NADP+ and NAD+ binding to the dual coenzyme specific enzyme Leuconostoc mesenteroides glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase: different interdomain hinge angles are seen in different binary and ternary complexes

The reduced coenzymes NADH and NADPH only differ by one phosphate, but in the cell NADH provides reducing power for catabolism while NADPH is utilized in biosynthetic pathways. Enzymes almost invariably discriminate between the coenzymes, but glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) from Leuconostoc mesenteroides is rare in being functionally dual specific. In order to elucidate the coenzyme selectivity, the structures of NADP(+)- and NAD(+)-complexed L. mesenteroides G6PD have been determined including data to 2.2 and 2.5 A resolution, respectively, and compared with unliganded G6PD crystallized in the same space groups. Coenzyme binding is also compared with that in a ternary complex of a mutant in which Asp177 in the active site has been mutated to asparagine. There are no gross structural differences between the complexes. In both binary complexes, the enzyme interdomain hinge angle has opened. NADP(+) binds to the furthest open form; of the residues within the coenzyme domain, only Arg46 moves, interacting with the 2'-phosphate and adenine. NAD(+) is less well defined in the binding site; smaller hinge opening is seen but larger local changes: Arg46 is displaced, Thr14 bonds the 3'-hydroxyl and Gln47 bonds the 2'-hydroxyl. In the ternary complex, the hinge angle has closed; only the adenine nucleotide is ordered in the binding site. Arg46 again provides most binding interactions.

An examination of the role of asp-177 in the His-Asp catalytic dyad of Leuconostoc mesenteroides glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase: X-ray structure and pH dependence of kinetic parameters of the D177N mutant enzyme

The role of Asp-177 in the His-Asp catalytic dyad of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been investigated by a structural and functional characterization of the D177N mutant enzyme. Its three-dimensional structure has been determined by X-ray cryocrystallography in the presence of NAD(+) and in the presence of glucose 6-phosphate plus NADPH. The structure of a glucose 6-phosphate complex of a mutant (Q365C) with normal enzyme activity has also been determined and substrate binding compared. To understand the effect of Asp-177 on the ionization properties of the catalytic base His-240, the pH dependence of kinetic parameters has been determined for the D177N mutant and compared to that of the wild-type enzyme. The structures give details of glucose 6-phosphate binding and show that replacement of the Asp-177 of the catalytic dyad with asparagine does not affect the overall structure of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Additionally, the evidence suggests that the productive tautomer of His-240 in the D177N mutant enzyme is stabilized by a hydrogen bond with Asn-177; hence, the mutation does not affect tautomer stabilization. We conclude, therefore, that the absence of a negatively charged aspartate at 177 accounts for the decrease in catalytic activity at pH 7.8. Structural analysis suggests that the pH dependence of the kinetic parameters of D177N glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase results from an ionized water molecule replacing the missing negative charge of the mutated Asp-177 at high pH. Glucose 6-phosphate binding orders and orients His-178 in the D177N-glucose 6-phosphate-NADPH ternary complex and appears to be necessary to form this water-binding site.

Delineation of the roles of amino acids involved in the catalytic functions of Leuconostoc mesenteroides glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase

The roles of particular amino acids in substrate and coenzyme binding and catalysis of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase of Leuconostoc mesenteroides have been investigated by site-directed mutagenesis, kinetic analysis, and determination of binding constants. The enzyme from this species has functional dual NADP(+)/NAD(+) specificity. Previous investigations in our laboratories determined the three-dimensional structure. Kinetic studies showed an ordered mechanism for the NADP-linked reaction while the NAD-linked reaction is random. His-240 was identified as the catalytic base, and Arg-46 was identified as important for NADP(+) but not NAD(+) binding. Mutations have been selected on the basis of the three-dimensional structure. Kinetic studies of 14 mutant enzymes are reported and kinetic mechanisms are reported for 5 mutant enzymes. Fourteen substrate or coenzyme dissociation constants have been measured for 11 mutant enzymes. Roles of particular residues are inferred from k(cat), K(m), k(cat)/K(m), K(d), and changes in kinetic mechanism. Results for enzymes K182R, K182Q, K343R, and K343Q establish Lys-182 and Lys-343 as important in binding substrate both to free enzyme and during catalysis. Studies of mutant enzymes Y415F and Y179F showed no significant contribution for Tyr-415 to substrate binding and only a small contribution for Tyr-179. Changes in kinetics for T14A, Q47E, and R46A enzymes implicate these residues, to differing extents, in coenzyme binding and discrimination between NADP(+) and NAD(+). By the same measure, Lys-343 is also involved in defining coenzyme specificity. Decrease in k(cat) and k(cat)/K(m) for the D374Q mutant enzyme defines the way Asp-374, unique to L. mesenteroides G6PD, modulates stabilization of the enzyme during catalysis by its interaction with Lys-182. The greatly reduced k(cat) values of enzymes P149V and P149G indicate the importance of the cis conformation of Pro-149 in accessing the correct transition state.

