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Thapa CB, Bhattarai HD, Pant KK, Johi P, Chaudhary T, Pant B. Antioxidant, Antibacterial, and Cytotoxic Effect of in vitro Callus and in vivo Rhizome of Paris polyphylla Sm. Process Biochem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2022.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Paudel B, Maharjan R, Rajbhandari P, Aryal N, Aziz S, Bhattarai K, Baral B, Malla R, Bhattarai HD. Maculosin, a non-toxic antioxidant compound isolated from Streptomyces sp. KTM18. Pharm Biol 2021; 59:933-936. [PMID: 34236286 PMCID: PMC8274501 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2021.1946091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Streptomyces species are prolific sources of bioactive secondary metabolites known especially for their antimicrobial and anticancer activities. OBJECTIVE This study sought to isolate and characterize antioxidant molecules biosynthesized by Streptomyces sp. KTM18. The antioxidant potential of an isolated compound and its toxicity were accessed. MATERIALS AND METHODS The compound was purified using bioassay-guided chromatography techniques. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments were carried out for structure elucidation. The antioxidant potential of the isolated compound was determined using DPPH free radical scavenging assay. The toxicity of the isolated compound was measured using a brine shrimp lethality (BSL) assay. RESULTS Ethyl acetate extract of Streptomyces sp. KTM18 showed more than 90% inhibition of DPPH free radical at 50 µg/mL of the test concentration. These data were the strongest among 13 Streptomyces isolates (KTM12-KTM24). The active molecule was isolated and characterized as maculosin (molecular formula, C14H16N2O3 as determined by the [M + H]+ peak at 261.1259). The DPPH free radical scavenging activity of pure maculosin was higher (IC50, 2.16 ± 0.05 µg/mL) than that of commercial butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) (IC50, 4.8 ± 0.05 µg/mL). No toxicity was observed for maculosin (LD50, <128 µg/mL) in brine shrimp lethality assay (BSLA) up to the compound's antioxidant activity (IC50) concentration range. The commercial standard, berberine chloride, showed toxicity in BSLA with an LD50 value of 8.63 ± 0.15 µg/mL. CONCLUSIONS Maculosin may be a leading drug candidate in various cosmetic and therapeutic applications owing to its strong antioxidant and non-toxic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babita Paudel
- Central Department of Biotechnology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal
| | - Rukusha Maharjan
- Department of Applied Microbiology and Food Technology, Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology (RIBB), Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Prajwal Rajbhandari
- Department of Applied Microbiology and Food Technology, Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology (RIBB), Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Niraj Aryal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Saefuddin Aziz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Keshab Bhattarai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bikash Baral
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Rajani Malla
- Central Department of Biotechnology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal
| | - Hari Datta Bhattarai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen, Germany
- Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal
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Paudel B, Bhattarai K, Bhattarai HD. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of two polyketides from lichen-endophytic fungus Preussia sp. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 73:161-163. [PMID: 29320367 DOI: 10.1515/znc-2017-0105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Two compounds, compounds 1 and 2, were isolated from Preussia sp. The molecular structures of both compounds were elucidated by analyzing one-dimensional (1D) and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance data along with high-resolution mass spectrometry data. Compound 1 was obtained as novel in structure, and compound 2 was recently reported elsewhere. Compound 1 did not show antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and brine shrimp toxicity, while compound 2 showed strong antioxidant activity (DPPH reduction capacity; IC50=3 μg/mL) and brine shrimp toxicity (LD50=50 μg/mL).
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Affiliation(s)
- Babita Paudel
- Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, RIBB, GPO Box 7731, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Keshab Bhattarai
- Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, RIBB, GPO Box 7731, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Hari Datta Bhattarai
- Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology (RIBB), GPO Box 7731, Kathmandu, Nepal
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Jha BN, Shrestha M, Pandey DP, Bhattarai T, Bhattarai HD, Paudel B. Investigation of antioxidant, antimicrobial and toxicity activities of lichens from high altitude regions of Nepal. BMC Complement Altern Med 2017; 17:282. [PMID: 28545438 PMCID: PMC5445338 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-017-1797-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background Several lichen species are reported to be used tradiationally in many theraupatic practices. Many lichen species are reported as sources of several bioactive natural compounds. Several lichen species of Nepal are so far chemically unexplored. Methods The morphological, anatomical and phytochemical characteristics of lichens were compared for the taxonomic identification of the species. Methanol- water extract of lichens were sub fractionated into hexane, dichloromethane and methanol fractions for bioactivity assays. Antimicrobial activities of extracts were evaluated agaisnt pathogenic bacteria and fungal species. DPPH test was used for antioxidant potential evaluation. Brineshrimp test was perfermed to evaluate toxicity of the extracts. Results A total of 84 lichen specimens were collected and identified from Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) Nepal. The specimens were identified as belonging to 19 genera and 47 species. Methanol fractions of 16 specimens and dichloromethane (DCM) fractions of 21 lichens specimens showed antioxidant activities comparable with commercial standards (BHA, Butylated hydroxyanisole, IC50=4.9±0.9 μg/mL) even at crude extract level. Similarly, the DCM fraction of 17 lichens showed potential antimicrobial activity against a Gram-positive bacterium (Staphylococcus aureus KCTC3881) and DCM fractions of 45 lichens showed antimicrobial activity against a Gram-negative bacterium (Klebsiella pneumoniae KCTC2242). DCM fractions of three lichens showed antifungal activity against the yeast, Candida albicans KCTC 7965. Likewise, methanol fractions of 39 lichens and DCM fractions of 74 lichens showed strong toxicity against brine shrimp nauplii with more than 80% mortality. Conclusion Such biological activity-rich lichen specimens warrant further research on exploration of natural products with antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti cancer (toxic) potential.
