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Seo J, Ukani R, Zheng J, Braun JD, Wang S, Chen FE, Kim HK, Zhang S, Thai C, McGillicuddy RD, Yan H, Vlassak JJ, Mason JA. Barocaloric Effects in Dialkylammonium Halide Salts. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:2736-2747. [PMID: 38227768 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c12402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Barocaloric effects─solid-state thermal changes induced by the application and removal of hydrostatic pressure─offer the potential for energy-efficient heating and cooling without relying on volatile refrigerants. Here, we report that dialkylammonium halides─organic salts featuring bilayers of alkyl chains templated through hydrogen bonds to halide anions─display large, reversible, and tunable barocaloric effects near ambient temperature. The conformational flexibility and soft nature of the weakly confined hydrocarbons give rise to order-disorder phase transitions in the solid state that are associated with substantial entropy changes (>200 J kg-1 K-1) and high sensitivity to pressure (>24 K kbar-1), the combination of which drives strong barocaloric effects at relatively low pressures. Through high-pressure calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, and Raman spectroscopy, we investigate the structural factors that influence pressure-induced phase transitions of select dialkylammonium halides and evaluate the magnitude and reversibility of their barocaloric effects. Furthermore, we characterize the cyclability of thin-film samples under aggressive conditions (heating rate of 3500 K s-1 and over 11,000 cycles) using nanocalorimetry. Taken together, these results establish dialkylammonium halides as a promising class of pressure-responsive thermal materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyoung Seo
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Rahil Ukani
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Juanjuan Zheng
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Jason D Braun
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Sicheng Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas 76203, United States
| | - Faith E Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Hong Ki Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Selena Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Catherine Thai
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Ryan D McGillicuddy
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Hao Yan
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas 76203, United States
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Jarad A Mason
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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2
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Foster PJ, Bae J, Lemma B, Zheng J, Ireland W, Chandrakar P, Boros R, Dogic Z, Needleman DJ, Vlassak JJ. Dissipation and energy propagation across scales in an active cytoskeletal material. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2207662120. [PMID: 37000847 PMCID: PMC10083585 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2207662120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Living systems are intrinsically nonequilibrium: They use metabolically derived chemical energy to power their emergent dynamics and self-organization. A crucial driver of these dynamics is the cellular cytoskeleton, a defining example of an active material where the energy injected by molecular motors cascades across length scales, allowing the material to break the constraints of thermodynamic equilibrium and display emergent nonequilibrium dynamics only possible due to the constant influx of energy. Notwithstanding recent experimental advances in the use of local probes to quantify entropy production and the breaking of detailed balance, little is known about the energetics of active materials or how energy propagates from the molecular to emergent length scales. Here, we use a recently developed picowatt calorimeter to experimentally measure the energetics of an active microtubule gel that displays emergent large-scale flows. We find that only approximately one-billionth of the system's total energy consumption contributes to these emergent flows. We develop a chemical kinetics model that quantitatively captures how the system's total thermal dissipation varies with ATP and microtubule concentrations but that breaks down at high motor concentration, signaling an interference between motors. Finally, we estimate how energy losses accumulate across scales. Taken together, these results highlight energetic efficiency as a key consideration for the engineering of active materials and are a powerful step toward developing a nonequilibrium thermodynamics of living systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Foster
- Physics of Living Systems, Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02139
- Department of Physics, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA02454
| | - Jinhye Bae
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA92093
| | - Bezia Lemma
- Department of Physics, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA02454
- Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA93106
| | - Juanjuan Zheng
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
| | - William Ireland
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
| | - Pooja Chandrakar
- Department of Physics, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA02454
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA93106
| | - Rémi Boros
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA93106
| | - Zvonimir Dogic
- Department of Physics, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA02454
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA93106
| | - Daniel J. Needleman
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY10010
| | - Joost J. Vlassak
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
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3
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Bae J, Zheng J, Zhang H, Foster PJ, Needleman DJ, Vlassak JJ. A Micromachined Picocalorimeter Sensor for Liquid Samples with Application to Chemical Reactions and Biochemistry. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2021; 8:2003415. [PMID: 33717854 PMCID: PMC7927623 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202003415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Calorimetry has long been used to probe the physical state of a system by measuring the heat exchanged with the environment as a result of chemical reactions or phase transitions. Application of calorimetry to microscale biological samples, however, is hampered by insufficient sensitivity and the difficulty of handling liquid samples at this scale. Here, a micromachined calorimeter sensor that is capable of resolving picowatt levels of power is described. The sensor consists of low-noise thermopiles on a thin silicon nitride membrane that allow direct differential temperature measurements between a sample and four coplanar references, which significantly reduces thermal drift. The partial pressure of water in the ambient around the sample is maintained at saturation level using a small hydrogel-lined enclosure. The materials used in the sensor and its geometry are optimized to minimize the noise equivalent power generated by the sensor in response to the temperature field that develops around a typical sample. The experimental response of the sensor is characterized as a function of thermopile dimensions and sample volume, and its capability is demonstrated by measuring the heat dissipated during an enzymatically catalyzed biochemical reaction in a microliter-sized liquid droplet. The sensor offers particular promise for quantitative measurements on biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhye Bae
- Department of NanoEngineeringUniversity of California San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
| | - Juanjuan Zheng
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied SciencesHarvard UniversityCambridgeMA02138USA
| | - Haitao Zhang
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied SciencesHarvard UniversityCambridgeMA02138USA
| | - Peter J. Foster
- Physics of Living SystemsDepartment of PhysicsMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMA02139USA
| | - Daniel J. Needleman
- Department of Molecular and Cellular BiologyHarvard UniversityCambridgeMA02138USA
- Center for Computational BiologyFlatiron InstituteNew YorkNY10010USA
| | - Joost J. Vlassak
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied SciencesHarvard UniversityCambridgeMA02138USA
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4
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Araromi OA, Graule MA, Dorsey KL, Castellanos S, Foster JR, Hsu WH, Passy AE, Vlassak JJ, Weaver JC, Walsh CJ, Wood RJ. Ultra-sensitive and resilient compliant strain gauges for soft machines. Nature 2020; 587:219-224. [DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2892-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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5