On the mechanism of the reaction catalyzed by glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase

The catalytic mechanism of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides was investigated by replacing three amino acids, His-240, Asp-177, and His 178, with asparagine, using site-directed mutagenesis. Each of the mutant enzymes was purified to homogeneity and characterized by substrate binding studies and steady-state kinetic analyses. The three-dimensional structure of the H240N glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase was determined at 2.5 A resolution. The results support a mechanism in which His-240 acts as the general base that abstracts the proton from the C1-hydroxyl group of glucose 6-phosphate, and the carboxylate group of Asp-177 stabilizes the positive charge that forms on His-240 in the transition state. The results also confirm the postulated role of His-178 in binding the phosphate moiety of glucose 6-phosphate.

Identification of an arginine residue in the dual coenzyme-specific glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides that plays a key role in binding NADP+ but not NAD+

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides can utilize either NADP or NAD as coenzyme. The enzyme's three-dimensional structure has been solved (Rowland et al., 1994, Structure 2, 1073-1087) and shown to contain a conventional nucleotide binding domain. NADP+ was modeled into the structure by superimposing the beta alpha beta domain and that of coenzyme-bound 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (Adams et al., 1994, Structure 2, 651-658), enabling us to identify Arg-46 as a potentially important residue for NADP+ binding. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we constructed mutant enzymes in which Arg-46 was replaced by glutamine (R46Q) and alanine (R46A) and examined their kinetic properties. The principal effects in these mutant enzymes were that the Km and Ki values for NADP+ increased by 2 to 3 orders of magnitude over those of the wild-type enzyme. No other kinetic constant was altered more than 6.5-fold. Changing this single amino acid leads to mutant glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenases with coenzyme specificities that favor NAD+, whereas the wild-type enzyme prefers NADP+ as coenzyme. These results confirm that Arg-46 plays a key role in NADP+ binding by contributing a positively charged planar residue that interacts primarily with the 2'-adenosine phosphate. The Arg residue corresponding to Arg-46 in L. mesenteroides glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase is conserved in all glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenases and, presumably, plays the same role in all these enzymes.

Identification of an arginine residue in the dual coenzyme-specific glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides that plays a key role in binding NADP+ but not NAD+

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides can utilize either NADP or NAD as coenzyme. The enzyme's three-dimensional structure has been solved (Rowland et al., 1994, Structure 2, 1073-1087) and shown to contain a conventional nucleotide binding domain. NADP+ was modeled into the structure by superimposing the beta alpha beta domain and that of coenzyme-bound 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (Adams et al., 1994, Structure 2, 651-658), enabling us to identify Arg-46 as a potentially important residue for NADP+ binding. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we constructed mutant enzymes in which Arg-46 was replaced by glutamine (R46Q) and alanine (R46A) and examined their kinetic properties. The principal effects in these mutant enzymes were that the Km and Ki values for NADP+ increased by 2 to 3 orders of magnitude over those of the wild-type enzyme. No other kinetic constant was altered more than 6.5-fold. Changing this single amino acid leads to mutant glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenases with coenzyme specificities that favor NAD+, whereas the wild-type enzyme prefers NADP+ as coenzyme. These results confirm that Arg-46 plays a key role in NADP+ binding by contributing a positively charged planar residue that interacts primarily with the 2'-adenosine phosphate. The Arg residue corresponding to Arg-46 in L. mesenteroides glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase is conserved in all glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenases and, presumably, plays the same role in all these enzymes.

On the mechanism of interaction of steroids with human glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase

Previous studies have demonstrated that certain 17- and 20-ketosteroids are potent inhibitors of the NADP-linked oxidation of glucose 6-phosphate by mammalian glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenases. This inhibition is uncompetitive with respect to both NADP+ and glucose 6-phosphate. In order to elucidate the detailed mechanism of this rare type of inhibition, we examined the effects of steroids on human glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyzing the reverse reaction, i.e., the reduction of the gluconolactone by NADPH. To circumvent problems associated with the known instability of 6-phospho-delta-gluconolactone, the natural product of glucose 6-phosphate oxidation, the more stable 6-phospho-gamma-gluconolactone was used. Dehydroepiandrosterone, epiandrosterone, 16 alpha-bromoepiandrosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate all inhibited the reverse reaction uncompetitively with respect to both NADPH and the gamma-lactone. The Ki values for each of these steroids, determined by varying either coenzyme or substrate in both the forward and the reverse reactions, are very similar. These results demonstrate that steroids inhibit glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase by binding to the ternary enzyme-coenzyme-substrate ternary complex(es). This is the first direct demonstration that uncompetitive inhibition of a two-substrate enzyme, by compounds other than its substrates or products, can occur by binding of the inhibitor to a ternary enzyme complex.

