Abrir gavetas, tramar redes: dos impactos ressonantes da educação pelo trabalho na saúde

Objetivo: Este artigo objetiva trazer à cena uma pesquisa relativa ao impacto do Programa de Educação pelo Trabalho na Saúde, o qual estabelece uma trama entre ensino universitário, política pública e demandas sociais em saúde. Método: O tema do impacto, tão frequente nas discussões envolvendo avaliação e monitoramento em políticas e ações em educação e saúde, foi tomado em consideração, não apenas como uma pergunta a responder, mas como uma construção de pensamento sobre o que uma política pública “faz” na realidade (como uma política pública “impacta” uma realidade) e como uma prática de ensino e aprendizagem é afetada por esta. Antes de avaliá-lo, medi-lo, primeiramente, foi necessário tematizá-lo, em diálogo aberto com quem participou do Programa. Resultados: o impacto que ressoou tem a ver com a convocação ao movimento; o borramento de fronteiras disciplinares; a produção de outras possibilidades aos saberes e fazeres, e no deslocamentos nos modos de ser profissional, docente e discente. O impacto se mostrou no entre, nos novos pactos postos a funcionar. Nesta perspectiva, foi necessário apurar os sentidos para encontrá-lo, para perceber o que ressoa como efeito do encontro. Conclusões: Uma vez assim, uma “pesquisa de impacto” não atesta este ou qualquer programa ou política, ela cartografa movimentos. Oimpacto seria relativo àquilo que resta inacabado: não o que aconteceu, mas aquilo que entrou em acontecimento, em construção de realidades possíveis, imprevisíveis, invisíveis e inaudíveis, que ao entrarem em movimento produzem realidades, im.pactos.

Factors associated with post-diagnosis pregnancies in women living with HIV in the south of Brazil

Objectives

To analyze the factors associated with the occurrence of pregnancies after the diagnosis of infection by HIV.

Methods

Cross-sectional study with women of a reproductive age living with HIV/AIDS cared for in the public services of the city of Porto Alegre, in southern Brazil. The data was analyzed from a comparison between two groups: women with and women without pregnancies after the diagnosis of HIV. Poisson regression models were used to estimate the reasons of prevalence (RP).

Results

The occurrence of pregnancies after the diagnosis of HIV is associated with a lower level of education (RP adjusted = 1.31; IC95%: 1.03–1.66), non-use of condoms in the first sexual intercourse (RP = 1.32; IC95%: 1.02–1.70), being 20 years old or less when diagnosed with HIV (RP = 3.48; IC95%: 2.02–6.01), and experience of violence related to the diagnosis of HIV (RP = 1.28; IC95%: 1.06–1.56).

Conclusions

The occurrence of pregnancies after the diagnosis of infection by HIV does not indicate the exercise of the reproductive rights of the women living with HIV/AIDS because these pregnancies occurred in contexts of great vulnerability.

Statistical methods for analysing Barthel scores in trials of poststroke interventions: a review and computer simulations

Background and purpose: Arguments persist as to whether parametric or nonparametric methods should be used to analyse ordinal data in trials. This paper aims to assess methods used for presenting and analysing an ordinal scale, the Barthel Index, in trials of poststroke interventions.

Methods: All randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of poststroke interventions published from 1995 to 2004 in two journals (Strokeand Clinical Rehabilitation) were scrutinized for methods used to present and analyse Barthel scores. Computer simulations were used to compare the type I errors and the statistical power of different statistical methods under a range of assumed circumstances.

Results: One hundred and fifty-six RCTs were identified within the two journals. The central tendency of Barthel scores was measured by the median in 47 trials and by the mean in 35 trials. Non-parametric analyses of Barthel scores were conducted in 47 trials and parametric methods used in 18 trials. The results of computer simulations demonstrate that the t-test has a similar type I error rate and statistical power when compared with the rank sum test. However, when a zero final Barthel score is assigned to patients who have died, the statistical power of the t-test is much reduced. The possible maximal statistical power of dichotomization and ordinal regression is usually much lower than that of the rank sum test.