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Paudel B, Datta Bhattarai H, Prasad Pandey D, Seoun Hur J, Gyu Hong S, Kim IC, Han Yim J. Antioxidant, antibacterial activity and brine shrimp toxicity test of some mountainous lichens from Nepal. Biol Res 2014; 45:387-91. [PMID: 23558996 DOI: 10.4067/s0716-97602012000400010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 08/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of twenty four lichen species belonging to six families were collected from mountainous region of Nepal. The methanol extracts of each species were tested for antimicrobial and antioxidant activities in vitro. It was found that extracts of twenty one lichen species were active against B. subtilis and seven species were active against S. aureus. Similarly, in DPPH assay, three species Peltigera sp.,Cladonia sp., and Canoparmelia sp. showed comparable activity with commercial standard, BHA. In ABTS+ assay, extracts of Parmoterma sp., Ramalina sp., Peltigera sp. and Cladonia sp. showed stronger activity than ascorbic acid. The observed data after comparison with previously published reports indicated that the high altitude lichens contain stronger antioxidant and antibacterial constituents. Similarly, the methanol extracts of Heterodermia sp. and Ramalina sp. showed comparable toxicity effect with commercial standard berberine chloride indicating a potent source of anticancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babita Paudel
- Division of LifeSciences, Korea Polar Research Institute, KOPRI, Songdo Technopark, Songdo-dong 7-50, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 406-840, South Korea
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Paudel B, Bhattarai HD, Kim IC, Lee H, Sofronov R, Ivanova L, Poryadina L, Yim JH. Estimation of antioxidant, antimicrobial activity and brine shrimp toxicity of plants collected from Oymyakon region of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Russia. Biol Res 2014; 47:10. [PMID: 25026989 PMCID: PMC4103988 DOI: 10.1186/0717-6287-47-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several plants are reported to be produced various biological active compounds. Lichens from the extreme environments such as high altitude, high UV, drought and cold are believed to be synthesized unique types of secondary metabolites than the other one. Several human pathogenic bacteria and fungi have been muted into drug resistant strains. Various synthetic antioxidant compounds have posed carcinogenic effects. This phenomenon needs further research for new effective drugs of natural origin. This manuscript aimed to screen new source of biological active compounds from plants of subarctic origin. RESULTS A total of 114 plant species, including 80 species of higher plants, 19 species of lichens and 15 species of mosses, were collected from Oymyakon region of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Russia (63˚20'N, 141˚42'E-63˚15'N, 142˚27'E). Antimicrobial, DPPH free radical scavenging and brine shrimp (Artemia salina) toxicity of all crude extract were evaluated. The obtained result was analyzed and compared with commercial standards. A total of 28 species of higher plants showed very strong antioxidant activity (DPPH IC50, 0.45-5.0 μg/mL), 13 species showed strong activity (DPPH IC50, 5-10 μg/mL), 22 species showed moderate antioxidant activity (DPPH IC50,10-20 μg/mL) and 17 species showed weak antioxidant activity (DPPH IC50 more than 20 μg/mL). Similarly, 3 species of lichen showed strong antioxidant activity, one species showed moderate and 15 species showed weak DPPH reducing activity. In addition, 4 species of mosses showed moderate antioxidant activity and 11 species showed weak antioxidant activity. Similarly, extracts of 51 species of higher plants showed antimicrobial (AM) activity against Staphylococcus aureus and 2 species showed AM activity against Candida albicans. Similarly, 11 species of lichen showed AM activity against S. aureus and 3 species showed AM activity against Escherichia coli. One species of moss showed AM activity against S. aureus. And finally, one species of higher plant Rheum compactum and one species of lichen Flavocetraria cucullata showed the toxicity against Brine shrimp larvae in 100 μg/mL of concentration. CONCLUSION The experimental results showed that subarctic plant species could be potential sources of various biologically active natural compounds.