The three-dimensional structure of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides refined at 2.0 A resolution

BACKGROUND

Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is the first enzyme of the pentose phosphate pathway. Normally the pathway is synthetic and NADP-dependent, but the Gram-positive bacterium Leuconostoc mesenteroides, which does not have a complete glycolytic pathway, also uses the oxidative enzymes of the pentose phosphate pathway for catabolic reactions, and selects either NAD or NADP depending on the demands for catabolic or anabolic metabolism.

RESULTS

The structure of G6PD has been determined and refined to 2.0 A resolution. The enzyme is a dimer, each subunit consisting of two domains. The smaller domain is a classic dinucleotide-binding fold, while the larger one is a new beta+ alpha fold, not previously seen, with a predominantly antiparallel nine-stranded beta-sheet. There are significant structural differences in the coenzyme-binding domains of the two subunits, caused by Pro 149 which is cis in one subunit and trans in the other.

CONCLUSIONS

The structure has allowed us to propose the location of the active site and the coenzyme-binding site, and suggests the role of many of the residues conserved between species. We propose that the conserved Arg46 would interact with both the adenine ring and the 2'-phosphate of NADP. Gln47, which is not conserved, may contribute to the change from NADP to dual coenzyme specificity. His178, in a nine-residue peptide conserved for all known sequences, binds a phosphate in the active site pocket. His240 is the most likely candidate for the base to oxidize the 1-hydroxyl group of the glucose 6-phosphate substrate.

Purification and characterization of the NAD-preferring glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Acetobacter hansenii (Acetobacter xylinum)

An NAD-preferring glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase of Acetobacter hansenii (formerly known as Acetobacter xylinum) has been purified to apparent homogeneity and kinetically characterized. The purified enzyme was stabilized by the use of glycerol, MgSO4, and 2-mercaptoethanol at pH 5.4. The molecular weight of the enzyme, determined by nondenaturing gel filtration, is 243,000. The subunit molecular weight is 60,140 as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, suggesting that the native enzyme is a tetramer. At pH 5.4 the enzyme has Kms of 0.104 and 0.34 mM for NAD+ and NADP+, respectively; the Kms for glucose 6-phosphate are 0.071 and 0.089 mM, using NAD+ and NADP+, respectively; and the kcat values are 128,000 and 77,300 min-1 with NAD+ and NADP+, respectively. The Kms for NADP+ and glucose 6-phosphate are approximately 10 times higher than the corresponding Kms for the NADP-specific glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase in the same organism, but the kcat is also approximately 10-fold higher, so that the kcat/Km values for these two activities are nearly identical at pH 5.4. Both the NAD- and NADP-linked activities of the NAD-preferring enzyme are inhibited by ATP. The NADP-specific glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase is insensitive to ATP at pH 6.7 and 9.5, but at pH 5.4 ATP inhibits this enzyme. The possible roles of these two glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenases in the metabolism of A. hansenii are discussed.

Lysine-21 of Leuconostoc mesenteroides glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase participates in substrate binding through charge-charge interaction

Leuconostoc mesenteroides glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) was isolated in high yield and purified to homogeneity from a newly constructed strain of Escherichia coli which lacks its own glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase gene. Lys-21 is one of two lysyl residues in the enzyme previously modified by the affinity labels pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and pyridoxal 5'-diphosphate-5'-adenosine, which are competitive inhibitors of the enzyme with respect to glucose 6-phosphate (LaDine, J.R., Carlow, D., Lee, W.T., Cross, R.L., Flynn, T.G., & Levy, H.R., 1991, J. Biol. Chem. 266, 5558-5562). K21R and K21Q mutants of the enzyme were purified to homogeneity and characterized kinetically to determine the function of Lys-21. Both mutant enzymes showed increased Km-values for glucose 6-phosphate compared to wild-type enzyme: 1.4-fold (NAD-linked reaction) and 2.1-fold (NADP-linked reaction) for the K21R enzyme, and 36-fold (NAD-linked reaction) and 53-fold (NADP-linked reaction) for the K21Q enzyme. The Km for NADP+ was unchanged in both mutant enzymes. The Km for NAD+ was increased 1.5- and 3.2-fold, compared to the wild-type enzyme, in the K21R and K21Q enzymes, respectively. For the K21R enzyme the kcat for the NAD- and NADP-linked reactions was unchanged. The kcat for the K21Q enzyme was increased in the NAD-linked reaction by 26% and decreased by 30% in the NADP-linked reaction from the values for the wild-type enzyme. The data are consistent with Lys-21 participating in the binding of the phosphate group of the substrate to the enzyme via charge-charge interaction.