Conclusions: To facilitate comparison and meta-analysis, we recommend that mean values (with standard deviations or standard errors) of Barthel scores should be routinely reported in trials of poststroke interventions. The rank sum test appears the most powerful inferential technique for detecting differences in Barthel scores.

[Development and validation of a social vulnerability index applied to public policies of the Unified Health System (SUS)]

The article outlines the development and initial validation of a Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) including five social determinants of risk to health and demonstrates its application in the financing of primary care by the Unified Health System (SUS) in the State of Rio Grande do Sul. Municipal indicators of vulnerability relating to poverty and population dispersion were obtained from the 2010 population census of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis suggests that the five items can constitute a reliable and acceptable measurement scale. The SVI-5 was then generated based on the first main component, measuring municipal inequalities in social vulnerability relating to poverty and population in the territory in Z-scores. The external validity of SVI-5 was examined in relation to health outcomes using DATASUS 2007-2011 data, revealing that infant mortality and hospitalizations for conditions treatable by primary care are greater in more vulnerable municipalities The results suggest that the SVI-5 is a valid measure of inequalities in social vulnerability between municipalities, applicable to socially equitable policies in health.

Socioeconomic and regional inequalities of pap smear coverage

Objectives To identify socioeconomic and regional inequalities of pap smear coverage in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. Methods An ecological study based on data of the 2011-2012 national health information system to estimate the annual coverage of pap smears for the overall female population of the state and for women without private health insurance. We estimated annual pap smear coverage according to the Municipal Social Vulnerability Index and health macro-regions and regions of the state. Results The percentage of women without private health insurance ranged from 38.1% to 94.2% in the health regions. Pap smear coverage was 17.3% for the overall female population and 23.8% for women without private health insurance. Pap smear coverage was higher in more socially vulnerable municipalities and regions with a higher percentage of women with private health insurance. Conclusions The prevalence of private health insurance should be considered in studies that address the coverage of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS).

The Scale of Self-Efficacy Expectations of Adherence to Antiretroviral Treatment: A Tool for Identifying Risk for Non-Adherence to Treatment for HIV

Background

Identification of risk for non-adherence to treatment is a challenge for personalized care for people living with HIV. Standardized questionnaires of patients’ expectations of their capability to overcome obstacles for treatment adherence may be used as a pre-screening for risk identification. A scale of self-efficacy expectations of adherence to antiretroviral treatment (SEA-ART scale) was previously developed. This study assesses the scale validity in predicting non-adherence to ART in adults living with HIV.

Methods and Findings

A prospective cohort study applied a 21-item SEA-ART scale to 275 adults in ART treatment at an outpatient public service for HIV in Southern Brazil. ART medications taken were assessed at one-month follow-up; ART adherence was devised as an intake of 95% and more of the prescribed medication. A SEA-ART score was calculated by adding up the scores of all items. Multivariable logistic regression and the Area Under the Receiver-Operating-Characteristic Curve (AUROC) were applied to examine the ability of the SEA-ART score to predict non-adherence at follow-up. The SEA-ART score varied from 21 to 105; mean 93.9; median 103.0. Non-adherence was 30.3% (n = 81/267). The odds of non-adherence was 8% lower for each unit increase of the SEA-ART score; after adjustment for age, sex, formal education and time in treatment (OR = 0.92; 95%CI 0.90–0.95; LRT for linear trend, p = 0.002). The AUROC was 0.80 (95%CI 0.73–0.87; p<0.001). The SEA-ART optimal cut-off value was 101, providing a sensitivity of 76.5%, a specificity of 73.1%, a positive predictive value of 55.4% and a negative predictive value of 87.7%. There was no evidence of difference in sensitivity, and specificity among groups organized by age, gender, formal education and time in treatment.

Conclusions

The SEA-ART scale appears to have a good capacity to discriminate between adherents and non-adherents at one-month follow-up. Further studies should confirm these results in other populations.

