Disease Association of Anti‒Carboxyethyl Lysine Autoantibodies in Hidradenitis Suppurativa

Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by recurring suppurating lesions of the intertriginous areas, resulting in a substantial impact on patients' QOL. HS pathogenesis remains poorly understood. An autoimmune component has been proposed, but disease-specific autoantibodies, autoantigens, or autoreactive T cells have yet to be described. In this study, we identify a high prevalence of IgM, IgG, and IgA antibodies directed against Nε-carboxyethyl lysine (CEL), a methylglyoxal-induced advanced glycation end-product, in the sera of patients with HS. Titers of anti-CEL IgG and IgA antibodies were highly elevated in HS compared with those in healthy controls and individuals with other inflammatory skin diseases. Strikingly, the majority of anti-CEL IgG was of the IgG2 subclass and correlated independently with both disease severity and duration. Both CEL and anti-CEL‒producing plasmablasts could be isolated directly from HS skin lesions, further confirming the disease relevance of this autoimmune response. Our data point to an aberration of the methylglyoxal pathway in HS and support an autoimmune axis in the pathogenesis of this debilitating disease.

Genetic, biochemical, and transcriptional responses of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to the novel immunomodulator FTY720 largely mimic those of the natural sphingolipid phytosphingosine

Sphingolipids are signaling molecules that influence diverse cellular functions from control of the cell cycle to degradation of plasma membrane proteins. The synthetic sphingolipid-like compound FTY720 is an immunomodulating agent in clinical trials for transplant graft maintenance. In this report, we compare the effects of the natural yeast sphingolipid phytosphingosine with FTY720 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We show that the multicopy suppressor genes that induce growth resistance to FTY720 also confer resistance to growth-inhibitory concentrations of phytosphingosine. In addition, mutants for ubiquitination pathway proteins are shown to be resistant to the growth-inhibiting effect of both FTY720 and phytosphingosine. We observe fewer similarities between sphingosine and FTY720 than between FTY720 and phytosphingosine as revealed by genetic studies. Yeast cells lacking the specific sphingosine kinase LCB4 are sensitive to phytosphingosine and FTY720 but resistant to sphingosine, suggesting that FTY720 and phytosphingosine have a more related mechanism of action. Gene expression profile comparisons of sensitive and resistant yeast cells exposed to FTY720 and phytosphingosine highlight a number of similarities. In response to treatment with these compounds, approximately 77% of the genes that are regulated >2-fold by FTY720 also respond to phytosphingosine in the same direction in the parent strain. In addition, a close inspection of TAT1 and TAT2 transporters following exposure to phytosphingosine indicates that TAT1 protein is degraded in a similar fashion upon treatment with FTY720 and phytosphingosine. There were differences, however, with respect to the TAT2 protein level and the expression profiles of a subset of genes. The genetic, transcriptional, and biochemical data together indicate that FTY720 and phytosphingosine influence similar pathways in yeast cells. These findings offer further insights into the physiological pathways influenced by these compounds in all eukaryotic cells and help us to understand the therapeutic consequences of FTY720 in humans.

Optimization of the anti-(human CD3) immunotoxin DT389-scFv(UCHT1) N-terminal sequence to yield a homogeneous protein

The production and regulatory approval processes for biopharmaceuticals require detailed characterization of potential products. Therapeutic proteins should preferably be homogeneous, although limited, reproducible, heterogeneity may be tolerated. A diphtheria toxin-based anti-(human CD3) immunotoxin, DT389-scFv(UCHT1), was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified following refolding [DT389 corresponds to amino acids 1-389 of diphtheria toxin, scFv is single-chain variable-region antibody fragment and UCHT1is an anti-(human CD3) monoclonal antibody]. Biochemical characterization of this molecule by MS and N-terminal sequencing by Edman degradation revealed that the protein was heterogeneous at the N-terminus, containing species both with (60%) and without (40%) the initiator methionine residue. In an attempt to generate an N-terminally homogeneous molecule, a panel of seven N-terminal variants was designed, based on the published specificity of bacterial methionine aminopeptidase. Following bacterial expression, partial purification and separation on SDS/PAGE, these proteins were subjected to N-terminal sequencing by Edman degradation. Three of the mutants yielded a 100% homogeneous amino acid sequence. By contrast, the original DT389-scFv(UCHT1) protein and four variant proteins yielded two sequences with varying ratios corresponding to species with and without methionine. The N-terminal sequences of the three homogeneous clones were MLADD and MLDD, where the methionine was completely retained, and SADD, where the methionine was completely removed. One of the homogeneous mutants (SADD) was expressed, refolded and purified and found to be equipotent with the parent immunotoxin. Thus, using a rational mutagenesis approach, three N-terminally homogeneous variants of DT389-scFv(UCHT1) have been identified, at least one of which is functionally indistinguishable from the parent immunotoxin. This approach is generally applicable to biopharmaceutical production and immunotoxin development in particular.

