal inclusion. In conclusion, up to 30% canola meal in lactation diet can support satisfactory sow and suckling piglet performance.

Standardized ileal digestible amino acid contents of canola meal from Canadian crushing plants for growing pigs

Studies have shown that there are variations in the chemical and nutritive composition of canola meal (CM) produced in Canada, some of which may result from differences among the canola seed crushing plants. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the variability in the nutritive value of CM as its end users desire increased meal consistency and more information on any potential variability in AA digestibility. Thus, 18 ileal cannulated barrows (average initial BW = 23.3 kg) were used to determine the apparent (AID) and standardized (SID) ileal digestibility of N and AA and standardized ileal digestible N and AA contents in CM from 6 processing plants in Canada. Two processing plants provided CM in both mash and pellet forms, whereas the other 4 provided it only in mash form, giving a total of 8 CM samples. The barrows were fed 9 cornstarch-based diets. The first 8 diets were formulated to contain the CM samples as the only source of AA. The ninth diet was a casein-cornstarch diet to determine ileal endogenous AA losses. All diets contained 0.3% titanium dioxide as an indigestible marker. Pigs were housed individually in pens and were fed the 9 diets in a completely randomized design for 3 periods to give 6 pigs per diet. Each experimental period lasted for 7 d, consisting of 5 d of adaptation and 2 d of ileal digesta collection at 2-h intervals from 0800 to 2000 h on d 6 and 7. There was an effect ( < 0.05) of CM source on 1) the AID of N, Met, Cys, Thr, Val, Gly, and Ser; 2) the SID of N, Met, and Cys; and 3) the standardized ileal digestible content of all AA. Pelleting reduced ( < 0.05) the standardized ileal digestible content of Arg, Ile, Glu, and Gly in 1 of the CM samples tested and of all AA except His in the other CM sample. The SID values for Arg, Lys, Met, and Thr averaged 87.2%, 78.2%, 84.5%, and 74.1%, respectively. The standardized ileal digestible contents of Arg, Lys, Met, and Thr averaged 2.10%, 1.71%, 0.50%, and 1.01%, respectively. In conclusion, there were variations in the AID, SID, and standardized ileal digestible AA contents of CM among crushing plants in Canada.

Dietary supplementation with a nucleotide-rich yeast extract modulates gut immune response and microflora in weaned pigs in response to a sanitary challenge

An experiment was carried out to evaluate the short-term effect of supplementing a nucleotide-rich yeast extract (NRYE) on growth performance, gut structure, immunity and microflora of piglets raised under sanitary and unsanitary conditions. A total of 84, 21-day old piglets were used in this study; 42 piglets were raised in a room designated as the clean room that was washed once per week, whereas the other 42 piglets were raised in a room designated as the unclean room in which 7 kg of manure from the sow herd was spread on each pen floor on day 1 and 7 and the room was not washed throughout the experiment. The pigs were fed a corn-soybean meal-based diet without or with 0.1% NRYE. Each treatment had 7 replicate pens in each room, and each pen housed 3 pigs. Feed disappearance and BW were recorded on day 1 and 14. On day 14, one pig per pen was euthanized to collect ileum, mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen tissues, and cecum and colon digesta. Overall, NRYE supplementation did not affect growth performance in both clean and unclean conditions, improved kidney weight in both clean (P=0.0002) and unclean room (P<0.0001) and tended to improve the villus height/crypt depth ratio in the clean room (P=0.073). Supplementing NRYE was associated with upregulation of Ileal programmed cell death gene-1 (P=0.0003), interleukin (IL)-1β (P<0.0001), IL-6 (P=0.0003), IL-10 (P<0.0001) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (P<0.0001) in pigs raised in the unclean room. Supplementing the NRYE in pigs raised in the clean room suppressed growth of cecal Enterobacteriacea (P<0.0001) members and colonic Enterococcus spp. (P<0.019), improved proliferation of cecal Lactobacillus spp. (P<0.002) and colonic Clostridium cluster IV (P<0.011) and XVIa members (P<0.0002). Supplementing the NRYE in the unclean room improved proliferation of cecal Clostridium cluster IV (P<0.026) and suppressed proliferation of colonic Enterococcus spp. (P<0.037). In conclusion, supplementing the NRYE to piglets under unsanitary conditions improved ileal immune response by upregulating inflammatory cytokines, and positively modulated proliferation of beneficial gut bacteria and suppression of harmful ones in both clean and unclean rooms.

