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Yu J, Collins ND, Mercado NB, McMahan K, Chandrashekar A, Liu J, Anioke T, Chang A, Giffin VM, Hope DL, Sellers D, Nampanya F, Gardner S, Barrett J, Wan H, Velasco J, Teow E, Cook A, Van Ry A, Pessaint L, Andersen H, Lewis MG, Hofer C, Burke DS, Barkei EK, King HAD, Subra C, Bolton D, Modjarrad K, Michael NL, Barouch DH. Protective Efficacy of Gastrointestinal SARS-CoV-2 Delivery against Intranasal and Intratracheal SARS-CoV-2 Challenge in Rhesus Macaques. J Virol 2022; 96:e0159921. [PMID: 34705557 PMCID: PMC8791250 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01599-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Live oral vaccines have been explored for their protective efficacy against respiratory viruses, particularly for adenovirus serotypes 4 and 7. The potential of a live oral vaccine against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), however, remains unclear. In this study, we assessed the immunogenicity of live SARS-CoV-2 delivered to the gastrointestinal tract in rhesus macaques and its protective efficacy against intranasal and intratracheal SARS-CoV-2 challenge. Postpyloric administration of SARS-CoV-2 by esophagogastroduodenoscopy resulted in limited virus replication in the gastrointestinal tract and minimal to no induction of mucosal antibody titers in rectal swabs, nasal swabs, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Low levels of serum neutralizing antibodies were induced and correlated with modestly diminished viral loads in nasal swabs and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid following intranasal and intratracheal SARS-CoV-2 challenge. Overall, our data show that postpyloric inoculation of live SARS-CoV-2 is weakly immunogenic and confers partial protection against respiratory SARS-CoV-2 challenge in rhesus macaques. IMPORTANCE SARS-CoV-2 remains a global threat, despite the rapid deployment but limited coverage of multiple vaccines. Alternative vaccine strategies that have favorable manufacturing timelines, greater ease of distribution, and improved coverage may offer significant public health benefits, especially in resource-limited settings. Live oral vaccines have the potential to address some of these limitations; however, no studies have yet been conducted to assess the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a live oral vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. Here, we report that oral administration of live SARS-CoV-2 in nonhuman primates may offer prophylactic benefits, but the formulation and route of administration will require further optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyou Yu
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Noe B. Mercado
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Katherine McMahan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Abishek Chandrashekar
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jinyan Liu
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tochi Anioke
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Aiquan Chang
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Victoria M. Giffin
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David L. Hope
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Daniel Sellers
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Felix Nampanya
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sarah Gardner
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Julia Barrett
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Huahua Wan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Christian Hofer
- Veterinary Services Program, Center for Enabling Capabilities, Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Donald S. Burke
- Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Erica K. Barkei
- Veterinary Services Program, Center for Enabling Capabilities, Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Hannah A. D. King
- Henry Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
- Military HIV Research Program, Center for Infectious Disease Research, Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Caroline Subra
- Henry Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
- Military HIV Research Program, Center for Infectious Disease Research, Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Diane Bolton
- Henry Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
- Military HIV Research Program, Center for Infectious Disease Research, Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Kayvon Modjarrad
- Emerging Infectious Diseases Branch, Center for Infectious Disease Research, Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Nelson L. Michael
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Dan H. Barouch
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT, and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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2