Tematizar o impacto na educação pelo trabalho em saúde: abrir gavetas, enunciar perguntas, escrever

O tema do impacto, frequente na discussão envolvendo políticas públicas de saúde, foi tomado em consideração. Ponderou-se o Programa de Educação pelo Trabalho para a Saúde, incentivo político-financeiro do Ministério da Saúde, para questionar o dimensionamento da integração ensino-serviço. Pretendeu-se instigar ao pensamento, não apresentar métodos e técnicas, entretanto, usou-se um programa orientado pela ação das redes de atenção e objeto de um estudo de impacto. O objetivo foi contribuir com uma espécie de diálogo aberto, levantando questões e apontando a importância de uma rede de pensamento. O impacto, tornado uma pergunta, foi o impulsionador, concluindo-se que faz-se necessário: abrir gavetas (problematizar concepções de base), enunciar perguntas (acolher desafios inovadores) e escrever (elaborar raciocínios disruptores), de modo que uma pesquisa, análise, ou avaliação lance problemas, desafios e disrupturas quando se quer novos arranjos de conhecimentos e práticas.

Maternal perception and attitudes regarding healthcare professionals' guidelines on feeding practices in the child's first year of life

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the maternal perceptions and attitudes related to adherence to healthcare professionals' guidelines on breastfeeding and complementary feeding, and associated factors.

METHODS

A cross-sectional analysis of data from a randomized field trial was performed, in which 20 health centers (HCs) were selected in the city of Porto Alegre, state of Rio Grande do Sul, from eight Health Management Districts of the city. Pregnant women were selected from these HCs, and when the children were aged between six and nine months, data regarding the maternal perception of adherence to professional advice and consequences of feeding practices on child health were obtained during home visits. Association analyses were performed using Poisson regression.

RESULTS

Data were collected from 631 mother-child binomials. According to the mothers' perception, 47% reported not following instructions received in the HU. Among these, 45.7% did not recognize the importance of eating habits for the child's health. The perception of adherence to professional advice was associated with higher prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF), introduction of solid food (ISF) after four months, introduction of non-recommended foods after six months, and higher family income. A higher prevalence of EBF and ISF was observed after four months (p < 0.05) among mothers who believed in the importance of feeding habits for the child's health.

CONCLUSION

There was a high prevalence of mothers who did not follow the advice of health professionals; the perception that food does not affect the child's health can be a barrier to the improvement of eating habits in childhood.

Academic detailing and adherence to guidelines for Group B streptococci prenatal screening: a randomized controlled trial

Background

Clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) recommend universal prenatal screening for Group B Streptococcus (GBS) to identify candidates for intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent early onset neonatal GBS infection. Interventions to promote physician adherence to these guidelines are imperative. This study examined the effectiveness of academic detailing (AD) of obstetricians, compared with CPG mailshot and no intervention, on the screening of pregnant women for GBS.

Methods

A randomized controlled clinical trial was conducted in the medical cooperative of Porto Alegre, Brazil. All obstetricians who assisted in a delivery covered by private health insurance managed by the cooperative in the 3 months preceding the study (n = 241) were invited to participate. The obstetricians were randomized to three groups: direct mail (DM, n = 76), AD (n = 76) and control (C, n = 89, no intervention). Those in the DM group were sent guidelines on GBS. The AD group received the guidelines and an educational visit detailing the guidelines, which was conducted by a trained physician. Data on obstetrician age, gender, time since graduation, whether patients received GBS screening during pregnancy, and obstetricians who requested screening were collected for all participant obstetricians for 3 months before and after the intervention, using database from the private health insurance information system.

Results

Three months post-intervention, the data showed that the proportion of pregnant women screened for GBS was higher in the AD group (25.4%) than in the DM (15.9%) and C (17.7%) groups (P = 0.023). Similar results emerged when the three groups were taken as a cluster (pregnant women and their obstetricians), but the difference was not statistically significant (Poisson regression, P = 0.108). Additionally, when vaginal deliveries were analyzed separately, the proportion screened was higher in the AD group (75%) than in the DM group (41.9%) and the C group (30.4%) (chi-square, P < 0.001).

Conclusions

The results suggest that AD increased the prevalence of GBS screening in pregnant women in this population.