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Bhattarai HD, Kim T, Oh H, Yim JH. A new pseudodepsidone from the Antarctic lichen Stereocaulon alpinum and its antioxidant, antibacterial activity. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2013; 66:559-61. [DOI: 10.1038/ja.2013.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Paudel B, Bhattarai HD, Koh HY, Lee SG, Han SJ, Lee HK, Oh H, Shin HW, Yim JH. Ramalin, a novel nontoxic antioxidant compound from the Antarctic lichen Ramalina terebrata. Phytomedicine 2011; 18:1285-1290. [PMID: 21802926 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2011.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2009] [Revised: 03/15/2011] [Accepted: 06/16/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Ramalin (γ-glutamyl-N'-(2-hydroxyphenyl)hydrazide), a novel compound, was isolated from the methanol-water extract of the Antarctic lichen Ramalina terebrata by several chromatographic methods. The molecular structure of ramalin was determined by spectroscopic analysis. The experimental data showed that ramalin was five times more potent than commercial butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) in scavenging 1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydazil (DPPH) free radicals, 27 times more potent in scavenging 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid free radicals (ABTS(+)) than the vitamin E analogue, trolox, and 2.5 times more potent than BHT in reducing Fe(3+) to Fe(2+) ions. Similarly, ramalin was 1.2 times more potent than ascorbic acid in scavenging superoxide radicals and 1.25 times more potent than commercial kojic acid in inhibiting tyrosinase enzyme activity, which ultimately leads to whitening of skin cells. Ramalin showed no or very little cytotoxicity in human keratinocyte and fibroblast cells at its antioxidant concentration. Furthermore, ramalin was assessed to determine its antioxidant activity in vivo. One microgram per milliliter ramalin significantly reduced the released nitric oxide (NO) and 0.125 μg/ml ramalin reduced the produced hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) in LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-stimulated murine macrophage Raw264.7 cells. Considering all the data together, ramalin can be a strong therapeutic candidate for controlling oxidative stress in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babita Paudel
- Korea Polar Research Institute, KORDI, Incheon, South Korea
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Paudel B, Bhattarai HD, Lee HK, Oh H, Shin HW, Yim JH. Antibacterial activities of Ramalin, usnic acid and its three derivatives isolated from the Antarctic lichen Ramalina terebrata. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 65:34-8. [PMID: 20355318 DOI: 10.1515/znc-2010-1-206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The development of new antibacterial compounds is an urgent issue to meet the evolution of resistivity of pathogenic bacteria against the available drugs. The objective of this study was to investigate the antibacterial compounds from the Antarctic lichen species Ramalina terebrata. A total of five compounds, usnic acid, usimine A, usimine B, usimine C, and ramalin, were isolated by bioactivity guided-fractionation of the methanol extract of R. terebrata after several chromatographic procedures. The qualitative antibacterial activities of the crude extract and isolated compounds were determined by the disk diffusion method while the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determination assay gave the quantitative strength of the test samples. All the test samples showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis. The crude extract and usnic acid showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The MIC values of the isolated compounds against B. subtilis were in the range of 1 to 26 microg/mL. These observed experimental data showed the strong antibacterial potential of these compounds against B. subtilis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babita Paudel
- Polar BioCenter, Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI), Songdo Technopark, Songdo-dong 7-50, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 406-840, South Korea
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Paudel B, Bhattarai HD, Lee JS, Hong SG, Shin HW, Yim JH. Antibacterial potential of Antarctic lichens against human pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria. Phytother Res 2008; 22:1269-71. [PMID: 18729247 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Extracts from five Antarctic lichens (L3, Stereocaulon alpinum; L5, Ramalina terebrata; L6, Caloplaca sp.; L8, Lecanora sp.; and L17, Caloplaca regalis) were tested for antimicrobial activities against several clinically important microbes by disk diffusion. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of each extract was determined by a broth dilution method. Extracts from L3, L5, L6 and L8 were active against two Gram(+) strains. B. subtilis was more sensitive to lichen extracts (except L5) than S. aureus. The MIC of lichen extracts against B. subtilis and S. aureus was observed from 36.7 +/- 0.3 to 953.8 +/- 85.8 microg/mL and 68.5 +/- 0.6 to >1000 microg/mL, respectively. Comparisons of MIC values of Antarctic lichen crude extracts to previously published MIC values of some reported lichen metabolites against Gram(+) bacteria indicated that Antarctic lichens might be an enriched source of effective antibacterial agents against clinically relevant Gram(+) species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babita Paudel