Effects of diet complexity and multicarbohydrase supplementation on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood profile, intestinal morphology, and fecal score in newly weaned pigs

To study the effects of diet complexity and multicarbohydrase (MC) supplementation, 144 piglets (6.70 ± 0.81 kg of BW) weaned at 21 ± 2 d of age (1:1 male to female ratio) were assigned to 1 of 6 dietary treatments in a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement based on diet complexity (complex1, complex2, and simple) and MC addition (0 vs. 0.1% of MC). Diets were provided in a 2-phase feeding program with phase I (d 1 to 14) and phase II diets (d 15 to 28). Complex1 was formulated to mimic a conventional weaner diet with blood plasma, fish meal, dried whey, and skim milk powder, whereas complex2 partially or totally replaced these ingredients with various plant-based ingredients. The simple diet primarily comprised corn, wheat, and soybean meal. No interactions were found between diet complexity and MC supplementation ( > 0.10), except for apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of ash and globulin concentration on d 28 ( < 0.05). Pigs fed the complex1 diet had greater ( < 0.01) ADG, ADFI, and G:F than those fed the other diets during the first week after weaning. However, no differences in ADG or ADFI were observed for pigs fed the complex1 and simple diets throughout the 28-d experimental period ( > 0.10), whereas the complex2 diet led to lower ADG and ADFI compared with the complex1 diet ( < 0.05). Overall, G:F was greater for pigs fed the simple diet compared with those fed the complex1 diet ( < 0.01). Pigs fed the simple diet showed ATTD of DM, OM, GE, and ash comparable to those fed the complex1 diet on d 14 ( > 0.10). In contrast, greater ATTD of DM, OM, NDF, GE, and ash was observed ( < 0.05) in pigs fed the complex1 diet than in those fed the complex2 diet or the simple diet on d 28. The simple diet increased the lymphocyte proportion in serum compared with the complex1 diet ( < 0.01) on d 14. Pigs fed the complex1 diet had a greater ( < 0.05) ratio of villus height (VH) to crypt depth (CD) in the ileum compared with the other diets. The complex2 diet decreased ( < 0.05) the fecal score during 3 wk of the postweaning period compared with the complex1 diet. Dietary MC supplementation increased ( < 0.05) G:F during the overall experimental period, VH in the ileum, VH:CD ratio in the duodenum, and ATTD of DM and GE but it reduced fecal score ( < 0.05). In conclusion, feeding a simple diet resulted in BW comparable to feeding the complex1 diet, but it led to inferior intestinal morphology and ATTD of nutrients on d 28. Also, MC supplementation could be beneficial regardless of diet complexity.

Digestible, metabolizable, and net energy of camelina cake fed to growing pigs and additivity of energy in mixed diets

This experiment was conducted to determine the DE, ME, and NE contents of camelina cake (CC) and to test the hypothesis that dietary glucosinolates originating from CC will affect the additivity of energy in mixed diets containing different inclusion levels of corn, soybean meal (SBM), and CC. A total of 30 growing barrows ([Yorkshire × Landrace] × Duroc) with a mean BW of 16.8 kg (SD 1.4) were randomly allotted to 1 of 5 treatments with 6 replicates per treatment. Pigs were fed experimental diets for 16 d, including 10 d for adaptation and 6 d for total collection of feces and urine. The 5 experimental diets consisted of 3 corn-based diets to determine the DE, ME, and NE of the 3 ingredients (corn, SBM, and CC) and 2 mixed diets to test the additivity of DE, ME, and NE. The corn diet contained 97.52% corn; the SBM diet contained 67.52% corn and 30.0% SBM; the CC diet contained 67.52% corn and 30.0% CC; the Mixed diet 1 contained 67.52% corn, 20.0% SBM, and 10.0% CC; and the Mixed diet 2 contained 67.25% corn, 10.0% SBM, and 20.0% CC. Vitamins and minerals were included in the diets to meet or exceed the requirements for growing pigs (). Pigs were fed their assigned diets at 550 kcal ME/kg BW per day on the basis of BW on d 1, 5, and 10, which was close to ad libitum intake. Pigs had free access to water. Determined DE, ME, and NE contents of corn were 3,348, 3,254, and 2,579 kcal/kg, respectively; those of SBM were 3,626, 3,405, and 2,129 kcal/kg, respectively; and those of CC were 3,755, 3,465, and 2,383 kcal/kg, respectively. No differences between the predicted and determined DE, ME, and NE were observed in the 2 mixed diets. In conclusion, DE, ME, and calculated NE content of CC fed to growing pigs were 3,755, 3,465, and 2,383 kcal/kg (as-fed basis), respectively. In addition, additivity of DE, ME, and calculated NE was observed in the mixed diets containing corn, SBM, and CC, which indicates that dietary glucosinolates originating from up to 30% of CC inclusion do not affect DE, ME, and calculated NE of diets.