A Disease Register for ME/CFS: Report of a Pilot Study

Background

The ME/CFS Disease Register is one of six subprojects within the National ME/CFS Observatory, a research programme funded by the Big Lottery Fund and sponsored by Action for ME. A pilot study in East Anglia, East Yorkshire, and London aimed to address the problem of identifying representative groups of subjects for research, in order to be able to draw conclusions applicable to the whole ME/CFS population.

While not aiming for comprehensive population coverage, this pilot register sought to recruit participants with ME/CFS in an unbiased way from a large population base. Those recruited are constituting a cohort for long-term follow-up to shed light on prognosis, and a sampling frame for other studies.

Findings

Patients with unidentified chronic fatigue were identified in GP databases using a READ-code based algorithm, and conformity to certain case definitions for ME/CFS determined. 29 practices, covering a population aged 18 to 64 of 143,153, participated.

510 patients with unexplained chronic fatigue were identified. 265 of these conformed to one or more case definitions. 216 were invited to join the register; 160 agreed. 96.9% of participants conformed to the CDC 1994 (Fukuda) definition; the Canadian definition defined more precisely a subset of these. The addition of an epidemiological case definition increased case ascertainment by approximately 4%. A small-scale study in a specialist referral service in East Anglia was also undertaken.

There was little difference in pattern of conformity to case definitions, age or sex among disease register participants compared with subjects in a parallel epidemiological study who declined to participate.

One-year follow-up of 50 subjects showed little change in pain or fatigue scores. There were some changes in conformity to case definitions.

Conclusions

Objective evaluation indicated that the aim of recruiting participants with ME/CFS to a Disease Register had been fulfilled, and confirmed the feasibility of our approach to case identification, data processing, transmission, storage, and analysis. Future developments should include expansion of the ME/CFS Register and its linkage to a tissue sample bank and post mortem tissue archive, to facilitate support for further research studies.

The Psychosocial Treatment Expectations Questionnaire (PTEQ) for Alcohol Problems

High dropout rates from treatment for alcohol-related problems are a problem for treatment delivery. Outcome expectations of treatment attendance are motivational aspects of treatment adherence. Since no method to put such expectations into operation has been found, we developed the Psychosocial Treatment Expectations Questionnaire (PTEQ) to assess the expectations of people receiving such psychosocial treatments. PTEQ development and early validation relied on data from 151 clients. A two-dimensional questionnaire assessing treatment purpose and atmosphere, and impact on daily life was developed, showing acceptable levels of reliability (α = 0.85 for the overall score, and 0.80 and 0.77 for the two scales, respectively). The PTEQ overall score significantly detected differences in expectations between those who remained in, and those who dropped out of treatment. On average, the dropouts had lower treatment expectations than those who remained in treatment. Validity for populations other than alcohol misusers and for treatments delivered exclusively through individual sessions, needs to be further examined.

Chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME) in adults: a qualitative study of perspectives from professional practice

BACKGROUND

Chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME) can cause profound and prolonged illness and disability, and poses significant problems of uncertainty for healthcare professionals in its diagnosis and management. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore the nature of professional 'best practice' in working with people with CFS/ME.

METHODS

The views and experiences of health care practitioners (HCPs) were sought, who had been judged by people with CFS/ME themselves to have been particularly helpful and effective. Qualitative semi-structured interviews following a topic guide were carried out with six health care practitioners. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and subject to thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Five main themes were developed: 1) Diagnosis; 2) Professional perspectives on living with CFS/ME; 3) Interventions for treatment and management; 4) Professional values and support for people with CFS/ME and their families; 5) Health professional roles and working practices. Key findings related to: the diagnostic process, especially the degree of uncertainty which may be shared by primary care physicians and patients alike; the continued denial in some quarters of the existence of CFS/ME as a condition; the variability, complexity, and serious impact of the condition on life and living; the onus on the person with CFS/ME to manage their condition, supported by HCPs; the wealth of often conflicting and confusing information on the condition and options for treatment; and the vital role of extended listening and trustful relationships with patients.