- Polar BioCenter, Korea Polar Research Institute, KORDI, Songdo Technopark, Songdo-dong 7-50, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 406-840, South Korea
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Bhattarai HD, Paudel B, Lee HS, Lee YK, Yim JH. Antioxidant activity of Sanionia uncinata
, a polar moss species from King George Island, Antarctica. Phytother Res 2008; 22:1635-9. [DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Bhattarai HD, Paudel B, Hong SG, Lee HK, Yim JH. Thin layer chromatography analysis of antioxidant constituents of lichens from Antarctica. J Nat Med 2008; 62:481-4. [PMID: 18553181 DOI: 10.1007/s11418-008-0257-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2007] [Accepted: 04/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Antioxidant agents against reactive oxygen species can be used for several cosmetic and medicinal applications. Methanol-water (90:10 v/v) extracts of five polar lichen species--namely Stereocaulon alpinum Laurer (Stereocaulaceae); Ramalina terebrata Hook and Taylor (Ramalinaceae); Caloplaca sp. (Teloschistaceae); Lecanora sp. (Lecanoraceae); and Caloplaca regalis (Vain.)Zahlbr (Teloschistaceae) from King George Island (Antarctica)--were analyzed using thin layer chromatography (TLC) followed by a DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) spray technique. The experimental data showed that 33-50% of the major constituents of the test extracts were active antioxidants. Stereocaulon alpinum and R. terebrata showed a higher number (50%) of antioxidant constituents, although their activities were comparatively weak. The strength of antioxidant activity in terms of discoloration of DPPH was shown to be stronger by the constituents of S. alpinum, C. regalis and C. sp. In addition, phenolic content in these Antarctic lichen extracts was in the range of 17-47 mg/g, supporting the antioxidant data of TLC analysis. Thus, these results suggest that Antarctic lichen contains a variety of strong antioxidant constituents. Therefore, further study of the laboratory culture of lichen is warranted to investigate possible commercial production, followed by isolation and characterization of the active antioxidant agents, which can be used against various oxidative stress-related diseases.
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Bhattarai HD, Paudel B, Park NS, Lee KS, Shin HW. Evaluation of antifouling activity of eight commercially available organic chemicals against the early foulers marine bacteria and Ulva spores. J Environ Biol 2007; 28:857-863. [PMID: 18405125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Environmental impacts caused by tin and copper based commercial antifouling (AF) paints were proved to be detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, a search of environmental friendly AF compounds to be used in marine paint to protect the surface of maritime developmental structures from the unwanted biofouling is a burning issue of the present time. Commercially available eight organic chemicals--allyl isothiocyanate, beta-myrecene, cis-3-hexenyl acetate, citral, ethyl heptanoate, eugenol, methyl caproate, and octyl alcohol were evaluated forAF activities using both laboratory and field assays. The test chemicals were found to repel the target motile marine bacteria--Alteromonas marina, Bacillus atrophaeus, Roseobactergallaeciensis and Shewanella oneidensis and motile spores of the green alga, Ulva pertusa. The bacterial and Ulva spore repulsion activities of the test chemicals were measured by chemotaxis and agar diffusion methods respectively interestingly these test chemicals were less toxic to the test fouling species. The toxicity of the test chemicals was measured by using antibiotic assay disks against the bacteria and motility test against Ulva spores. Moreover, in field assay, all test chemicals showed a perfect performance ofAF activity showing no fouling during the experimental period of one year Such results and commercial as well as technical feasibility of the test chemicals firmly showed the possibility of using as alternatives of the existing toxic AF agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hari Datta Bhattarai
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Soonchunhyang University, Asan City-336 745, South Korea
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Ganti VS, Kim KH, Bhattarai HD, Shin HW. Isolation and characterisation of some antifouling agents from the brown alga Sargassum confusum. J Asian Nat Prod Res 2006; 8:309-15. [PMID: 16864441 DOI: 10.1080/10286020500034980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Fats and phthalic acid derivatives were isolated and characterised based on their spectral analysis from the antifouling activity guided fractions of n-hexane and methanol extract of the brown alga Sargassum confusum. The fractions, as well as the isolated compounds, demonstrated significant antifouling activity against spores of a major fouling alga Ulva pertusa with 50-75% decrease of spore attachment on agar-coated slides.
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Affiliation(s)
- V S Ganti
- Soonchunhyang University, Department of Marine Biotechnology, Asan-City, Chungnam, 336-745, South Korea
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