Flaxseed meal and oat hulls supplementation modulates growth performance, blood lipids, intestinal fermentation, bile acids, and neutral sterols in growing pigs fed corn-soybean meal-based diets

The present study was conducted to determine the effect of flaxseed meal and oat hulls supplementation on growth performance, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of fat, serum lipids, and concentrations of VFA, bile acids (BA), and neutral sterols (NS) in digesta and feces in growing pigs. Forty-eight Genesus [(Duroc boar × Yorkshire-Landrace sows] barrows (25.0 ± 0.32 kg initial BW) were housed in pairs. Pigs were assigned to 1 of the 3 corn-soybean meal-based diets-a basal corn-soybean meal-containing diet (control), a flaxseed meal-containing diet (FM), or an oat hulls-containing diet (OH)-in a completely randomized design. All diets were formulated to be isoenergetic and to contain similar standardized ileal digestible AA contents and meet other nutrient requirements for growing pigs. The experiment lasted for 28 d. Average daily feed intake; ADG; G:F; ATTD of fat, serum lipids, and digesta; and fecal VFA, BA, and NS concentrations were determined. Pigs fed the control or OH had greater final BW ( < 0.001), ADFI ( = 0.005), and ADG ( < 0.001) than FM-fed pigs. The ATTD of fat in the FM was lowest at 70.1% followed by 79.2% in OH and was greatest at 92.4% in the control ( = 0.020). Total serum cholesterol content was 2.25 and 1.99 mmol/L and lower ( < 0.001) in pigs fed FM and OH, respectively, than the 2.36 mmol/L in pigs fed the control. Pigs fed the FM and OH had greater ileal and cecal total VFA ( < 0.001), ileal deoxycholic acid ( < 0.01), and cecal ( < 0.001) and fecal cholesterol ( = 0.002) concentrations than those fed the control. Pigs fed the FM excreted more fecal lithocholic acid ( = 0.002) and ursodeoxycholic acid ( = 0.001) compared with those that consumed the control and OH. The concentrations of coprostanol in cecal digesta ( < 0.001) and feces ( = 0.011) were higher in pigs fed the FM and OH than in pigs fed the control. In conclusion, feeding flaxseed meal and oat hulls induced intestinal fermentation; however, the former depressed growth performance whereas the latter did not have any effect. Addition of flaxseed meal and oat hulls in growing pig diets reduced fat digestibility and serum cholesterol and stimulated malabsorption of primary BA and excretion of secondary BA and NS.

Net energy of hemp hulls and processed hemp hull products fed to growing pigs and the comparison of net energy determined via indirect calorimetry and calculated from prediction equations