The proximal interferon-stimulated response elements are essential for interferon responsiveness: a promoter analysis of the antiviral MxA gene

Interferon (IFN)-inducible human MxA protein mediates resistance against influenza and several other RNA viruses. The MxA gene is under the control of type I IFN and, in certain cell types, is also directly activated by viruses. Here we show that in human macrophages, MxA mRNA levels are upregulated by very low doses of IFN-alpha in a dose-dependent manner. A similar, albeit much weaker, dose-dependent induction was seen with IFN-gamma. The induction was rapid and independent of protein synthesis. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) or tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) did not influence MxA mRNA levels alone or in combination with IFNs, in spite of the presence of putative response elements of these cytokines in the MxA promoter. We show that the promoter of the MxA gene contains two functional IFN-stimulated response elements (ISRE) near the transcription start site and one homologous ISRE-like element, which is apparently nonfunctional, further upstream. The two proximal ISRE sites are essential for IFN-alpha-induced transcription and appear to be binding sites for IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 complex. In addition, EMSA and DNAse I footprinting analysis demonstrated that Spl binds with high affinity to a region encompassing nucleotides -25 and -50 and, thus, may provide means of interaction with the basal transcriptional machinery.

The unglycosylated extracellular domain of type-II receptor for transforming growth factor-beta. A novel assay for characterizing ligand affinity and specificity

The activation of the human transforming growth factor (TGF-beta) system begins with the cytokine-induced association of the extracellular domains of two structurally related receptor subunits. To study the protein-protein interactions between TGF-beta and the ligand-specific receptor subunit, the extracellular domain of the human TGF-beta receptor type II (T beta R-II) has been expressed as an intracellular protein in insect cells using the baculovirus expression system. The cDNA construct was engineered to encode amino acids 24-159 (the signal sequence 1-23 was lacking) preceded by one initiator methionine residue and six histidine residues added at the carboxy terminus. The soluble receptor accumulated in the cytoplasm of infected cells and was purified by one-step nickel-chelate affinity chromatography. The purified protein was not glycosylated; it migrated as a single band of apparent mass 19.5 kDa in SDS/polyacrylamide gels, and had a homogeneous N-terminal sequence. We have established a solid-phase binding assay using radioiodinated TGF-beta 3 and capture antibodies to immobilize the soluble receptor. In this assay, the apparent dissociation constant of the TGF-beta type-II receptor ectodomain for TGF-beta 3 was approximately 150 nM (this value is approximately 1000-fold higher than that of the cell-membrane receptor complex of living cells). The affinity of TGF-beta 3 for the unglycosylated ectodomain of T beta R-II from insect cells was lower than the affinity for the recombinant glycosylated ectodomain T beta R-II from mouse cells. The novel assay has been used to characterize affinities and specificities of TGF-beta 3, TGF-beta 2, corresponding mutants and hybrid proteins, as well as a related protein, BMP-2. The assay could also be used to search for inhibitors.