CONCLUSIONS

While professional frustrations were clearly expressed about the variability of services both in primary and specialist care and continuing equivocal attitudes to CFS/ME as a condition, there were also strong positive messages for people with CFS/ME where the right services are in place. Many of the findings from these practitioners seen by their patients as helping them more effectively, accord with the existing literature identifying the particular importance of listening skills, respect and trust for establishing a therapeutic relationship which recognises key features of the patient trajectory and promotes effective person-centred management of this complex condition. These findings indicate the need to build such skills and knowledge more systematically into professional training informed by the experience of specialist services and those living with the condition.

Long-term effectiveness of a nutritional program in reducing early childhood caries: a randomized trial

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effectiveness of home visits advising mothers about healthy feeding practices during the first year of life on the occurrence of early childhood caries and severe early childhood caries at 4 years of age.

METHODS

We conducted a parallel randomized trial of mothers of single, full-term children with birthweight > or = 2500g in São Leopoldo, Brazil. The intervention group received monthly advice up to 6 months and then at 8, 10 and 12 months by undergraduate nutrition students, based on the "Ten Steps for Healthy Feeding'', a Brazilian national health policy for primary care based on World Health Organization guidelines. The primary outcome was the occurrence of early childhood caries at age four. Secondary outcomes included the occurrence of severe early childhood caries and the number of affected teeth: decayed (white spots and cavities), missing and filled teeth (d(1+)mft). Blinded observers ascertained feeding habits in the home and one blinded dentist performed dental examinations in a municipal clinic. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00629629.

RESULTS

Of 500 mother-child pairs (200 intervention, 300 control) enrolled, 340 (141 intervention, 199 control) completed 4 year follow-up. As 138 (69.3%) controls but only 76 (53.9%) intervention children had early childhood caries, home counseling reduced incidence by 22% (RR 0.78; 95% CI 0.65-0.93). Severe early childhood caries incidence was reduced by 32% (RR 0.68; 95% CI 050-0.92). The mean number of affected teeth was lower for the intervention group (3.25) compared with the control group (4.15) (Mann Whitney U-test; p=0.023). No adverse effects were noted.

CONCLUSIONS

Home nutritional advice during the first year of life decreases caries incidence and severity at four years of age in a low income community.

The expressed needs of people with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

We aimed to review systematically the needs for support in managing illness and maintaining social inclusion expressed by people with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME) METHODS: We carried out a systematic review of primary research and personal ('own') stories expressing the needs of people with CFS/ME. Structured searches were carried out on Medline, AMED, CINAHL, EMBASE, ASSIA, CENTRAL, and other health, social and legal databases from inception to November 2007. Study inclusion, data extraction and risk of bias were assessed independently in duplicate. Expressed needs were tabulated and a conceptual framework developed through an iterative process.

RESULTS

Thirty two quantitative and qualitative studies, including the views of over 2500 people with CFS/ME with mainly moderate or severe illness severity, met the inclusion criteria. The following major support needs emerged: 1) The need to make sense of symptoms and gain diagnosis, 2) for respect and empathy from service providers, 3) for positive attitudes and support from family and friends, 4) for information on CFS/ME, 5) to adjust views and priorities, 6) to develop strategies to manage impairments and activity limitations, and 7) to develop strategies to maintain/regain social participation.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the studies were heterogeneous, there was consistent evidence that substantial support is needed to rebuild lives. Gaining support depends - most importantly - on the ability of providers of health and social care, colleagues, friends and relatives, and those providing educational and leisure services, to understand and respond to those needs.

MOTIVAÇÃO DE PACIENTES HOSPITALIZADOS PARA EVITAR O CONSUMO EXCESSIVO DE BEBIDAS ALCOÓLICAS

Esta pesquisa visou a determinar as variáveis associadas à motivação de pacientes hospitalizados para evitaro consumo excessivo de bebidas alcoólicas. Trata-se de um estudo transversal, do qual participaram 1.050 pacientes dosexo masculino com idade entre 21 e 70 anos, internados em três hospitais da cidade de Pelotas, no período de 1° denovembro de 2000 a 15 de junho de 2001. A coleta dos dados foi realizada através da aplicação de questionários. Osachados revelaram que 180 pacientes eram bebedores excessivos, predominando, entre eles, as pessoas com menor poderaquisitivo e elevada faixa etária. Já os mais jovens mostraram-se pouco motivados para evitar tal hábito; por esse motivo,tal grupo deve ser considerado alvo prioritário das intervenções realizadas pelos profissionais de saúde, a fim de possibilitarsua sensibilização quanto aos transtornos ocasionados pelo abuso do álcool.