An experiment was conducted to determine the NE of hemp hulls (HH), extruded HH (EHH), and a blended product of HH with pea (HHP) fed to growing pigs using indirect calorimetry (IC) and to determine effects of dietary fiber on heat production (HP) and fasting HP (FHP). Twenty-four growing barrows with an average initial BW of 22.9 ± 1.75 kg were individually housed in adjustable metabolism crates. Pigs were randomly allotted to 1 of 4 dietary treatments with 6 replicates per treatment. A corn-soybean meal basal diet was prepared. Three additional diets were formulated to contain a constant ratio of corn and soybean meal and each of the test ingredients. Pigs were fed experimental diets for 16 d including 10 d for adaptation and 6 d for total collection of feces and urine to determine DE and ME of experimental diets. Pigs were then moved into IC chambers to determine HP and FHP. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of DM was greater ( < 0.01) in the HHP diet than in the HH and EHH diets but less ( < 0.01) than in the basal diet. Similarly, the ATTD of GE in the basal diet was greater ( < 0.01) compared with the HH, EHH, and HHP diets. The DE, ME, and NE of the basal diet were greater ( < 0.01) than those of the HH, EHH, and HHP diets. No significant differences were observed for the HP (on average, 1,904 kcal/kg DM) and FHP (on average, 1,320 kcal/kg DM) among treatments. However, the retained energy of pigs fed the basal diet (1,763 kcal/kg DM) was greater ( < 0.05) than for those fed the HH (1,501 kcal/kg DM) and HHP (1,482 kcal/kg DM) diets. The NE:ME ratio tended to be greater ( ≤ 0.10) for the basal diet (0.85) than for the HH (0.82), EHH (0.82), and HHP (0.83) diets. The NE of HH, EHH, and HHP determined by the IC method were 2,375, 2,320, and 2,399 kcal/kg DM, respectively, whereas values calculated using published prediction equations were 2,308, 2,161, and 2,278 kcal/kg DM, respectively. However there was no difference between determined and predicted values. In conclusion, the NE of HH, EHH, and HHP determined using the IC method were 2,375, 2,320, and 2,399 kcal/kg DM, respectively, and these values were 2.9, 7.1, and 5.2% greater, respectively, than the predicted values, although no difference was observed between determined and predicted values. However, the HP values observed for the basal diet and the diets containing high dietary fiber in the form of HH, EHH, or HHP were similar.

Results of an international phosphorus digestibility ring test with broiler chickens

The objective of this ring test was to investigate the prececal phosphorus (P) digestibility of soybean meal (SBM) in broiler chickens using the trial protocol proposed by the World's Poultry Science Association. It was hypothesized that prececal P digestibility of SBM determined in the collaborating stations is similar. Three diets with different inclusion levels of SBM were mixed in a feed mill specialized in experimental diets and transported to 17 collaborating stations. Broiler chicks were raised on commercial starter diets according to station-specific management routine. Then they were fed the experimental diets for a minimum of 5 d before content of the posterior half of the ileum was collected. A minimum of 6 experimental replicates per diet was used in each station. All diets and digesta samples were analyzed in the same laboratory. Diet, station, and their interaction significantly affected (P < 0.05) the prececal digestibility values of P and calcium of the diets. The prececal P digestibility of SBM was determined by linear regression and varied among stations from 19 to 51%, with significant differences among stations. In a subset of 4 stations, the prececal disappearance of myo-inositol 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexakis (dihydrogen phosphate)-P; InsP6-P) also was studied. The prececal InsP6-P disappearance correlated well with the prececal P digestibility. We hypothesized that factors influencing InsP6 hydrolysis were main contributors to the variation in prececal P digestibility among stations. These factors were probably related to the feeding and housing conditions (floor pens or cages) of the birds in the pre-experimental phase. Therefore, we suggest that the World's Poultry Science Association protocol for the determination of digestible P be should extended to the standardization of the pre-experimental period. We also suggest that comparisons of P digestibility measurements among studies are made only with great caution until the protocol is more refined.

Effect of expeller extracted canola meal on growth performance, organ weights, and blood parameters of growing pigs

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of increasing levels of expeller extracted canola meal (EECM) in diets for growing pigs on performance, gastrointestinal tract weight, thyroid gland weights, blood plasma concentration of triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine, red blood cell count, hemoglobin content in blood, and hematocrit. Four diets were fed to 48 pigs (19.9 ± 1.60 kg initial BW) in 24 pens (6 pens per diet) for 4 wk in a completely randomized design. The diets were a control corn-soybean meal basal diet and 3 additional diets produced by replacing 33, 66, or 100% of soybean meal with EECM to achieve inclusion levels of 0, 10, 20, and 30%. Diets were formulated to be similar in NE and nutrient composition and to meet nutrient requirements for pigs. Pigs were allowed ad libitum access to feed and water for the duration of the study. Feed intake and BW of pigs were determined on a weekly basis, whereas organ weights and blood parameters were determined at the end of the study. Average daily feed intake linearly decreased ( = 0.001) whereas ADG tended to linearly decline ( = 0.084) with increasing levels of EECM in the diet. The G:F was not affected ( > 0.10) by the dietary level of EECM. Thyroid weight and serum triiodothyronine linearly increased ( = 0.031) whereas serum tetraiodothyronine was linearly reduced ( = 0.001) with increasing inclusion of EECM. Other blood parameters and organ weights were not affected by increasing inclusion of EECM. The analyzed concentration of glucosinolates in the EECM used in this study was 9.27 μmol/g, with values in the diets ranging from 1.02 to 2.75 μmol/g for the lowest to highest inclusion levels, respectively. The increased thyroid weight and changes in thyroid hormones indicate that glucosinolates present in EECM adversely affected performance of growing pigs.

Standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in flaxseed meal fed to growing and finishing pigs without or with phytase supplementation

Two experiments were conducted to determine the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in flaxseed meal (FM) and the effect of dietary microbial phytase on the digestibility of P in FM fed to growing and finishing pigs. In Exp. 1, eighteen growing barrows (26.6 ± 1.8 kg BW) were allotted to 1 of 3 experimental diets consisting of a diet containing 32% FM that was fed with or without phytase at 500 phytase units (FTU/kg and a P-free diet in a completely randomized design to give 6 replicates per diet. The experimental period lasted 12 d including first 7 d for adaptation and 5 d for total collection of feces. Pigs were fed their assigned diets at 4% of BW at the beginning of the experiment. The daily feed allowance was offered in 2 equal portions at 0800 and 1600 h. All experimental diets were provided in mash form. Results indicated that pigs fed the diets containing FM with dietary phytase had less ( < 0.05) fecal P concentration and daily P output than those fed the diets without phytase supplementation. Also, phytase supplementation increased ( < 0.05) the ATTD of P of the diets containing FM from 37.3% to 51.8% and STTD of P of the diets containing FM from 43.2% to 57.7%. The basal endogenous P losses (EPL) was calculated at 140 ± 11 mg/kg of DMI in growing pigs fed the P-free diet. In Exp. 2, eighteen finishing pigs (78.7 ± 2.4 kg BW) were randomly allotted to 1 of 3 dietary treatments. The experimental diets and procedures were similar to those described in Exp. 1. Similar to Exp. 1, pigs fed FM diets with phytase supplementation had less ( < 0.05) P concentration in feces than those fed diets without phytase supplementation. Also, daily P output was reduced ( = 0.08) when pigs were fed the FM diets with phytase compared to those fed the FM diets without phytase. The ATTD of P in FM diets was increased ( < 0.01) from 31.4% to 45.8%, whereas the STTD of P in FM diets was increased ( < 0.01) from 37.8% to 52.3% as a result of phytase supplementation. The basal EPL was calculated at 164 ± 19 mg/kg of DMI in finishing pigs fed the P-free diet. In conclusion, the ATTD and STTD of P in FM fed to growing pigs were 37.3% and 43.2%, respectively, whereas respective values for finishing pigs were 31.4%, and 37.8%, respectively. Also, dietary phytase supplementation improved both ATTD and STTD of P in FM for both stages of pigs by an average of 33%.

Dietary lysine requirement for 7-16 kg pigs fed wheat-corn-soybean meal-based diets

Two experiments were conducted to determine the lysine requirement of weaned pigs [Duroc × (Yorkshire × Landrace)] with an average initial BW of 7 kg and fed wheat-corn-soybean meal-based diets. The experiments were conducted for 21 days during which piglets had free access to diets and water. Average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI) and gain to feed ratio (G:F) were determined on day 7, 14 and 21. Blood samples were collected on day 0 and 14 to determine plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) concentration. In experiment 1, 96 weaned pigs were housed four per pen and allocated to four dietary treatments with six replicates per treatment. The diets contained 0.99%, 1.23%, 1.51% and 1.81% standardized ileal digestible (SID) lysine, respectively, corrected analysed values. The rest of the AA were provided to meet the ideal AA ratio for protein accretion. Increasing dietary lysine content linearly increased (p < 0.05) ADG and G:F. In experiment 2, 90 piglets were housed three per pen and allocated to five dietary treatments with six replicates per treatment. The five diets contained 1.03%, 1.25%, 1.31%, 1.36% and 1.51% SID lysine, respectively, corrected analysed values. Increasing dietary lysine content linearly increased (p < 0.05) G:F, linearly decreased (p < 0.05) day-14 PUN and quadratically (p < 0.05) increased ADG and ADFI. The ADG data from experiment 2 were subjected to linear and quadratic broken-lines regression analyses, and the SID lysine requirement was determined to be 1.29% and 1.34% respectively. On average, optimal dietary SID lysine content for optimal growth of 7-16 kg weaned piglets fed wheat-corn-SBM-based diets was estimated to be 1.32%; at this level, the ADG and ADFI were 444 and 560 g, respectively, thus representing an SID lysine requirement, expressed on daily intake basis as, 7.4 g/day or 16.76 mg/g gain.