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Tian K, Suo Z, Vlassak JJ. Chemically Coupled Interfacial Adhesion in Multimaterial Printing of Hydrogels and Elastomers. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020; 12:31002-31009. [PMID: 32536152 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c07468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Functional devices that use hydrogels as ionic conductors and elastomers as dielectrics have the advantage of being soft, stretchable, transparent, and biocompatible, making them ideal for biomedical applications. These devices are typically fabricated by manual assembly. Techniques for the manufacturing of soft materials have generally not looked at integrating multiple dissimilar materials. Silane coupling agents have recently shown promise for creating strong bonds between hydrogels and elastomers but have yet to be used in the extrusion printing of complex devices that integrate both hydrogels and elastomers. Here, we demonstrate the viability of silane coupling agents in a system with the rheology and functional composition necessary for three-dimensional (3D) extrusion printing of hydrogel-elastomer materials, specifically polyacrylamide (PAAm) hydrogel and poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) hydrophobic elastomer. By introducing a charge-neutral surfactant in the PDMS and adjusting silane concentrations in the PAAm, cast material samples demonstrate strong adhesion. We were also able to achieve an interfacial toughness of up to Γ = 193 ± 6.3 J/m2 for a fully extrusion printed PAAm hydrogel-on-PDMS bilayer. This result demonstrates that an integration strategy based on silane coupling agents makes it possible for extrusion printing of a wide variety of hydrogel and silicone elastomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Tian
- Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Zhigang Suo
- Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
- Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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6
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Abstract
Tunable-impedance mechanisms can improve the adaptivity, robustness, and efficiency of a vast array of engineering systems and soft robots. In this study, we introduce a tunable-stiffness mechanism called a "sandwich jamming structure," which fuses the exceptional stiffness range of state-of-the-art laminar jamming structures (also known as layer jamming structures) with the high stiffness-to-mass ratios of classical sandwich composites. We experimentally develop sandwich jamming structures with performance-to-mass ratios that are far greater than laminar jamming structures (e.g., a 550-fold increase in stiffness-to-mass ratio), while simultaneously achieving tunable behavior that standard sandwich composites inherently cannot achieve (e.g., a rapid and reversible 1800-fold increase in stiffness). Through theoretical and computational models, we then show that these ratios can be augmented by several orders of magnitude further, and we provide an optimization routine that allows designers to build the best possible sandwich jamming structures given arbitrary mass, volume, and material constraints. Finally, we demonstrate the utility of sandwich jamming structures by integrating them into a wearable soft robot (i.e., a tunable-stiffness wrist orthosis) that has negligible impact on the user in the off state, but can reduce muscle activation by an average of 41% in the on state. Through these theoretical and experimental investigations, we show that sandwich jamming structures are a lightweight highly tunable mechanism that can markedly extend the performance limits of existing structures and devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yashraj S Narang
- Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,NVIDIA Corporation, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Buse Aktaş
- Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sarah Ornellas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Robert D Howe
- Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Hansjörg Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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7
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Yang J, Bai R, Li J, Yang C, Yao X, Liu Q, Vlassak JJ, Mooney DJ, Suo Z. Design Molecular Topology for Wet-Dry Adhesion. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2019; 11:24802-24811. [PMID: 31190527 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b07522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Recent innovations highlight the integration of diverse materials with synthetic and biological hydrogels. Examples include brain-machine interfaces, tissue regeneration, and soft ionic devices. Existing methods of strong adhesion mostly focus on the chemistry of bonds and the mechanics of dissipation but largely overlook the molecular topology of connection. Here, we highlight the significance of molecular topology by designing a specific bond-stitch topology. The bond-stitch topology achieves strong adhesion between preformed hydrogels and various materials, where the hydrogels have no functional groups for chemical coupling, and the adhered materials have functional groups on the surface. The adhesion principle requires a species of polymer chains to form a bond with a material through complementary functional groups and form a network in situ that stitches with the polymer network of a hydrogel. We study the physics and chemistry of this topology and describe its potential applications in medicine and engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jianyu Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , McGill University , Montreal , QC H3A 0C3 , Canada
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8
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Tian K, Bae J, Suo Z, Vlassak JJ. Adhesion between Hydrophobic Elastomer and Hydrogel through Hydrophilic Modification and Interfacial Segregation. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2018; 10:43252-43261. [PMID: 30462477 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b16445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Recent progress in the printing of soft materials has made it possible to fabricate soft stretchable devices for a range of engineering applications. These devices tend to be heterogeneous systems, and their reliability depends to a large extent on the integrity of the interfaces between the various materials in the system. Previous studies on the printing of hydrogels have highlighted the need to investigate the adhesion between extrusion printable dielectric elastomers and hydrogels. Here we consider polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and a polyacrylamide hydrogel that contains lithium chloride and a nonionic rheological modifier. We show that the adhesion between oxygen plasma-treated PDMS and the hydrogel increases with time to reach a stable value of 15 J m-2 after ∼6 days. During that time, the contact angle of water on the PDMS interface remains constant at ∼30°, suggesting that hydrophobic recovery of plasma-treated PDMS is suppressed by the presence of the hydrogel. It is further observed that a thin viscous layer develops at the interface between PDMS and hydrogel, which results in energy dissipation upon debonding and which allows full recovery of the adhesion after debonding and rejoining. This viscous layer develops only in the presence of the rheological modifier in the hydrogel and the hydrophilic surface treatment of the PDMS.
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9
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Bordeenithikasem P, Liu J, Kube SA, Li Y, Ma T, Scanley BE, Broadbridge CC, Vlassak JJ, Singer JP, Schroers J. Author Correction: Determination of critical cooling rates in metallic glass forming alloy libraries through laser spike annealing. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17898. [PMID: 30538256 PMCID: PMC6289967 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36256-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Punnathat Bordeenithikasem
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA
| | - Jingbei Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA
| | - Sebastian A Kube
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA
| | - Yanglin Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA
| | - Tianxing Ma
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, 08854, USA
| | - B Ellen Scanley
- Department of Physics, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06515, USA
| | - Christine C Broadbridge
- Department of Physics, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06515, USA
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02138, USA
| | - Jonathan P Singer
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, 08854, USA
| | - Jan Schroers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA.