Inequalities in cesarean delivery rates by ethnicity and hospital accessibility in Brazil

OBJECTIVE

To investigate inequalities in cesarean delivery rates in Brazil according to ethnic group and level of access to hospital delivery.

METHODS

Cross-sectional analysis of data for primiparous women with singleton deliveries between 2003 and 2004 from the National Information System of Live-Births (6,064,799 live births). Robust Poisson regression modeling was applied to estimate prevalence ratios of cesarean deliveries for ethnic group and level of access to hospital delivery according to residence.

RESULTS

There were 2,438,180 primiparous deliveries and the cesarean rate was 45.8%. Ethnic inequalities in cesarean delivery rates showed lower rates for all ethnic groups compared with white women, with the lowest rates recorded for indigenous women. The association between ethnicity and cesarean delivery was higher in states with lower access to hospital (P<0.001). Multiple regression models showed that this association was, in part, explained by older maternal age and higher levels of education and prenatal care.

CONCLUSIONS

Overuse of cesarean delivery and strong evidence of ethnic inequalities in cesarean rates exist in Brazil. The inequalities are greater in states with lower access to hospital and were partially explained by socioeconomic factors and prenatal care, suggesting a misuse of medical technology at birth.

Some risk factors associated with overweight, stunting and wasting among children under 5 years old

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether socioeconomic and sanitary conditions, maternal and child factors are associated with overweight, stunting, and wasting in children under five year old in the city of São Leopoldo, southern Brazil.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study of 3,957 children aged 1 month to 5 years conducted in all primary care services of the city during the National Children's Vaccination Day in 2002. Maternal and child factors were assessed by a questionnaire. Children's height and weight were measured. Cluster analysis was used to group the areas served by the primary care services according to socioeconomic and sanitary conditions of the census tracts assessed by the 2001 National Census.

RESULTS

Wasting was observed in 2.6% of children, stunting in 9.1% and overweight in 9.8%. The multivariable logistic regression model suggests that overweight was associated with higher socioeconomic status and better sanitation of the area (OR = 1.47; 95%CI 1.09-1.96), single child (OR = 1.44; 95%CI 1.00-2.07) and birth weight >or= 2,500 g (OR = 2.21; 95%CI 1.27-3.83). Wasting was associated with low birth weight (OR = 3.46; 95%CI 2.06-5.80) and mother's age < 20 years (OR = 1.99; 95%CI 1.09-3.62). Stunting was associated with low socioeconomic status and poor sanitation of the area (OR = 2.36; 95%CI 1.51-3.69), three or more siblings (OR = 3.12; 95%CI 2.18-4.47), low birth weight < 2,500 g (OR = 3.49; 95%CI 2.53-4.80), child age < 36 months (OR = 1.77; 95%CI 1.37-2.29) and mother's age < 20 years (OR = 1.60; 95%CI 1.09-2.35).

CONCLUSIONS

Overweight and stunting were the major anthropometric problems and therefore should be a priority for public policies.

Development and preliminary validation of a measure for assessing staff perspectives on the quality of clinical group supervision

BACKGROUND

In the UK clinical supervision is regarded as an essential process supporting quality improvement within the clinical governance framework, and the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists regards it as a tool for promoting critical reflective practice. There is limited evidence of the impact on practice or improvements in healthcare quality, and the need for an evaluation instrument specifically tailored to group supervision.

AIMS

To develop a measure for assessing staff perspectives on the quality of clinical group supervision and its impact on the quality of care.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

A self-completion questionnaire was devised to measure staff perceptions of purpose, process and impact of clinical group supervision. Items were developed through an inductive process of consultation, peer and literature review. The questionnaire's content validity was assessed. The questionnaire was then administered to 57 subjects who had received approximately 1 year of clinical supervision to evaluate acceptability, factor structure and convergent validity.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

Response rates were 91% (52/57). Principal component factor analysis suggested a three-factor structure, the first three factors accounting for 72.4% of the total variance. Items loaded appropriately onto purpose, process and impact. These three dimensions were positively and moderately correlated. Internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.86) indicated that the 14 items could be regarded as a scale. The overall CSEQ score was positively correlated with a single question assessing 'general opinion' about the CS program (Spearman's rho = 0.79, p < 0.001) giving evidence for convergent validity.