Postprandial portal glucose and lactate fluxes, insulin production, and portal vein-drained viscera oxygen consumption in growing pigs fed a high-fiber diet supplemented with a multi-enzyme cocktail

Information on effects of supplementing fibrous diets with exogenous enzymes on nutrient absorption and energetic demands of visceral organs is scarce. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of supplementing a high-fiber (HF) diet with a multi-enzyme cocktail (MC) on net glucose and lactate portal fluxes, insulin production, and O consumption by the portal-drained viscera (PDV) and whole animal in growing pigs. The MC supplied (analyzed values) 5,397 U of xylanase, 162 U of β-glucanase, and 2,000 U of protease per kg of diet, and guaranteed minimum activities of 1,000 U of α-amylase and 25 U of pectinase per kg of diet. Three isocaloric-nitrogenous diets based on corn and soybean meal with 0% (control) or 30% distillers' dried grains with solubles (DDGS; 1:1 corn and wheat mixture; HF) and HF supplemented with MC (HF + MC) were used. Five gilts (initial BW = 22.8 ± 1.6 kg) fitted with permanent catheters in the portal vein and carotid artery (for blood sampling), and ileal vein (to infuse para-amino hippuric acid to measure blood flow rate) were fed the 3 diets at 4% BW once daily at 0900 h for 7 d in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design. On d 7, pigs were placed in an open-circuit indirect calorimeter to measure whole-animal O consumption and sample blood for 7 h postprandial. Net glucose and insulin production were calculated from portal-arterial differences × portal blood flow, and PDV O consumption was calculated as arterial-portal O differences × portal blood flow. Diet had no effect on postprandial whole-animal O consumption, flow rate, and lactate flux. In addition, diet had no effect on overall mean postprandial PDV O consumption. Pigs fed control had greater ( < 0.05) portal insulin and glucose fluxes, from 90 to 300 min and net glucose flux from 90 to 240 min postprandial. However, pigs fed control and HF + MC had similar net glucose flux, which was greater ( < 0.05) than in pigs fed the HF diet. In conclusion, diets did not affect the energetic demand of the PDV but adding MC to the HF diet improved postprandial net glucose portal flux in growing pigs.

Postprandial portal fluxes of essential amino acids, volatile fatty acids, and urea-nitrogen in growing pigs fed a high-fiber diet supplemented with a multi-enzyme cocktail

The present study investigated the effects of adding a multi-enzyme cocktail (MC) to a high-fiber diet on net portal-drained viscera (PDV) fluxes of essential AA (EAA), volatile fatty acids (VFA), and blood urea-N (BUN) in growing pigs. Five female pigs (22.8 ± 1.6 kg BW), with catheters in the portal vein, ileal vein, and carotid artery, were fed 3 isocaloric-nitrogenous diets at 4% of their BW once daily at 0900 h for 7 d in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design. The diets contained corn and soybean meal with 0% (control) or 30% distillers' dried grains with solubles (DDGS; HF) produced from a 1:1 mixture of wheat and corn. The third diet was supplemented with MC in addition to the 30% DDGS (HF + MC). The MC supplied (analyzed values) 5,397 U of xylanase, 162 U of β-glucanase, and 2,000 U of protease and guaranteed minimum activities of 1,000 U of α-amylase and 25 U of pectinase per kg of diet. On d 7, para-amino hippuric acid was infused into the ileal vein (to measure flow rate), and blood was sampled from the portal vein and carotid artery for 7 h after feeding to assay EAA, urea-N, and VFA. Portal absorption of nutrients was derived by multiplying the porto-arterial plasma concentration differences by portal vein blood flow. Diet had no effect on postprandial portal vein plasma flow rate and net BUN flux, but portal BUN tended to be lower ( = 0.070) and arterial BUN was lower ( 0.05) over the 7 h in pigs fed control. Postprandial portal Arg, Ile, Leu, Trp, and Val or net fluxes were lower ( 0.05) in HF-fed pigs from 30 to 240 min than control-fed pigs and MC supplementation tended (0.05 ≤ ≤ 0.10) to or improved ( 0.05) portal appearances of those AA, but not their fluxes. Control-fed pigs had higher ( 0.05) net portal fluxes of most EAA and pigs fed HF + MC had higher ( 0.05) Lys, and similar Met and Phe net portal fluxes were compared with control-fed pigs. Portal VFA was not affected by diet. However, total portal VFA flux was lower ( 0.05) in the HF-fed pigs than in the control pigs. The MC supplementation improved the total portal VFA flux, although it did not improve arterial VFA concentration relative to the HF diet. In conclusion, supplementing the HF diet with MC improved net portal appearance of some EAA and fluxes of total VFA, whereas fluxes of EAA did not change. The HF diet increased EAA demand by the PDV, but MC addition was not able to reduce this demand.