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10
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Tran VT, Xu X, Mredha MTI, Cui J, Vlassak JJ, Jeon I. Hydrogel bowls for cleaning oil spills on water. Water Res 2018; 145:640-649. [PMID: 30205335 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a hydrogel bowl capable of selectively and rapidly collecting spilled oil while floating on water. The bowl has macroscopic openings in its sidewall, and its surface is first coated with octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS) and then with diffusion pump oil, which imparts exceptional hydrophobic, oleophilic, and high oil wettability properties. The use of a hydrogel makes it possible to obtain surface hydrophobicity and oleophilicity, while also being inexpensive, eco-friendly, and easy to fabricate. Using a prototype of the bowl and a small pump system, we demonstrate that oils with a broad range of viscosities (2.7-2000.0 cSt at 20-40 °C) are more rapidly and efficiently collected from the surface of both pure water and seawater than with any other reported technique. The hydrogel bowl can collect oil for more than one month without losing its efficiency and can be stored in oil for reuse. Therefore, such hydrogel bowls represent a new alternative to conventional oil spill remediation techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van Tron Tran
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Xiubin Xu
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61186, Republic of Korea; Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Md Tariful Islam Mredha
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiaxi Cui
- INM-Leibniz Institute for New Materials, Campus D2 2, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Insu Jeon
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61186, Republic of Korea.
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11
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Morelle XP, Illeperuma WR, Tian K, Bai R, Suo Z, Vlassak JJ. Highly Stretchable and Tough Hydrogels below Water Freezing Temperature. Adv Mater 2018; 30:e1801541. [PMID: 29989671 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201801541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 06/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogels consist of hydrophilic polymer networks dispersed in water. Many applications of hydrogels rely on their unique combination of solid-like mechanical behavior and water-like transport properties. If the temperature is lowered below 0 °C, however, hydrogels freeze and become rigid, brittle, and non-conductive. Here, a general class of hydrogels that do not freeze at temperatures far below 0 °C, while retaining high stretchability and fracture toughness, is demonstrated. These hydrogels are synthesized by adding a suitable amount of an ionic compound to the hydrogel. The present study focuses on tough polyacrylamide-alginate double network hydrogels equilibrated with aqueous solutions of calcium chloride. The resulting hydrogels can be cooled to temperatures as low as -57 °C without freezing. In this temperature range, the hydrogels can still be stretched more than four times their initial length and have a fracture toughness of 5000 J m-2 . It is anticipated that this new class of hydrogels will prove useful in developing new applications operating under a broad range of environmental and atmospheric conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier P Morelle
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Soft Matter Science and Engineering Laboratory, ESPCI ParisTech, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Widusha R Illeperuma
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Kevin Tian
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Ruobing Bai
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Zhigang Suo
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
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12
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Narang YS, Degirmenci A, Vlassak JJ, Howe RD. Transforming the Dynamic Response of Robotic Structures and Systems Through Laminar Jamming. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2018. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2017.2779802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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13
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Lind JU, Yadid M, Perkins I, O'Connor BB, Eweje F, Chantre CO, Hemphill MA, Yuan H, Campbell PH, Vlassak JJ, Parker KK. Cardiac microphysiological devices with flexible thin-film sensors for higher-throughput drug screening. Lab Chip 2017; 17:3692-3703. [PMID: 28976521 PMCID: PMC5810940 DOI: 10.1039/c7lc00740j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Microphysiological systems and organs-on-chips promise to accelerate biomedical and pharmaceutical research by providing accurate in vitro replicas of human tissue. Aside from addressing the physiological accuracy of the model tissues, there is a pressing need for improving the throughput of these platforms. To do so, scalable data acquisition strategies must be introduced. To this end, we here present an instrumented 24-well plate platform for higher-throughput studies of engineered human stem cell-derived cardiac muscle tissues that recapitulate the laminar structure of the native ventricle. In each well of the platform, an embedded flexible strain gauge provides continuous and non-invasive readout of the contractile stress and beat rate of an engineered cardiac tissue. The sensors are based on micro-cracked titanium-gold thin films, which ensure that the sensors are highly compliant and robust. We demonstrate the value of the platform for toxicology and drug-testing purposes by performing 12 complete dose-response studies of cardiac and cardiotoxic drugs. Additionally, we showcase the ability to couple the cardiac tissues with endothelial barriers. In these studies, which mimic the passage of drugs through the blood vessels to the musculature of the heart, we regulate the temporal onset of cardiac drug responses by modulating endothelial barrier permeability in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan U Lind
- Disease Biophysics Group, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, 29 Oxford St., Pierce Hall 321, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA.
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14
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Bordeenithikasem P, Liu J, Kube SA, Li Y, Ma T, Scanley BE, Broadbridge CC, Vlassak JJ, Singer JP, Schroers J. Determination of critical cooling rates in metallic glass forming alloy libraries through laser spike annealing. Sci Rep 2017; 7:7155. [PMID: 28769093 PMCID: PMC5540923 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07719-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The glass forming ability (GFA) of metallic glasses (MGs) is quantified by the critical cooling rate (R C). Despite its key role in MG research, experimental challenges have limited measured R C to a minute fraction of known glass formers. We present a combinatorial approach to directly measure R C for large compositional ranges. This is realized through the use of compositionally-graded alloy libraries, which were photo-thermally heated by scanning laser spike annealing of an absorbing layer, then melted and cooled at various rates. Coupled with X-ray diffraction mapping, GFA is determined from direct R C measurements. We exemplify this technique for the Au-Cu-Si system, where we identify Au56Cu27Si17 as the alloy with the highest GFA. In general, this method enables measurements of R C over large compositional areas, which is powerful for materials discovery and, when correlating with chemistry and other properties, for a deeper understanding of MG formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Punnathat Bordeenithikasem
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA
| | - Jingbei Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA
| | - Sebastian A Kube
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA
| | - Yanglin Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA
| | - Tianxing Ma
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, 08854, USA
| | - B Ellen Scanley
- Department of Physics, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06515, USA
| | - Christine C Broadbridge
- Department of Physics, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06515, USA
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02138, USA
| | - Jonathan P Singer
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, 08854, USA
| | - Jan Schroers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, USA.