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Chandrashekar A, Liu J, Yu J, McMahan K, Tostanoski LH, Jacob-Dolan C, Mercado NB, Anioke T, Chang A, Gardner S, Giffin VM, Hope DL, Nampanya F, Patel S, Sanborn O, Sellers D, Wan H, Martinot AJ, Baczenas JJ, O’Connor SL, Pessaint L, Valentin D, Espina B, Wattay L, Ferrari MG, Brown R, Cook A, Bueno-Wilkerson D, Teow E, Andersen H, Lewis MG, Barouch DH. Prior infection with SARS-CoV-2 WA1/2020 partially protects rhesus macaques against reinfection with B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 variants. Sci Transl Med 2021; 13:eabj2641. [PMID: 34546094 PMCID: PMC8829873 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abj2641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants that result in increased transmissibility and partial evasion of neutralizing antibodies have recently emerged. Whether natural immunity induced by the original SARS-CoV-2 WA1/2020 strain protects against rechallenge with these SARS-CoV-2 variants remains a critical unresolved question. In this study, we show that natural immunity induced by the WA1/2020 strain leads to partial but incomplete protection against the SARS-CoV-2 variants B.1.1.7 (alpha) and B.1.351 (beta) in rhesus macaques. We challenged rhesus macaques with B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 and showed that infection with these variants resulted in high viral replication in the upper and lower respiratory tract. We then infected rhesus macaques with the WA1/2020 strain and rechallenged them on day 35 with the WA1/2020, B.1.1.7, or B.1.351 variants. Natural immunity to WA1/2020 led to robust protection against rechallenge with WA1/2020 but only partial protection against rechallenge with B.1.351. An intermediate degree of protection was observed in rhesus macaques against rechallenge with B.1.1.7. These data demonstrate partial but incomplete protective efficacy of natural immunity induced by WA1/2020 against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Our findings have important implications for both vaccination and public health strategies in the context of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abishek Chandrashekar
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Jinyan Liu
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Jingyou Yu
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Katherine McMahan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Lisa H. Tostanoski
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Catherine Jacob-Dolan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Noe B. Mercado
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Tochi Anioke
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Aiquan Chang
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sarah Gardner
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Victoria M. Giffin
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - David L. Hope
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Felix Nampanya
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Shivani Patel
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Owen Sanborn
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Daniel Sellers
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Huahua Wan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Amanda J. Martinot
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
| | - John J. Baczenas
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center and University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Shelby L. O’Connor
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center and University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Dan H. Barouch
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT, and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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3
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Tostanoski LH, Yu J, Mercado NB, McMahan K, Jacob-Dolan C, Martinot AJ, Piedra-Mora C, Anioke T, Chang A, Giffin VM, Hope DL, Wan H, Bondzie EA, Mahrokhian SH, Wrijil LM, Bauer K, Pessaint L, Porto M, Piegols J, Faudree A, Spence B, Kar S, Amanat F, Krammer F, Andersen H, Lewis MG, Wegmann F, Zahn R, Schuitemaker H, Barouch DH. Immunity elicited by natural infection or Ad26.COV2.S vaccination protects hamsters against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Sci Transl Med 2021; 13:eabj3789. [PMID: 34705477 PMCID: PMC8818312 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abj3789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants of concern have emerged and may pose a threat to both the efficacy of vaccines based on the original WA1/2020 strain and the natural immunity induced by infection with earlier SARS-CoV-2 variants. We investigated how mutations in the spike protein of circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants, which have been shown to partially evade neutralizing antibodies, affect natural and vaccine-induced immunity. We adapted a Syrian hamster model of moderate to severe clinical disease for two variant strains of SARS-CoV-2: B.1.1.7 (alpha variant) and B.1.351 (beta variant). We then assessed the protective efficacy conferred by either natural immunity from WA1/2020 infection or by vaccination with a single dose of the adenovirus serotype 26 vaccine, Ad26.COV2.S. Primary infection with the WA1/2020 strain provided potent protection against weight loss and viral replication in lungs after rechallenge with WA1/2020, B.1.1.7, or B.1.351. Ad26.COV2.S induced cross-reactive binding and neutralizing antibodies that were reduced against the B.1.351 strain compared with WA1/2020 but nevertheless still provided robust protection against B.1.351 challenge, as measured by weight loss and pathology scoring in the lungs. Together, these data support hamsters as a preclinical model to study protection against emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2 conferred by prior infection or vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa H. Tostanoski
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jingyou Yu
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Noe B. Mercado
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Katherine McMahan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Catherine Jacob-Dolan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Amanda J. Martinot