Purification and properties of NADP-linked glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Acetobacter hansenii (Acetobacter xylinum)

The NADP-linked glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Acetobacter hansenii (formerly known as Acetobacter xylinum) has been purified to apparent homogeneity. The sequence of the 10 N-terminal amino acids was determined. The subunit molecular weight of the enzyme is 53,000 as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; gel filtration studies under nondenaturing conditions revealed that the molecular weight of the enzyme is 200,000 to 220,000 at pH 6.5 and 9.5, suggesting that the native enzyme is a tetramer. Specificity studies at both pH 6.5 and 9.5 demonstrated that the enzyme is a typical NADP-preferring glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. The enzyme's catalytic activity increases with increasing pH, kcat being approximately 4 times greater at pH 9.5 than at pH 6.7 and the Km for NADP+ being 3 times lower at the higher pH; but the Km for glucose 6-phosphate is nearly 20 times higher at pH 9.5 than at pH 6.7, suggesting that the enzyme is catalytically more efficient at the lower pH. At pH 6.7, initial velocity measurements, product inhibition by NADPH, and inhibition by glucosamine 6-phosphate yielded results that were consistent with a steady-state random mechanism. At pH 9.5, steady-state kinetic analyses suggested that the mechanism is ordered, with coenzyme binding first, but nonlinear double-reciprocal plots were observed in the presence of NADPH when glucose 6-phosphate was varied and a complete kinetic analysis was not undertaken. Among several nucleotides and potential inhibitory ligands examined, only 2',5'-ADP inhibited the enzyme significantly.

Cloning of the gene and amino acid sequence for glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides

Amino acid sequencing of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Glc6PD) from Leuconostoc mesenteroides yielded sequence for over 75% of the protein. Two oligonucleotides based on the amino acid sequence were used to isolate a partial Glc6PD gene clone (pLmz delta N65), from a pUC9 library, containing 85% of the coding sequence and the 3'-untranslated DNA, but lacking the 5'-noncoding DNA sequence and the portion of the gene encoding the 65 N-terminal amino acids. Attempts to obtain a full-length clone from lambda libraries were unsuccessful, possibly due to restriction of L. mesenteroides DNA by Escherichia coli host cells. The 5'-untranslated DNA was amplified by the polymerase chain reaction and partially sequenced. To obtain unmodified DNA for the gene, oligonucleotides corresponding to the 5'- and 3'-noncoding sequences were used to amplify the gene by the polymerase chain reaction, and a 1.8-kilobase pair fragment was isolated and cloned into pUC19. The recombinant plasmid, pLmz, contains the entire Glc6PD gene and expresses the gene in E. coli. pLmz was sequenced showing that the enzyme consists of 485 amino acids. L. mesenteroides Glc6PD is 31% identical to the human enzyme.

Interaction of Leuconostoc mesenteroides glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase with pyridoxal 5'-diphospho-5'-adenosine. Affinity labeling of Lys-21 and Lys-343

Pyridoxal 5'-diphospho-5'-adenosine (PLP-AMP) inhibits glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides competitively with respect to glucose 6-phosphate and noncompetitively with respect to NAD+ or NADP+, with Ki = 40 microM in the NADP-linked and 34 microM in the NAD-linked reaction. Incubation of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase with [3H]PLP-AMP followed by borohydride reduction shows that incorporation of 0.85 mol of PLP-AMP per mol of enzyme subunit is required for complete inactivation. Both glucose 6-phosphate and NAD+ protect against this covalent modification. The proteolysis of the modified enzyme and isolation and sequencing of the labeled peptides revealed that Lys-21 and Lys-343 are the sites of PLP-AMP interaction and that glucose 6-phosphate and NAD+ protect both lysyl residues against modification. Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) also modifies Lys-21 and probably Lys-343. Lys-21 is part of a highly conserved region that is present in all glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenases that have been sequenced. Lys-343 corresponds to an arginyl residue in other glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenases and is in a region that is less homologous with those enzymes. PLP-AMP and PLP are believed to interact with L. mesenteroides glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase at the glucose 6-phosphate binding site. Simultaneous binding of NAD+ induces conformational changes (Kurlandsky, S. B., Hilburger, A. C., and Levy, H. R. (1988) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 264, 93-102) that are postulated to interfere with Schiff's-base formation with PLP or PLP-AMP. One or both of the lysyl residues covalently modified by PLP or PLP-AMP may be located in regions of the enzyme undergoing the NAD(+)-induced conformational changes.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides: ligand-induced conformational changes

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides is inactivated by trypsin, chymotrypsin, pronase E, thermolysin, 4.0 M urea, and by heating to 49 degrees C. It is protected, to varying degrees, against all these forms of inactivation by glucose 6-phosphate, NAD+, and NADP+. When these ligands are present at 10 times their respective KD concentrations, protection by NAD+ or glucose 6-phosphate is substantially greater than protection by NADP+. A detailed analysis was undertaken of the protective effects of these ligands, at varying concentrations, on proteolysis of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase by thermolysin. This study confirmed the above conclusion and permitted calculation of KD values for NAD+, NADP+, and glucose 6-phosphate that agree with such values determined by independent means. For NADP+, two KD values, 6.1 microM and 8.0 mM, can be derived, associated with protection against thermolysin by low and high NADP+ concentrations, respectively. The former value is in agreement with other determinations of KD and the latter value appears to represent binding of NADP+ to a second site which causes inhibition of catalysis. A Ki value of 10.5 mM for NADP+ was derived from inhibition studies. The principal conclusion from these studies is that NAD+ binding to L. mesenteroides glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase results in a larger global conformational change of the enzyme than does NADP+ binding. Presumably, a substantially larger proportion of the free energy of binding of NAD+, compared to NADP+, is used to alter the enzyme's conformation, as reflected in a much higher KD value. This may play an important role in enabling this dual nucleotide-specific dehydrogenase to accommodate either NAD+ or NADP+ at the same binding site.