Ligand-induced dimerization of the extracellular domain of the TGF-beta receptor type II

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) signals by mediating the association of two distinct transmembrane serine/threonine kinase receptors, the type I (T beta RI) and II (T beta RII). Here, we took advantage of recombinant human T beta RII extracellular domain (T beta RII-ED) to analyze TGF-beta/T beta RII complex formation which is the initial event in the construction of a signaling complex. We found that recombinant T beta RII-ED binds TGF-beta 3 more efficiently than TGF-beta 2 and therefore maintains the native T beta RII binding selectivity for the different TGF-beta isoforms. Biochemical analysis showed that free T beta RII-ED is expressed as a monomer. Upon ligand binding, both TGF-beta 3 and -beta 2 isoforms induce homodimerization of T beta RII-ED, each TGF-beta subunit being able to bind one T beta RII-ED molecule. These results suggested that ligand dependent receptor dimerization may be an important early step in the TGF-beta signaling complex formation.

Regulation of the interferon-inducible IFI-78K gene, the human equivalent of the murine Mx gene, by interferons, double-stranded RNA, certain cytokines, and viruses

The interferon-inducible gene (IFI-78K gene) that codes for a human protein, p78, of 78,000 Mr is the equivalent of the mouse Mx gene encoding Mx protein. The IFI-78K gene is located on chromosome 21 together with the alpha/beta interferon (IFN-alpha/beta) receptor. The p78 protein is important since it may be involved in resistance to influenza viruses. The regulation of the IFI-78K gene was studied in human diploid cells by using a cDNA probe to p78 mRNA and specific monoclonal antibodies to p78 protein. The IFI-78K gene, a normally quiescent gene, is transcriptionally regulated by IFN-alpha, and its induction does not require protein synthesis. The rate of transcription measured in a run-on assay increased rapidly but transiently. The level of p78 mRNA increased up to 8 h, declining slowly afterwards. The p78 protein, undetectable in untreated cells, accumulated up to 16 h, and its amount remained stable for at least 36 h after the addition of IFN-alpha. Cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-1 alpha, and interleukin-1 beta activated the IFI-78K gene at concentrations comparable to that of IFN-alpha. However, gene activation by these cytokines required protein synthesis. Poly(rI)-poly(rC) induced the IFI-78K gene directly at the transcriptional level without requirement for protein synthesis. Newcastle disease virus, influenza virus, and to a lesser extent vesicular stomatitis virus also induced the IFI-78K gene in the absence of any protein synthesis. Induction of transcription by viruses was markedly enhanced by pretreatment of cells with IFN-gamma (which by itself is a poor inducer of the IFI-78K gene), resulting in accumulation of p78 protein during the course of infection; this suggests that IFN-gamma programs cells to full antiviral activity upon virus infection.

Acquisition of vimentin in astrocytes cultured from postnatal rat brain

Vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) represent the principal constituents of intermediate filaments found in astrocytes. In contrast to vimentin-GFAP transition which occurs during glial development in situ, vimentin coexists with GFAP in cortical astrocytes allowed to differentiate in culture. To examine whether culture conditions or proliferative activity of the cells is responsible for the expression of vimentin, we generated cultures of GFAP-positive, vimentin-negative astrocytes isolated from 26-day postnatal rat brain cortices. Isolated astrocytes are characterized by a very thin rim of perinuclear cytoplasm and by numerous processes. Antiserum to GFAP labelled major processes and cell somata of some astrocytes, especially those with relatively short and large processes. Within 3 days in culture, all astrocytes accumulated GFAP in hypertrophic cell bodies and many began to express vimentin. Vimentin appeared primarily close to nuclei, and filaments of vimentin extended into proximal segments of the cell processes. In some astrocytes, however, vimentin was always absent. Combined double immunolabelling and histoautoradiography experiments demonstrated that the acquisition of vimentin was independent of the ability of astrocytes to incorporate tritiated thymidine. The results indicate that astrocytes isolated from 26-day postnatal rat brain are heterogeneous with respect to their ability to express vimentin and that vimentin synthesis is not correlated with the growth state of the cells as had been previously suspected.