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15
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Li J, Celiz AD, Yang J, Yang Q, Wamala I, Whyte W, Seo BR, Vasilyev NV, Vlassak JJ, Suo Z, Mooney DJ. Tough adhesives for diverse wet surfaces. Science 2017; 357:378-381. [PMID: 28751604 PMCID: PMC5905340 DOI: 10.1126/science.aah6362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 680] [Impact Index Per Article: 97.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Adhesion to wet and dynamic surfaces, including biological tissues, is important in many fields but has proven to be extremely challenging. Existing adhesives are cytotoxic, adhere weakly to tissues, or cannot be used in wet environments. We report a bioinspired design for adhesives consisting of two layers: an adhesive surface and a dissipative matrix. The former adheres to the substrate by electrostatic interactions, covalent bonds, and physical interpenetration. The latter amplifies energy dissipation through hysteresis. The two layers synergistically lead to higher adhesion energies on wet surfaces as compared with those of existing adhesives. Adhesion occurs within minutes, independent of blood exposure and compatible with in vivo dynamic movements. This family of adhesives may be useful in many areas of application, including tissue adhesives, wound dressings, and tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Li
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0G4, Canada
| | - A D Celiz
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Advanced Materials and Healthcare Technologies Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - J Yang
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Kavli Institute for Nanobio Science and Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Q Yang
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Kavli Institute for Nanobio Science and Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- School of Aerospace, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, People's Republic of China
| | - I Wamala
- Departments of Cardiac Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - W Whyte
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Advanced Materials and Bioengineering Research Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland and Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - B R Seo
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - N V Vasilyev
- Departments of Cardiac Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - J J Vlassak
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Z Suo
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Kavli Institute for Nanobio Science and Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - D J Mooney
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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16
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Tian K, Bae J, Bakarich SE, Yang C, Gately RD, Spinks GM, In Het Panhuis M, Suo Z, Vlassak JJ. 3D Printing of Transparent and Conductive Heterogeneous Hydrogel-Elastomer Systems. Adv Mater 2017; 29:1604827. [PMID: 28075033 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201604827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Revised: 11/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
A hydrogel-dielectric-elastomer system, polyacrylamide and poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), is adapted for extrusion printing for integrated device fabrication. A lithium-chloride-containing hydrogel printing ink is developed and printed onto treated PDMS with no visible signs of delamination and geometrically scaling resistance under moderate uniaxial tension and fatigue. A variety of designs are demonstrated, including a resistive strain gauge and an ionic cable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Tian
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Jinhye Bae
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Shannon E Bakarich
- School of Mechanical Materials and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
- Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, AIIM Facility, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| | - Canhui Yang
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- State Key Laboratory for Strength and Vibration of Mechanical Structures, International Center for Applied Mechanics, School of Aerospace, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - Reece D Gately
- Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, AIIM Facility, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
- Soft Materials Group, School of Chemistry, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| | - Geoffrey M Spinks
- School of Mechanical Materials and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
- Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, AIIM Facility, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| | - Marc In Het Panhuis
- Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, AIIM Facility, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
- Soft Materials Group, School of Chemistry, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| | - Zhigang Suo
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, United States
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
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17
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Lind JU, Busbee TA, Valentine AD, Pasqualini FS, Yuan H, Yadid M, Park SJ, Kotikian A, Nesmith AP, Campbell PH, Vlassak JJ, Lewis JA, Parker KK. Instrumented cardiac microphysiological devices via multimaterial three-dimensional printing. Nat Mater 2017; 16:303-308. [PMID: 27775708 PMCID: PMC5321777 DOI: 10.1038/nmat4782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 426] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Biomedical research has relied on animal studies and conventional cell cultures for decades. Recently, microphysiological systems (MPS), also known as organs-on-chips, that recapitulate the structure and function of native tissues in vitro, have emerged as a promising alternative. However, current MPS typically lack integrated sensors and their fabrication requires multi-step lithographic processes. Here, we introduce a facile route for fabricating a new class of instrumented cardiac microphysiological devices via multimaterial three-dimensional (3D) printing. Specifically, we designed six functional inks, based on piezo-resistive, high-conductance, and biocompatible soft materials that enable integration of soft strain gauge sensors within micro-architectures that guide the self-assembly of physio-mimetic laminar cardiac tissues. We validated that these embedded sensors provide non-invasive, electronic readouts of tissue contractile stresses inside cell incubator environments. We further applied these devices to study drug responses, as well as the contractile development of human stem cell-derived laminar cardiac tissues over four weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan U. Lind
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Travis A. Busbee
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Alexander D. Valentine
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Francesco S. Pasqualini
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Hongyan Yuan
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Moran Yadid
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Sung-Jin Park
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Arda Kotikian
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Alexander P. Nesmith
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Patrick H. Campbell
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Joost J. Vlassak
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
| | - Jennifer A. Lewis
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
- Correspondence should be addressed to: Kevin Kit Parker, 29 Oxford St., Cambridge, MA 02138, Phone: (617) 495-2850, Fax: (617) 495-9837, . Jennifer A. Lewis, 29 Oxford St., Cambridge, MA 02138, Phone: (617) 496-0233,
| | - Kevin K. Parker
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138 USA
- Correspondence should be addressed to: Kevin Kit Parker, 29 Oxford St., Cambridge, MA 02138, Phone: (617) 495-2850, Fax: (617) 495-9837, . Jennifer A. Lewis, 29 Oxford St., Cambridge, MA 02138, Phone: (617) 496-0233,
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18
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Perim E, Lee D, Liu Y, Toher C, Gong P, Li Y, Simmons WN, Levy O, Vlassak JJ, Schroers J, Curtarolo S. Spectral descriptors for bulk metallic glasses based on the thermodynamics of competing crystalline phases. Nat Commun 2016; 7:12315. [PMID: 27480126 PMCID: PMC4974662 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Metallic glasses attract considerable interest due to their unique combination of superb properties and processability. Predicting their formation from known alloy parameters remains the major hindrance to the discovery of new systems. Here, we propose a descriptor based on the heuristics that structural and energetic 'confusion' obstructs crystalline growth, and demonstrate its validity by experiments on two well-known glass-forming alloy systems. We then develop a robust model for predicting glass formation ability based on the geometrical and energetic features of crystalline phases calculated ab initio in the AFLOW framework. Our findings indicate that the formation of metallic glass phases could be much more common than currently thought, with more than 17% of binary alloy systems potential glass formers. Our approach pinpoints favourable compositions and demonstrates that smart descriptors, based solely on alloy properties available in online repositories, offer the sought-after key for accelerated discovery of metallic glasses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Perim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA.,Center for Materials Genomics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Dongwoo Lee