A transfer nuclear Overhauser effect study of coenzyme binding to distinct sites in binary and ternary complexes in glutamate dehydrogenase

The oxidized coenzyme NAD binds to two sites per subunit of bovine liver glutamate dehydrogenase with equal affinity in the absence of dicarboxylic acid coligands. In the presence of glutarate or 2-oxoglutarate, the affinity to one site is unchanged, but the affinity to the other (presumed to be the active site) is considerably increased and now requires two dissociation constants to describe its saturation. A combination of transfer nuclear Overhauser effects (TRNOE) together with an examination of the slopes of TRNOE time dependence indicates that while NAD is bound in a syn conformation at both binding sites, NADP (which binds only to the active site) is bound in a syn-anti mixture. The existence of N6 to N3' and N6 and N2' and N1' to N3' NOE's with NAD suggests that the two coenzyme binding sites are located near enough to allow intermolecular NOE's. In the presence of 2-oxoglutarate where only binding to the active site is effectively observed, the conformation of either coenzyme is syn. Modeling studies using the distance estimates from the TRNOE results suggest that the nicotinamide ribose approximates a 3'-endo conformation. The absence of evidence for intermolecular NOE's under these conditions indicates that while the active and regulatory NAD sites per subunit are in close proximity, the six active sites per hexamer are located greater than 5 A apart.

Sequence identity between a lysine-containing peptide from Leuconostoc mesenteroides glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and an active site peptide from human erythrocyte glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

Peptides recently isolated and sequenced from a bacterial (Leuconostoc mesenteroides) glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase are remarkably homologous to an active site region of the human erythrocyte enzyme, although the enzymes differ in their overall amino acid composition and kinetic properties. The computer program ALIGN, used to determine the best alignment between the two enzyme sequences, gives match-scores which are statistically highly significant.

Modification of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides with the 2',3'-dialdehyde derivative of NADP+ (oNADP+)

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides is irreversibly inactivated by the 2,3'-dialdehyde of NADP+ (oNADP+) in the absence of substrate. The inactivation is first order with respect to NADP+ concentration and follows saturation kinetics, indicating that the enzyme initially forms a reversible complex with the inhibitor followed by covalent modification (KI = 1.8 mM). NADP+ and NAD+ protect the enzyme from inactivation by oNADP+. The pK of inactivation is 8.1. oNADP+ is an effective coenzyme in assays of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Km = 200 microM). Kinetic evidence and binding studies with [14C] oNADP+ indicate that one molecule of oNADP+ binds per subunit of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase when the enzyme is completely inactivated. The interaction between oNADP+ and the enzyme does not generate a Schiff's base, or a conjugated Schiff's base, but the data are consistent with the formation of a dihydroxymorpholino derivative.

Conformations of bound nucleoside triphosphate effectors in aspartate transcarbamylase. Evidence for the London-Schmidt model by transferred nuclear Overhauser effects

Transferred nuclear Overhauser effects were used to determine the conformations of ATP, CTP, and ITP bound to the regulatory site of aspartate transcarbamylase. The results are in accord with the predictions of the London-Schmidt model [London, R. E., & Schmidt, P. G. (1972) Biochemistry 11, 3136] and show that ATP and CTP bind in the anti conformation while ITP binds in the syn conformation.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from rabbit erythrocytes

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (D-glucose-6-phosphate: NADP+ 1-oxidoreductase, EC 1.1.1.49) was purified from rabbit erythrocytes. Initial velocity studies and product and and dead-end inhibitor studies with this enzyme are consistent with a rapid equilibrium random mechanism with an enzyme-NADPH-glucose 6-phosphate dead-end complex.

A critical appraisal of the effect of oxidized glutathione on hepatic glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity

Experiments were undertaken to elucidate the mechanism of the reversal of NADPH inhibition of rat liver glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase by oxidized gluthathione alone and in combination with a putative cofactor described by Eggleston & Krebs [(1974) Biochem. J. 138, 425-435]. Evidence is presented that this reversal is largely an artifact, caused by the incorrect application of a control assay procedure and a spurious effect of Zn2+ (added in order to inhibit glutathione reductase) in crude enzyme solutions. When the proper assay procedure is used and glutathione reductase is inhibited with low concentrations of Hg2+, glutathione addition has no effect on NADPH inhibition of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase. No evidence was found for the existence of a cofactor that mediates an effect of glutathione on glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase.