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Pathology, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
| | - Cesar Piedra-Mora
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Pathology, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
| | - Tochi Anioke
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Aiquan Chang
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Victoria M. Giffin
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - David L. Hope
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Huahua Wan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Esther A. Bondzie
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Shant H. Mahrokhian
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Linda M. Wrijil
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Pathology, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
| | - Katherine Bauer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Pathology, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Fatima Amanat
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Florian Krammer
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | | | | | - Frank Wegmann
- Janssen Vaccines & Prevention BV, Leiden, 2333 CN, Netherlands
| | - Roland Zahn
- Janssen Vaccines & Prevention BV, Leiden, 2333 CN, Netherlands
| | | | - Dan H. Barouch
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Massachusetts Consortium on Pathogen Readiness, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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4
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Yu J, Tostanoski LH, Mercado NB, McMahan K, Liu J, Jacob-Dolan C, Chandrashekar A, Atyeo C, Martinez DR, Anioke T, Bondzie EA, Chang A, Gardner S, Giffin VM, Hope DL, Nampanya F, Nkolola J, Patel S, Sanborn O, Sellers D, Wan H, Hayes T, Bauer K, Pessaint L, Valentin D, Flinchbaugh Z, Brown R, Cook A, Bueno-Wilkerson D, Teow E, Andersen H, Lewis MG, Martinot AJ, Baric RS, Alter G, Wegmann F, Zahn R, Schuitemaker H, Barouch DH. Protective efficacy of Ad26.COV2.S against SARS-CoV-2 B.1.351 in macaques. Nature 2021; 596:423-427. [PMID: 34161961 PMCID: PMC8373608 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03732-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants that partially evade neutralizing antibodies poses a threat to the efficacy of current COVID-19 vaccines1,2. The Ad26.COV2.S vaccine expresses a stabilized spike protein from the WA1/2020 strain of SARS-CoV-2, and has recently demonstrated protective efficacy against symptomatic COVID-19 in humans in several geographical regions-including in South Africa, where 95% of sequenced viruses in cases of COVID-19 were the B.1.351 variant3. Here we show that Ad26.COV2.S elicits humoral and cellular immune responses that cross-react with the B.1.351 variant and protects against B.1.351 challenge in rhesus macaques. Ad26.COV2.S induced lower binding and neutralizing antibodies against B.1.351 as compared to WA1/2020, but elicited comparable CD8 and CD4 T cell responses against the WA1/2020, B.1.351, B.1.1.7, P.1 and CAL.20C variants. B.1.351 infection of control rhesus macaques resulted in higher levels of virus replication in bronchoalveolar lavage and nasal swabs than did WA1/2020 infection. Ad26.COV2.S provided robust protection against both WA1/2020 and B.1.351, although we observed higher levels of virus in vaccinated macaques after B.1.351 challenge. These data demonstrate that Ad26.COV2.S provided robust protection against B.1.351 challenge in rhesus macaques. Our findings have important implications for vaccine control of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyou Yu
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lisa H Tostanoski
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Noe B Mercado
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Katherine McMahan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jinyan Liu
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Catherine Jacob-Dolan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Abishek Chandrashekar
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Caroline Atyeo
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - David R Martinez
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Tochi Anioke
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Esther A Bondzie
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Aiquan Chang
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sarah Gardner
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Victoria M Giffin
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David L Hope
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Felix Nampanya
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Joseph Nkolola
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Shivani Patel
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Owen Sanborn
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Daniel Sellers
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Huahua Wan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tammy Hayes
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Katherine Bauer
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Amanda J Martinot
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Ralph S Baric
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Galit Alter
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Frank Wegmann
- Janssen Vaccines & Prevention, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Roland Zahn
- Janssen Vaccines & Prevention, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Dan H Barouch
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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