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - Yanhui Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Cormac Toher
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA.,Center for Materials Genomics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Pan Gong
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Yanglin Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - W Neal Simmons
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA.,Center for Materials Genomics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Ohad Levy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA.,Center for Materials Genomics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - Jan Schroers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Stefano Curtarolo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA.,Center for Materials Genomics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
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19
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Jeon I, Cui J, Illeperuma WRK, Aizenberg J, Vlassak JJ. Extremely Stretchable and Fast Self-Healing Hydrogels. Adv Mater 2016; 28:4678-83. [PMID: 27061799 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201600480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic crosslinking of extremely stretchable hydrogels with rapid self-healing ability is described. Using this new strategy, the obtained hydrogels are able to elongate 100 times compared to their initial length and to completely self-heal within 30 s without external energy input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insu Jeon
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chonnam National University, 77, Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61186, South Korea
| | - Jiaxi Cui
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- INM-Leibniz Institute for New Materials, Campus D2 2, Saarbrücken, 66123, Germany
| | - Widusha R K Illeperuma
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Joanna Aizenberg
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
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20
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Lee D, Vlassak JJ, Zhao K. First-Principles Analysis on the Catalytic Role of Additives in Low-Temperature Synthesis of Transition Metal Diborides Using Nanolaminates. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2016; 8:10995-11000. [PMID: 27067194 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b01733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Carbon is known to significantly accelerate the formation reaction of zirconium diboride in reactive nanolaminates, although the detailed mechanism remains unclear. Here we investigate the catalytic effect of both C and N on the synthesis of ZrB2 using a first-principles theoretical approach. We show that the strong interactions of C and N with Zr at the B/Zr interfaces of the nanolaminate enhance the solid-state amorphization of the Zr lattice. Amorphization of the Zr, in turn, accelerates intermixing of the constituent layers of the reactive nanolaminate. On the basis of these results we propose that the addition of elements with strong binding energies to transition metals may facilitate low-temperature synthesis of transition metal diborides using reactive nanolaminates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongwoo Lee
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Kejie Zhao
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University , West Lafayette, Indiana 47906, United States
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21
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Abstract
Recently developed high-speed ionic devices require adherent laminates of stretchable and dissimilar materials, such as gels and elastomers. Adhesion between stretchable and dissimilar materials also plays important roles in medicine, stretchable electronics, and soft robots. Here we develop a method to characterize adhesion between materials capable of large, elastic deformation. We apply the method to measure the debond energy of elastomer-hydrogel bilayers. The debond energy between an acrylic elastomer and a polyacrylamide hydrogel is found to be about 0.5 J m(-2), independent of the thickness and the crosslink density of the hydrogel. This low debond energy, however, allows the bilayer to be adherent and highly stretchable, provided that the hydrogel is thin and compliant. Furthermore, we demonstrate that nanoparticles applied at the interface can improve adhesion between the elastomer and the hydrogel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingda Tang
- State Key Lab for Turbulence and Complex Systems, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China and School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| | - Jianyu Li
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| | - Zhigang Suo
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. and Kavli Institute of Bionano Science and Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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22
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Illeperuma WRK, Rothemund P, Suo Z, Vlassak JJ. Fire-Resistant Hydrogel-Fabric Laminates: A Simple Concept That May Save Lives. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2016; 8:2071-2077. [PMID: 26716351 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b10538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
There is a large demand for fabrics that can survive high-temperature fires for an extended period of time, and protect the skin from burn injuries. Even though fire-resistant polymer fabrics are commercially available, many of these fabrics are expensive, decompose rapidly, and/or become very hot when exposed to high temperatures. We have developed a new class of fire-retarding materials by laminating a hydrogel and a fabric. The hydrogel contains around 90% water, which has a large heat capacity and enthalpy of vaporization. When the laminate is exposed to fire, a large amount of energy is absorbed as water heats up and evaporates. The temperature of the hydrogel cannot exceed 100 °C until it is fully dehydrated. The fabric has a low thermal conductivity and maintains the temperature gradient between the hydrogel and the skin. The laminates are fabricated using a recently developed tough hydrogel to ensure integrity of the laminate during processing and use. A thermal model predicts the performance of the laminates and shows that they have excellent heat resistance in good agreement with experiments, making them viable candidates in life saving applications such as fire-resistant blankets or apparel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Widusha R K Illeperuma
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, ‡Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology, and §Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Philipp Rothemund
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, ‡Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology, and §Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Zhigang Suo
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, ‡Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology, and §Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, ‡Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology, and §Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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23
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Lee D, Sim GD, Zhao K, Vlassak JJ. Kinetic Role of Carbon in Solid-State Synthesis of Zirconium Diboride using Nanolaminates: Nanocalorimetry Experiments and First-Principles Calculations. Nano Lett 2015; 15:8266-8270. [PMID: 26536309 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Reactive nanolaminates afford a promising route for the low-temperature synthesis of zirconium diboride, an ultrahigh-temperature ceramic with metallic properties. Although the addition of carbon is known to facilitate sintering of ZrB2, its effect on the kinetics of the formation reaction has not been elucidated. We have employed a combined approach of nanocalorimetry and first-principles theoretical studies to investigate the kinetic role of carbon in the synthesis of ZrB2 using B4C/Zr reactive nanolaminates. Structural characterization of the laminates by XRD and TEM reveal that the reaction proceeds via interdiffusion of the B4C and Zr layers, which produces an amorphous Zr3B4C alloy. This amorphous alloy then crystallizes to form a supersaturated ZrB2(C) compound. A kinetic analysis shows that carbon lowers the energy barriers for both interdiffusion and crystallization by more than 20%. Energetic calculations based on first-principles modeling suggest that the reduction of the diffusion barrier may be attributed to the stronger bonding between Zr and C as compared to the bonding between Zr and B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongwoo Lee
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Gi-dong Sim
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Kejie Zhao
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University , West Lafayette, Indiana 47906, United States
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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24