Conformations of nicotinamide coenzymes bound to dehydrogenases determined by transferred nuclear Overhauser effects

Transferred nuclear Overhauser enhancement was used to examine the conformation of NAD+ and NADP+ bound to glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and glutamate dehydrogenase and of NAD+ bound to lactate dehydrogenase. The results demonstrate that the conformation of the nicotinamide-ribose bond is anti for dehydrogenases with A stereospecificity and syn for dehydrogenases with B stereospecificity. In those dehydrogenases that bind both NAD+ and NADP+, significant differences occur in the conformations of the bound nicotinamide coenzymes.

Crystallization and preliminary x-ray data for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides

The enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been crystallized from phosphate buffer in a form suitable for x-ray crystallographic studies. The crystals diffract to better than 2.4 A. The spacegroup is P3121 (P3221) a = 105.8 A, c = 225.1 A, V = 2.18 X 10(6) A3. The asymmetric unit probably contains a single dimer.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides: revised kinetic mechanism and kinetics of ATP inhibition

The kinetic mechanisms of the NAD- and NADP-linked reactions catalyzed by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides were examined using product inhibition, dead-end inhibition and alternate substrate experiments. The results are consistent with a steady-state random mechanism for the NAD-linked and an ordered, sequential mechanism with NADP+ binding first for the NADP-linked reaction. Thus, the enzyme can bind NADP+, NAD+, and glucose 6-phosphate, but the enzyme-glucose 6-phosphate complex can react only with NAD+, not with NADP+. This affects the rate equation for the NADP-linked reaction by introducing a term for a dead-end enzyme-glucose 6-phosphate complex. The kinetic mechanisms represent revisions of those proposed previously (C. Olive, M.E. Geroch, and H.R. Levy, 1971, J. Biol. Chem. 246, 2047-2057) and provide a kinetic basis for the regulation of coenzyme utilization of the enzyme by glucose 6-phosphate concentration (H.R. Levy, and G.H. Daouk, 1979, J. Biol. Chem. 254, 4843-4847) and NADPH/NADP+ concentration ratios (H.R. Levy, G.H. Daouk, and M.A. Katopes, 1979, Arch, Biochem. Biophys. 198, 406-413). The kinetic mechanisms were found to be the same at pH 6.2 and pH 7.8. The kinetics of ATP inhibition of the NAD- and NADP-linked reactions were examined at pH 6.2 and pH 7.8. The results are interpreted in terms of ATP addition to binary enzyme-coenzyme and enzyme-glucose 6-phosphate complexes.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides. Isolation and sequence of a peptide containing an essential lysine

Interaction of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides with pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and sodium borohydride leads to inactivation and modification of two lysine residues per enzyme dimer that are thought to bind glucose 6-phosphate [Milhausen, M., & Levy, H.R. (1975) Eur. J. Biochem. 50, 453-461]. The amino acid sequence surrounding this lysine residue is reported. Following tryptic hydrolysis of the modified enzyme, two peptides, each containing one pyridoxyllysine residue, were purified to homogeneity and subjected to automated Edman degradation. The sequences revealed that one of these, a heptapeptide, was derived from the other, containing 11 amino acids. Supporting evidence for the role of the modified lysine is provided in the following paper [Haghighi, B., & Levy, H.R. (1982) Biochemistry (second paper of three in this issue)]. End-group analysis of the native enzyme revealed that valine is the N-terminal and glycine the C-terminal amino acid and provides support for the identity of the enzyme's two subunits.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides. Kinetics of reassociation and reactivation from inactive subunits

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides is denatured in 8 M urea and dissociated into its two inactive subunits. Denaturation leads to an approximately 80% decrease in protein fluorescence and a 20-nm red shift in the emission maximum. Upon dilution, the urea-treated enzyme regains catalytic activity (approximately 70%). The reactivated enzyme is indistinguishable from the native enzyme based on a number of physicochemical and enzymological criteria. The kinetics of renaturation and reactivation were monitored by measuring the rates of regain of native fluorescence and appearance of activity and the accessibility of histidine residues toward diethyl pyrocarbonate modification. Regain of native fluorescence was too rapid to measure at 25 degrees C; at 5 degrees C the initial phase was also too rapid, but a slower phase was monitored and shown to obey first-order kinetics with k = (5.9 +/- 1.3) x 10(-3) s-1. Reappearance of activity was measured at several protein concentrations; reactivation followed second-order kinetics with k = (4.85 +/- 0.47) x 10(-3) M-1 min-1. Reactivation was stimulated to different degrees by either the initial or delayed addition of NAD+, NADP+, or glucose 6-phosphate. During the initial, rapid phase of renaturation, approximately 3 of the enzyme's 12 histidine residues become unreactive toward diethyl pyrocarbonate; concomitant with the subsequent reactivation, approximately 7 more histidines become inaccessible to diethyl pyrocarbonate. The data are consistent with a model for enzyme renaturation and reactivation in which the unfolded subunits rapidly refold to an inactive structure that can dimerize slowly to generate native enzyme. Specific ligands stimulate reactivation by binding to refolded subunits or incompletely folded dimers.