Nutritional and metabolic implications of replacing cornstarch with D-xylose in broiler chickens fed corn and soybean meal-based diet

Effects of substituting cornstarch with D-xylose on growth performance, nutrients digestibility, serum metabolites, and expression of select hepatic genes involved in glucose and lipid metabolism were investigated in broiler chickens. A total of 360 one-day-old male Ross chicks were fed 3 diets (n = 24; 5 chicks/cage) for 21 days. A control corn-soybean meal-based diet with 25% cornstarch was formulated to meet specifications. Two additional diets were formulated by substituting cornstarch with 5 or 15% D-xylose w/w. Growth performance and digestibility by index method were determined in 12 replicate cages. Birds in these replicates had free access to feed and water, the BW and feed intake (FI) were monitored weekly and the excreta samples were collected on d 18 to 20. The other 12 replicates were used for blood and liver sampling by serial slaughter. On d 18, baseline (t0) birds were sampled following a 12 h overnight fasting and birds allowed 30 min access to the feed; samples were subsequently taken at 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300 min post feeding. Serum metabolites (glucose, xylose, and insulin) were assayed at all time points, whereas expression of hepatic transcripts was evaluated at zero, 180 and 300 min. Xylose linearly reduced (P < 0.05) FI, BWG, gross energy digestibility, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) but increased (P < 0.05) serum xylose level. Serum glucose and insulin levels were higher (P < 0.05) in the post-fed state compared with baseline, irrespective of treatments. There was an interaction (P < 0.05) between diet and sampling time on the expression of hepatic genes. At t0, xylose linearly increased (P < 0.05) the expression of pyruvate carboxylase, Acetyl Co-A acethyltransferase 2 (ACAT2), and glucose transporter 2. Xylose linearly reduced (P < 0.05) the expression of ACAT2 at 300 min post feeding. In conclusion, 5% or more xylose reduced growth performance and utilization of nutrients linked to hepatic enzymes and transcription factors involved in glucose and lipid metabolism.

Gut Health of Pigs: Challenge Models and Response Criteria with a Critical Analysis of the Effectiveness of Selected Feed Additives - A Review

The gut is the largest organ that helps with the immune function. Gut health, especially in young pigs has a significant benefit to health and performance. In an attempt to maintain and enhance intestinal health in pigs and improve productivity in the absence of in-feed antibiotics, researchers have evaluated a wide range of feed additives. Some of these additives such as zinc oxide, copper sulphate, egg yolk antibodies, mannan-oligosaccharides and spray dried porcine plasma and their effectiveness are discussed in this review. One approach to evaluate the effectiveness of these additives in vivo is to use an appropriate disease challenge model. Over the years, researchers have used a number of challenge models which include the use of specific strains of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, bacteria lipopolysaccharide challenge, oral challenge with Salmonella enteric serotype Typhimurium, sanitation challenge, and Lawsonia intercellularis challenge. These challenge models together with the criteria used to evaluate the responses of the animals to them are also discussed in this review.