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Abstract
The thermodynamics and kinetics of the solid-state alloying of Zr-B, underlying a variety of synthesis processes of the ultrahigh-temperature ceramic ZrB2, are widely unknown. We investigate the energetics, diffusion kinetics, and structural evolution of this system using first-principles computational methods. We identify the diffusion pathways in the interpenetrating network of interstitial sites for a single B atom and demonstrate a dominant rate-controlling step from the octahedral to the crowdion site that is distinct from the conventional mechanism of octahedral-tetrahedral transition in hexagonal close-packed structures. In the intermediate compounds ZrBx, 0 < x ≤ 2, the diffusivity of B is highly dependent on the composition while reaching a minimum for ZrB. The activation barrier of diffusion in ZrB2 is in good agreement with nanocalorimetry measurements performed on Zr/B reactive nanolaminates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongwoo Lee
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Joost J Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Kejie Zhao
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University , West Lafayette, Indiana 47906, United States
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25
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Abstract
Ionogels are formed when a cross-linked polymer network absorbs an ionic liquid. Ionogels are ionic conductors and, as such, are being considered for use in stretchable electronics and artificial muscles or nerves. The use of ionogels in these applications is limited in part by their mechanical behavior. Here we present an ionogel prepared by swelling covalently cross-linked poly(methyl methacrylate) in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide. The resulting ionogel is compliant, stretchable, and relatively tough. We demonstrate that the swelling ratio, elastic modulus, stretchability, and fracture energy of the ionogel depend sensitively on the cross-link density of the polymer network. The behavior of the ionogel is well captured by the model of the ideal elastomeric gel combined with the Flory-Huggins model for the energy of mixing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyu Li
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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26
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Abstract
The development of hydrogels for cartilage replacement and soft robotics has highlighted a challenge: load-bearing hydrogels need to be both stiff and tough. Several approaches have been reported to improve the toughness of hydrogels, but simultaneously achieving high stiffness and toughness remains difficult. Here we report that alginate-polyacrylamide hydrogels can simultaneously achieve high stiffness and toughness. We combine short- and long-chain alginates to reduce the viscosity of pregel solutions and synthesize homogeneous hydrogels of high ionic cross-link density. The resulting hydrogels can have elastic moduli of ∼1 MPa and fracture energies of ∼4 kJ m-2. Furthermore, this approach breaks the inverse relation between stiffness and toughness: while maintaining constant elastic moduli, these hydrogels can achieve fracture energies up to ∼16 kJ m-2. These stiff and tough hydrogels hold promise for further development as load-bearing materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianyu Li
- School of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Widusha R. K. Illeperuma
- School of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Zhigang Suo
- School of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Joost J. Vlassak
- School of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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27
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Abstract
The concept of the ideal elastomeric gel is extended to polyelectrolyte gels and verified using a polyacrylamide-co-acrylic acid hydrogel as a model material system. A comparison between mixing and ion osmosis shows that the mixing osmosis is larger than the ion osmosis for small swelling ratios, while the ion osmosis dominates for large swelling ratios. We show further that the non-Gaussian chain effect becomes important in the elasticity of the polymer network at the very large swelling ratios that may occur under certain conditions of pH and salinity. We demonstrate that the Gent model captures the non-Gaussian chain effect well and that it provides a good description of the free energy associated with the stretching of the network. The model of ideal elastomeric gels fits the experimental data very well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianyu Li
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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28
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Abstract
A hybrid hydrogel, consisting of hydrophilic and crystalline polymer networks, achieves high stiffness, high strength, and high toughness, while maintaining physical integrity in concentrated electrolyte solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianyu Li
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences
- Harvard University
- Cambridge, USA
| | - Zhigang Suo
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences
- Harvard University
- Cambridge, USA
- Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology
- Harvard University
| | - Joost J. Vlassak
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences
- Harvard University
- Cambridge, USA
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29
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Abstract
We have measured the fracture energy of lithiated silicon thin-film electrodes as a function of lithium concentration. To this end, we have constructed an electrochemical cell capable of testing multiple thin-film electrodes in parallel. The stress in the electrodes is measured during electrochemical cycling by the substrate curvature technique. The electrodes are disconnected one by one after delithiating to various states of charge, that is, to various concentrations of lithium. The electrodes are then examined by optical microscopy to determine when cracks first form. All of the observed cracks appear brittle in nature. By determining the condition for crack initiation, the fracture energy is calculated using an analysis from fracture mechanics. In the same set of experiments, the fracture energy at a second state of charge (at small concentrations of lithium) is measured by determining the maximum value of the stress during delithiation. The fracture energy was determined to be Γ = 8.5 ± 4.3 J/m(2) at small concentrations of lithium (~Li0.7Si) and have bounds of Γ = 5.4 ± 2.2 J/m(2) to Γ = 6.9 ± 1.9 J/m(2) at larger concentrations of lithium (~Li2.8Si). These values indicate that the fracture energy of lithiated silicon is similar to that of pure silicon and is essentially independent of the concentration of lithium. Thus, lithiated silicon demonstrates a unique ability to flow plastically and fracture in a brittle manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Pharr
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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Gregoire JM, Xiao K, McCluskey PJ, Dale D, Cuddalorepatta G, Vlassak JJ. In-situ X-ray diffraction combined with scanning AC nanocalorimetry applied to a Fe 0.84Ni 0.16 thin-film sample. Appl Phys Lett 2013; 102:201902. [PMID: 23825802 PMCID: PMC3676369 DOI: 10.1063/1.4806972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We combine the characterization techniques of scanning AC nanocalorimetry and x-ray diffraction to study phase transformations in complex materials system. Micromachined nanocalorimeters have excellent performance for high-temperature and high-scanning-rate calorimetry measurements. Time-resolved X-ray diffraction measurements during in-situ operation of these devices using synchrotron radiation provide unprecedented characterization of thermal and structural material properties. We apply this technique to a Fe0.84Ni0.16 thin-film sample that exhibits a martensitic transformation with over 350 K hysteresis, using an average heating rate of 85 K/s and cooling rate of 275 K/s. The apparatus includes an array of nanocalorimeters in an architecture designed for combinatorial studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Gregoire
- Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, California 91125, USA
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Cubuk ED, Wang WL, Zhao K, Vlassak JJ, Suo Z, Kaxiras E. Morphological evolution of Si nanowires upon lithiation: a first-principles multiscale model. Nano Lett 2013; 13:2011-2015. [PMID: 23541144 DOI: 10.1021/nl400132q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Silicon is a promising anode material for high-capacity Li-ion batteries. Recent experiments show that lithiation of crystalline silicon nanowires leads to highly anisotropic morphologies. This has been interpreted as due to anisotropy in equilibrium interface energies, but this interpretation does not capture the dynamic, nonequilibrium nature of the lithiation process. Here, we provide a comprehensive explanation of experimentally observed morphological changes, based on first-principles multiscale simulations. We identify reaction paths and associated structural transformations for Li insertion into the Si {110} and {111} surfaces and calculate the relevant energy barriers from density functional theory methods. We then perform kinetic Monte Carlo simulations for nanowires with surfaces of different orientations, which reproduce to a remarkable degree the experimentally observed profiles and the relative reaction front rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekin D Cubuk