Simultaneous analysis of NAD- and NADP-linked activities of dual nucleotide-specific dehydrogenases. Application to Leuconostoc mesenteroides glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

A method is described which enables one to assay simultaneously the NAD- and NADP-linked reactions of dehydrogenases which can utilize both coenzymes. The method is based on the fact that the thionicotinamide analogs of NADH and NADPH absorb light maximally at 400 nm, a wavelength sufficiently far removed from the absorbance maximum of NADH and NADPH to permit measurements of the simultaneous reduction of NAD+ (or NADP+) and the thionicotinamide analog of NADP+ (or NAD+). Application of the method to glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides reveals differential effects of glucose 6-phosphate concentration on the NAD- and NADP-linked reactions catalyzed by this enzyme which can not be detected by conventional assay procedures and which may have regulatory significance.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from lactating rat mammary gland and R3230AC adenocarcinoma

A number of properties of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from lactating rat mammary gland and R3230AC rat mammary adenocarcinoma are compared. The main electrophoretic forms of the enzyme from these sources are indistinguishable with respect to charge and molecular weight whereas the minor forms show differences in these properties. The subunit molecular weight and steroid inhibition of the enzymes from the lactating gland and tumor are not significantly different. These results are contrasted with similar studies in mice.

Metal ion requirement and tryptophan inhibition of normal and variant anthranilate synthase-anthranilate 5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate phosphoribosyltransferase complexes from Salmonella tyrhimrium

1. Both Mn2+ and Co2+ can replace Mg2+ as the required divalent cation for all activities of the enzyme complex between anthranilate synthase (chorismate pyruvate-lyase (amino-accepting), EC 4.1.3.27) and anthranilate-5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate phosphoribosyltransferase (N(5'-phosphoribosyl)-anthranilate:pyrophosphate phosphoribosytransferase, EC 2.4.2.18) from Salmonella typhimurium. They have much lower apparent Km values than Mg2+, both for glutamine-dependent anthranilate synthase (Mn2+ = 1.1 muM, Co2+ - 2.6 muM, Mg2+ = 83 muM) and for phosphoribosyltransferase (Mn2+ = 16 muM, Co2+ = 14.6 muM, Mg2+ = 133 muM). The ratio of total Mg2+ to total Mn2+ found in a cell extract of S. typhimurium trpE2 , the source of normal enzyme complex, was found to be 350, suggesting that Mg2+ is probably utilized by the enzyme complex in vivo under our growth conditions. 2. An enzyme complex has been isolated from a mutant strain of S. typhimurium (SO-515) that has a variation in the anthranilate synthase subunit which is thought to be a single amino acid substitution. This variation causes glutamine-dependent anthranilate synthase to be hypersensitive to feedback inhibition by tryptophan (Ki = 0.4 muM compared to Ki = 20 muM for normal enzyme complex). The phosphoribosyltransferase in the variant enzyme complex is also hypersensitive to tryptophan but the kinetics are complex and involve activation by tryptophan in the presence of low amounts of 5-phosphoribosyl 1-pyrophosphate. 3. In the variant enzyme complex the apparent Km for Mg2+ is elevated to 360 muM for glutamine-linked anthranilate synthase but reduced to 75 muM for phosphoribosyltransferase. 4. These results suggest that the variant enzyme complex has altered tertiary and quaternary structures and that regulation of both activities is effected by tryptophan binding to only anthranilate synthase.

Anthranilate synthase-anthranilate 5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate phosphoribosyltransferases from Salmonella typhimurium. Purification of the enzyme complex and analysis of multiple forms

1. The anthranilate synthase-anthranilate 5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate phosphoribosyltransferase enzyme complex (chorismate pyruvatelyase (amino-accepting), EC 4.1.3.27) - (N-(5'-phosphoribosyl)-anthranilate: pyrophosphate phosphoribosyltransferase, EC 2.4.2.18), from Salmonella typhimurium has been purified with high yields to homogeneity. Sodium dodecyl sulfate gel electrophoresis of the purified enzyme complex revealed one major band containing 96% of the protein. The final yield of enzyme complex activity ranged from 30 to 60%. The absorbance spectrum of enzyme complex showed a peak at 280 nm and fine structure with peaks at 253, 259, 266 and 269 nm. These latter wavelengths correspond closely with the known absorbance maxima of phenylalanine. 2. When purified enzyme complex was subjected to standard gel electrophoresis, a four band pattern of protein peaks was consistently observed. The major enzyme complex band was apparently the native tetramer, having a molecular weight 280 000 and containing ammonia- and glutamine-dependent anthranilate synthase activity. The other three bands were molecular weight isomers of the major enzyme complex band. Two forms of molecular weight isomers were present: dimers and an aggregate of the native enzyme complex. The molecular weight isomers of the enzyme complex may represent forms generated by aggregation and denaturation of the native enzyme complex. 3. A new and highly sensitive spectrophotometric assay for phosphoribosyl-transferase is described. The method is based upon the difference in extinction coefficients between anthranilate and N-(5'-phosphoribosyl)anthranilate.