Bioavailability of Phosphorus in Two Cultivars of Pea for Broiler Chicks

The aim was to determine the relative bioavailability of phosphorus (P) in peas for 21-day old broiler chickens using slope-ratio assay. One hundred and sixty eight male Ross 308 broiler chicks were divided into 42 groups 4 balanced for body weight and fed 7 diets in a completely randomized design (6 groups/diet) from day 1 to 21 of age. The diets were a corn-soybean meal basal diet, and the corn-soybean meal basal diet to which monosodium phosphate, brown- or yellow-seeded pea was added at the expense of cornstarch to supply 0.5% or 1% total phosphorus. Monosodium phosphate was included as a reference, and hence the estimated bioavailability of P in pea cultivars was relative to that in the monosodium phosphate. Birds and feed were weighed weekly and on d 21 they were killed to obtain tibia. The brown-seeded pea contained 23.4% crude protein, 0.47% P, whereas the yellow-seeded pea contained 24.3% crude protein and 0.38% P. Increasing dietary P supply improved (p<0.05) chick body weight gain and tibia ash and bone density. The estimated relative bioavailability of p values for brown- and yellow-seeded peas obtained using final body weight, average daily gain, tibia ash, and bone mineral density were 31.5% and 36.2%, 35.6% and 37.3%, 23.0% and 5.60%, and 40.3% and 30.3%, respectively. The estimated relative bioavailability of p values for brown- and yellow-seeded peas did not differ within each of the response criteria measured in this study. In conclusion, the relative bioavailability of P in pea did not differ depending on the cultivar (brown- vs yellow-seed). However, the relative bioavailability of P in pea may vary depending on the response criterion used to measure the bioavailability.

Recent advances in canola meal utilization in swine nutrition

Canola meal is derived from the crushing of canola seed for oil extraction. Although it has been used in swine diets for a long time, its inclusion levels have been limited due to concerns regarding its nutritive value primarily arising from results of early studies showing negative effects of dietary canola meal inclusion in swine diets. Such effects were attributable to the presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANF; notably glucosinolates) in canola meal. However, due to advances in genetic improvements of canola that have led to production of cultivars with significantly lower ANF content and improved processing procedures, canola meal with a superior nutritive value for non-ruminant animals is now available. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to review the recent studies in the use of canola meal as feedstuff for swine, the factors influencing its use and the strategies to overcome them. First a historical overview of the development of canola is provided.

True and standardized total tract phosphorus digestibility in canola meals from Brassica napus black and Brassica juncea yellow fed to growing pigs

The aim was to determine the true total tract digestibility (TTTD) and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in canola meals from Brassica napus black (BNB) and Brassica juncea yellow (BJY) fed to growing pigs. Fifty-four barrows with an initial BW of 19.9 ± 0.22 kg (mean ± SEM) were allocated in 3 consecutive blocks to 1 of 9 dietary treatments in a randomized complete block design to give 6 replicate pigs per diet. Dietary treatments were cornstarch based with increasing concentrations of P, that is, 0.8, 1.6, 2.4, and 3.3 g/kg (as-fed basis) from either BNB or BJY as the sole source of P and a gelatin-based P-free diet. Limestone was added to maintain a Ca:total P ratio of 1.2:1 in all diets. All diets contained titanium dioxide (3 g/kg) as an indigestible marker. Daily feed allowance was calculated to supply 2.6 times the maintenance energy requirement based on the BW at the beginning of each period and offered in 2 equal portions at 0800 and 1600 h as a dry mash. Pigs were individually housed in metabolism crates and fed experimental diets for 16 d, including 9 d for adaptation to feed and 5 d for total but separate collection of feces and urine. The apparent total tract digestibility values of P increased from 19.0 to 30.0% for BNB and from 17.3 to 28.3% for BJY as the dietary P content increased from 0.8 to 3.3 g/kg DM. The TTTD of P was determined using the regression analysis as dietary P content increased from 0.8 to 3.3 g/kg whereas the STTD of P was calculated for the diet with the highest P content (i.e., 3.3 g/kg, as-fed basis) using the P-free diet to estimate endogenous P losses (EPL). The total and basal EPL estimates obtained with regression analysis and the P-free diet were 665 ± 0.03 and 209 ± 96 mg/kg DMI, respectively. The TTTD of P was 33.3 and 32.0% in BNB and BJY, respectively. Respective STTD values were 31.0 and 28.3%. The results indicated that the TTTD and STTD of P were comparable in the 2 canola meals from BNB and BJY canola.