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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Xiao K, Gregoire JM, McCluskey PJ, Vlassak JJ. A scanning AC calorimetry technique for the analysis of nano-scale quantities of materials. Rev Sci Instrum 2012; 83:114901. [PMID: 23206083 DOI: 10.1063/1.4763571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We present a scanning AC nanocalorimetry method that enables calorimetry measurements at heating and cooling rates that vary from isothermal to 2 × 10(3) K/s, thus bridging the gap between traditional scanning calorimetry of bulk materials and nanocalorimetry. The method relies on a micromachined nanocalorimetry sensor with a serpentine heating element that is sensitive enough to make measurements on thin-film samples and composition libraries. The ability to perform calorimetry over such a broad range of scanning rates makes it an ideal tool to characterize the kinetics of phase transformations or to explore the behavior of materials far from equilibrium. We demonstrate the technique by performing measurements on thin-film samples of Sn, In, and Bi with thicknesses ranging from 100 to 300 nm. The experimental heat capacities and melting temperatures agree well with literature values. The measured heat capacities are insensitive to the applied AC frequency, scan rate, and heat loss to the environment over a broad range of experimental parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kechao Xiao
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, 29 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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Sun JY, Zhao X, Illeperuma WRK, Chaudhuri O, Oh KH, Mooney DJ, Vlassak JJ, Suo Z. Highly stretchable and tough hydrogels. Nature 2012; 489:133-6. [PMID: 22955625 DOI: 10.1038/nature11409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2596] [Impact Index Per Article: 216.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2012] [Accepted: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogels are used as scaffolds for tissue engineering, vehicles for drug delivery, actuators for optics and fluidics, and model extracellular matrices for biological studies. The scope of hydrogel applications, however, is often severely limited by their mechanical behaviour. Most hydrogels do not exhibit high stretchability; for example, an alginate hydrogel ruptures when stretched to about 1.2 times its original length. Some synthetic elastic hydrogels have achieved stretches in the range 10-20, but these values are markedly reduced in samples containing notches. Most hydrogels are brittle, with fracture energies of about 10 J m(-2) (ref. 8), as compared with ∼1,000 J m(-2) for cartilage and ∼10,000 J m(-2) for natural rubbers. Intense efforts are devoted to synthesizing hydrogels with improved mechanical properties; certain synthetic gels have reached fracture energies of 100-1,000 J m(-2) (refs 11, 14, 17). Here we report the synthesis of hydrogels from polymers forming ionically and covalently crosslinked networks. Although such gels contain ∼90% water, they can be stretched beyond 20 times their initial length, and have fracture energies of ∼9,000 J m(-2). Even for samples containing notches, a stretch of 17 is demonstrated. We attribute the gels' toughness to the synergy of two mechanisms: crack bridging by the network of covalent crosslinks, and hysteresis by unzipping the network of ionic crosslinks. Furthermore, the network of covalent crosslinks preserves the memory of the initial state, so that much of the large deformation is removed on unloading. The unzipped ionic crosslinks cause internal damage, which heals by re-zipping. These gels may serve as model systems to explore mechanisms of deformation and energy dissipation, and expand the scope of hydrogel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong-Yun Sun
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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Pharr M, Zhao K, Wang X, Suo Z, Vlassak JJ. Kinetics of initial lithiation of crystalline silicon electrodes of lithium-ion batteries. Nano Lett 2012; 12:5039-5047. [PMID: 22889293 DOI: 10.1021/nl302841y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical experiments were conducted on {100}, {110}, and {111} silicon wafers to characterize the kinetics of the initial lithiation of crystalline Si electrodes. Under constant current conditions, we observed constant cell potentials for all orientations, indicating the existence of a phase boundary that separates crystalline silicon from the amorphous lithiated phase. For a given potential, the velocity of this boundary was found to be faster for {110} silicon than for the other two orientations. We show that our measurements of varying phase boundary velocities can accurately account for anisotropic morphologies and fracture developed in crystalline silicon nanopillars. We also present a kinetic model by considering the redox reaction at the electrolyte/lithiated silicon interface, diffusion of lithium through the lithiated phase, and the chemical reaction at the lithiated silicon/crystalline silicon interface. From this model, we quantify the rates of the reactions at the interfaces and estimate a lower bound on the diffusivity through the lithiated silicon phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Pharr
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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Zhao K, Tritsaris GA, Pharr M, Wang WL, Okeke O, Suo Z, Vlassak JJ, Kaxiras E. Reactive flow in silicon electrodes assisted by the insertion of lithium. Nano Lett 2012; 12:4397-4403. [PMID: 22830634 DOI: 10.1021/nl302261w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In the search for high-energy density materials for Li-ion batteries, silicon has emerged as a promising candidate for anodes due to its ability to absorb a large number of Li atoms. Lithiation of Si leads to large deformation and concurrent changes in its mechanical properties, from a brittle material in its pure form to a material that can sustain large inelastic deformation in the lithiated form. These remarkable changes in behavior pose a challenge to theoretical treatment of the material properties. Here, we provide a detailed picture of the origin of changes in the mechanical properties, based on first-principles calculations of the atomic-scale structural and electronic properties in a model amorphous silicon (a-Si) structure. We regard the reactive flow of lithiated silicon as a nonequilibrium process consisting of concurrent Li insertion driven by unbalanced chemical potential and flow driven by deviatoric stress. The reaction enables the material to flow at a lower level of stress. Our theoretical model is in excellent quantitative agreement with experimental measurements of lithiation-induced stress on a Si thin film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kejie Zhao
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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Zhao K, Wang WL, Gregoire J, Pharr M, Suo Z, Vlassak JJ, Kaxiras E. Lithium-assisted plastic deformation of silicon electrodes in lithium-ion batteries: a first-principles theoretical study. Nano Lett 2011; 11:2962-2967. [PMID: 21692465 DOI: 10.1021/nl201501s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Silicon can host a large amount of lithium, making it a promising electrode for high-capacity lithium-ion batteries. Recent experiments indicate that silicon experiences large plastic deformation upon Li absorption, which can significantly decrease the stresses induced by lithiation and thus mitigate fracture failure of electrodes. These issues become especially relevant in nanostructured electrodes with confined geometries. On the basis of first-principles calculations, we present a study of the microscopic deformation mechanism of lithiated silicon at relatively low Li concentration, which captures the onset of plasticity induced by lithiation. We find that lithium insertion leads to breaking of Si-Si bonds and formation of weaker bonds between neighboring Si and Li atoms, which results in a decrease in Young's modulus, a reduction in strength, and a brittle-to-ductile transition with increasing Li concentration. The microscopic mechanism of large plastic deformation is attributed to continuous lithium-assisted breaking and re-forming of Si-Si bonds and the creation of nanopores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kejie Zhao
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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Xiang Y, Chen X, Vlassak JJ. The Mechanical Properties of Electroplated Cu Thin Films Measured by means of the Bulge Test Technique. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1557/proc-695-l4.9.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACTThe mechanical properties of freestanding electroplated Cu films were determined by measuring the deflection of Si-framed, pressurized membranes. The films were deformed under plane-strain conditions. The pressure-deflection data are converted into stress-strain curves by means of simple analytical formulae. The microstructure of the Cu films was characterized using scanning electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction. The yield stress, Young's modulus, and residual stress were determined as a function of film thickness and microstructure. Both yield stress and Young's modulus increase with decreasing film thickness and correlate well with changes in the microstructure and texture of the films.