Anthranilate synthetase-anthranilate 5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate phosphoribosyl-transferase from Salmonella typhimurium. Inactivation of glutamine-dependent anthranilate synthetase by agarose-bound anthranilate

Exposure of the anthranilate synthetase-anthranilate phosphoribosyltransferase enzyme complex (chorismate pyruvate-lyase (amino-accepting) EC 4.1.3.27 and N-(5-phosphoribosyl)-anthranilate pyrophosphate phosphoribosyl-transferase, EC 2.4.2.18) from Salmonella typhimurium to agarose-bound anthranilate led to the slow inactivation of glutamine-dependent anthranilate synthetase activity, an activity dependent on protein-protein interaction in the enzyme complex. Region I of phosphoribosyltransferase, the location of the enzyme complex glutaminase activity, is the site of alteration. Phosphoribosyltransferase and NH3-dependent anthranilate synthetase activities and trypto phan regulation of phosphoribosyltransferase were unaffected by the anthranilate matrix. The molecular weight (280 000) and subunit molecular weight (62 000) of the enzyme complex eluted from an anthranilate matrix were identical to those of enzyme complex purified by classical methodology. The enzyme complex could be partially protected against inactivation by storiing in 0.1 M L-glutamine or 30% glycerol and completely protected by storing in 50% glycerol at -18 degrees C. Evidence is presented that the anthranilate matrix acts as a hydrophobic matrix and may be binding to and altering a hydrophobic region in the enzyme complex. The anthranilate matrix provides a convenient tool for altering a specific region of an enzyme complex without covalent modification. At the same time, the results demonstrate that affinity matrices are not necessarily innocuous but may subject macromolecules to an adverse environment not previously recognized.

Spin label and lanthanide binding sites on glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase

The electron spin resonance spectrum of rabbit muscle D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase spin-labelled with 4-(2-iodoacetamido)-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinooxyl has two components. One component is due to a spin label highly immobilized on the enzyme surface and the other to a nitroxyl group able to tumble more rapidly. The spin-labelled enzyme is inactive. Selective modification of the active site cysteine residue (149) and determinations of total sulphydryl content implicate this residue as the site of the immobile spin-label. The mobile spin label is attached to another sulphydryl group. Crystallographic studies on the human muscle enzyme (Watson, H.C., Duee, E. and Mercer, W.D. (1972) Nat. New Biol., 240, 130) have located a binding site for samarium ion in the active centre. Addition of the paramagnetic gadolinium ion to spin-labelled enzyme reduces the intensity of both the spin label signals (by 72% for the mobile and by 11% for the immobile component). This indicates that the metal ion site (Kd equals 0.7 mM) is close to both types of spin label. Measurements of the effect of gadolinium-protein binding on the relaxation rate of solvent water protons enable the enzyme-bound spin label-metal ion distances to be tentatively estimated as 15 angstrom.

Evidence for an essential lysine in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides

1. Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate inhibits glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides reversibly which Ki equals 0.04-0.06 mM. 2. This inhibition is competitive with respect to glucose 6-phosphate and non-competitive with respect to NADP+ or NAD+. Interaction between enzyme and excess pyridoxal 5'-phosphate follows pseudo-first-order kinetics and indicates that one molecule of inhibitor reacts with each active unit of enzyme. 3. Substrate and coenzyme protect the enzyme from inhibition by pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. Dissociation constants for NADP+ and glucose 6-phosphate were determined from their effects on the kinetics of enzyme--inhibitor interaction. 4. Reaction of the enzyme with pyridoxal 5'-phosphate produces a typical Schiff-base absorbance peak at 430 nm. Subsequent reduction with sodium borohydride leads to spectral changes characteristic for the formation of a secondary amine. 5. The irreversibly inactivated enzyme thus produced contains two moles of inhibitor per mole of enzyme (two subunits per mole). After protein hydrolysis, N-6-pyridoxyllysine can be identified by paper chromatography. 6. The enzyme is inhibited irreversibly by 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, even in the presence of excess 2-mercaptoethanol. At least one dinitrophenyl group is bound per active unit of enzyme; 4 to 5 moles of dinitrophenyl group are bound per mole of enzyme. NADP+ AND GLUCOSE 6-PHOSPHATE PROTECT AGAINST INHIBITION BY 1-FLUORO-2,4-DINITROBENZENE. The absorption spectrum of dinitrophenyl-enzyme corresponds to that for dinitrophenylated amino groups. 7. These studies indicate that there is an essential lysine at the active site of the enzyme. It is suggested that the function of this lysine is to bind glucose 6-phosphate. 8. It is proposed that a group of "active lysine" proteins may exist (in analogy with the "active serine" enzymes), which share a common structural feature at their substrate-binding site and to which pyridoxal 5'-phosphate binds specifically.