Fibronectin and collagens modulate the proliferation and morphology of astroglial cells in culture

The proliferation and morphology of astroglia derived from neonatal rat cortex and cultured in serum-free medium on either untreated, or fibronectin-, or collagen I-, or collagen IV-treated substrates were investigated using tritiated thymidine autoradiography and immunocytochemical staining of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and actin. Modification of culture substratum with fibronectin enhanced the rate of proliferation of astroglial cells and increased the proportion of process-bearing astroglial cells. The distribution of actin and patterns of adhesion observed were typical for motile cells. Both types of collagen decreased the proportion of astroglial cells undergoing mitosis. Many of the astroglial cells exhibited a flat morphology and displayed prominent stress fibres in the cell body and processes. The data suggest that specific interactions with the substratum modulate the proliferation and morphological behaviour of astroglial cells.

The organization and solubility properties of intermediate filaments and microtubules of cortical astrocytes in culture

The organization of intermediate filaments (IF) and microtubules (MT) and the solubility of intermediate filament proteins and tubulin in astrocytes which develop from cerebral hemispheres of neonatal rats in culture were examined using immunocytochemical and immunochemical approaches. Results of immunocytochemical studies demonstrated that in flat astrocytes which develop after 3 weeks of culturing in serum-supplemented medium, the IF containing vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) are concentrated around the nucleus and dispersed in an irregular fashion throughout the cytoplasm. Astrocytes which develop in serum-free hormonally-defined medium irrespective of whether they are bipolar, multipolar or flattened, have IF organized as a fibrous network of filaments distributed from the nuclear regions to the cell periphery. Under both culture conditions, vimentin and GFAP are resistant to extraction with low salt buffer containing nonionic detergent, indicating that the different cytoplasmic distribution of IF is unrelated to the solubility properties of vimentin and GFAP. Double immunolabelling experiments with polyclonal antibody to GFAP and monoclonal antibody to each alpha-tubulin or beta-tubulin reveal an extensive codistribution and parallel organization of IF and MT in all morphological types of astrocytes studied. Stabilization of MT with taxol, or depolymerization of MT with colchicine, cause dramatic changes in the distribution of IF and inhibit the extension of astrocyte processes in response to dibutyryl cyclic AMP (dBcAMP). In early stages of treatment with dBcAMP, renewal of culture medium without dBcAMP produces a rapid and permanent retraction of astrocyte processes, whereas in later stages the processes only retract partially and are then restored and maintained for several days in the absence of dBcAMP. The retraction of processes is accompanied by changes of immunocytochemical staining of IF with antibody to GFAP, which appears more intense and diffuse. However, electrophoretic and immunoblot analyses of detergent-extracted proteins from parallel cultures demonstrate that neither the amount nor the solubility of GFAP and vimentin are changed. Detergent extraction in MT stabilizing conditions shows that a substantial proportion of tubulin in astrocytes cultured in serum-containing and serum-free media is assembled into MT, most of which depolymerize on treatment with low temperature and Ca2+. Following long exposure to dBcAMP the proportion of cold/Ca2+-stable MT increases. The results suggest that the IF of astrocytes in culture are dependent on MT with respect to their cytoplasmic distribution.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Proteolytic degradation of vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein in rat astrocytes in primary culture

Vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic (GFA) protein in rat astrocytes in primary culture were identified with their respective specific antisera on electroblots of one-dimensional and two-dimensional polyacrylamide gels. Each antiserum revealed respectively vimentin (58 kDa, pI 5.3), GFA protein (50 kDa, pI 6-5.8) and several more acidic, lower molecular mass vimentin-immunoreactive and GFA protein-immunoreactive polypeptides. These were more apparent when astrocyte proteins were extracted in the absence of EGTA and in the presence of Ca2+ ions suggesting that the lower immunoreactive polypeptides result from a Ca2+-sensitive proteolytic degradation of vimentin and GFA protein. The extent of proteolysis of GFA protein was higher when the differentiation of astrocytes was induced with 1,N6-dibutyryl-adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (Bt2cAMP). In contrast, the proteolysis of vimentin was not affected by the state of differentiation of astrocytes. The results indicate the existence of at least two distinct degradative pathways for intermediate filament proteins in astrocytes in primary culture and suggest that in differentiated astrocytes the activity of proteinase(s) involved in the degradation of GFA protein increases.