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Abstract
ABSTRACTWe present a new model for dishing and erosion during chemical-mechanical planarization. According to this model, dishing and erosion is controlled by the local pressure distribution between features on the wafer and the polishing pad. The model uses a contact mechanics analysis based on the work by Greenwood to evaluate the pressure distribution taking into account the compliance of the pad as well as its roughness. Using the model, the effects of pattern density, line width, applied down-force, selectivity, pad properties, etc. on both dishing and erosion can be readily evaluated. The model may be applied to CMP used for oxide planarization, metal damascene or shallow trench isolation.The model is implemented as an algorithm that quickly calculates the evolution of the profile of a set of features on the wafer during the polishing process. With proper calibration of the process parameters, it can be used as a tool in optimizing the CMP process and implementing CMP design rules.
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Abstract
ABSTRACTSince its first application to thin films in the 1950's, the bulge test has had a prominent place in the field of thin film mechanical properties. The major appeal of the technique is that it is analogous to the familiar uniaxial tension test, which is commonly applied to bulk materials. At the same time, it avoids the sample tearing and alignment problems associated with micro-tensile tests. Unfortunately, bulge test results have been sometimes controversial and difficult to reproduce. In this paper we address possible causes for mese inconsistencies and describe a method by which the bulge test technique can be made to produce accurate and reliable results.
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Abstract
ABSTRACTIn this paper we address possible causes for inconsistencies in bulge test results and describe methods by which the bulge test technique can be made to produce accurate and reliable results. Experiments have been conducted on a variety of materials: polyimide (PIQ13) and polycarbonate (Lexan), silver and silver-palladium multilayers, and silicon nitride. All the materials tested yield biaxial moduli that are in the range of expected values for the bulk material. In addition, the tests show that the technique can be used to differentiate between the elastic properties of materials throughout the range of elastic stiffnesses, with even crystallo-graphic texture having a notable impact on the measured modulus. These results will be presented along with the methods used for preparing bulge test samples.
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McCluskey PJ, Vlassak JJ. Parallel nano-Differential Scanning Calorimetry: A New Device for Combinatorial Analysis of Complex nano-Scale Material Systems. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1557/proc-0924-z08-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACTA new device is presented for the combinatorial analysis of complex nano-scale material systems. The parallel nano-differential scanning calorimeter (PnDSC) is a micro-machined array of calorimetric cells. This new approach to combinatorial calorimetry should expedite the analysis of nano-scale material thermal properties. A power compensation differential scanning calorimetry measurement, not yet performed on a device of this type, is described. A NiTi specific heat measurement demonstrates the scanning calorimetry capability of the PnDSC.
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Kim HJ, Han JH, Kaiser R, Oh KH, Vlassak JJ. High-throughput analysis of thin-film stresses using arrays of micromachined cantilever beams. Rev Sci Instrum 2008; 79:045112. [PMID: 18447557 DOI: 10.1063/1.2912826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We report on a technique for making high-throughput residual stress measurements on thin films by means of micromachined cantilever beams and an array of parallel laser beams. In this technique, the film of interest is deposited onto a silicon substrate with micromachined cantilever beams. The residual stress in the film causes the beams to bend. The curvature of the beams, which is proportional to the residual stress in the film, is measured by scanning an array of parallel laser beams generated with a diffraction grating along the length of the beams. The reflections of the laser beams are captured using a digital camera. A heating stage enables measurement of the residual stress as a function of temperature. As the curvature of each beam is determined by the local stress in the film, the film stress can be mapped across the substrate. This feature makes the technique a useful tool for the combinatorial analysis of phase transformations in thin films, especially when combined with the use of films with lateral composition gradients. As an illustration, we apply the technique to evaluate the thermomechanical behavior of Fe-Pd binary alloys as a function of composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Jong Kim
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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Jun YS, Kendall TA, Martin ST, Friend CM, Vlassak JJ. Heteroepitaxial nucleation and oriented growth of manganese oxide islands on carbonate minerals under aqueous conditions. Environ Sci Technol 2005; 39:1239-1249. [PMID: 15787362 DOI: 10.1021/es049200r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Manganese redox cycling and the accompanying dissolution and precipitation reactions are important processes in natural waters. In the present study, Mn2+ (aq) is reacted with O2(aq) at circumneutral pH to form manganese oxide islands on the (1014) surface of MnCO3. The islands grow heteroepitaxially. The effects of the substrate surface morphology, the substrate atomic structure, and the aqueous concentration of Mn2+ are investigated. On terraces, rhombohedral oxide islands form with 90 degrees rotation relative to the crystallographic axis of the underlying carbonate substrate. Although the island heights self-limit between 2 and 3 nm depending on reaction conditions, the islands grow laterally to several square microns before separate islands collide and coalesce. The islands do not grow over substrate steps or down dissolution-pit edges. Comparison studies done with MgCO3 and CaCO3 show that the former also promotes heteroepitaxial growth whereas the latter does not. This difference is explained by the relative bond length mismatch between the structures of the carbonate substrates and the atomic structures of manganese oxides. A free energy model is also presented to explain why the heights of the manganese oxide islands self-limit. Our results provide an improved basis both for the development of predictive models of contaminant fate and transport and for the modeling of hydraulic flow through carbonate aquifers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Shin Jun
- Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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45
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