CONCLUSIONS

The questionnaire is concise, easy to complete and simple to analyse, and appears to be a reliable and valid measure of staff perceptions of quality of clinical group supervision. Further studies with larger sample sizes and including other groups of health professionals are needed to confirm the validity and reliability of the CSEQ.

Effects of the home environment on unintentional domestic injuries and related health care attendance in infants

AIMS

To examine the effects of the home environment on unintentional domestic injuries and related health care attendance in infants from deprived families.

METHODS

Ten mechanisms that caused unintentional domestic injury during the first year were investigated in a population-based study of 1-year-old children in southern Brazil. Odds ratios of injury-related health care attendance were estimated by number of injury mechanisms reported. Variation in number of mechanisms (in the whole sample) and odds ratios of care attendance (in children with reported injuries) were estimated for socioeconomic and psychosocial variables.

RESULTS

Among all children (394) 86% had injuries; 10.9% care attendance and 0.5% hospitalisation were reported, and 14.5% presented dental trauma. Injury-related care attendance increased with the number of injury mechanisms (linear trend OR = 1.34, 95% CI = 1.09-1.66). In multivariable linear regression, injury mechanisms increased with the number of home hazards (p = 0.047) and decreased with duration of exclusive breastfeeding (p = 0.039), maternal involvement-responsiveness (p = 0.037) and mother's paid work (p = 0.018). Injury-related health care attendance among children with reported injuries was positively associated with maternal involvement-responsiveness (OR = 2.27, 95% CI = 1.11-4.67) and home organization (OR = 2.25, 95% CI = 1.09-4.65).

CONCLUSION

Injury control can benefit from policy and practice that improve housing, reduce home hazards and promote breastfeeding, maternal bonds, safety practices and injury care.

A randomized trial of the effectiveness of home visits in preventing early childhood caries

OBJECTIVES

Assess the effectiveness of home visits for advising mothers about breast feeding and weaning on early childhood caries (ECC) at the age of 12 months.

METHODS

A randomized field trial was conducted in mothers who gave birth within the public health system in the Brazilian city of Sao Leopoldo (intervention group = 200; controls = 300). The intervention group received the advice 10 days after the child's birth, monthly up to 6 months, at 8, 10 and 12 months, based on the 'Ten Steps for Healthy Feeding', a Brazilian national health policy for primary care, based on WHO guidelines. Both groups had research assessment at 6 and 12 months, with dental caries investigated in this last assessment; 122 children were lost in the 1-year follow-up; 378 were assessed for caries: two predentulous children were excluded from the analysis. Mann-Whitney U was used to test if the average number of decayed surfaces (DS; white spots and cavities) differed between the intervention and control groups, and logistic regression to estimate the effects of the intervention on the odds of ECC. Chi-square test was used to test for differences between the intervention and control groups in the distribution of feeding behaviours tackled by the dietary intervention.

RESULTS

10.2% of the children in the intervention group and 18.3% of the controls had caries. The odds of caries was 48% lower for the intervention group, adjusted for number of teeth (OR = 0.52, 95% CI = 0.27-0.97). Mean DS were lower for the intervention group (0.37) when compared with the control group (0.63), (Mann-Whitney U, P = 0.03). The intervention group had significantly longer duration of exclusive breast feeding (P = 0.000), later introduction of sugar (P = 0.005), and smaller probability of ever having eaten biscuits (P = 0.000), honey (P = 0.003), soft drinks (P = 0.02), fromage-frais (P = 0.001), chocolate and sweets (P = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

ECC is a public health problem in that population. The home visits for dietary advice appear to help reducing dental caries in infants. Greater efforts are needed to tackle cariogenic dietary behaviours even further, as a relevant proportion of children of the intervention group were shown to present with dental caries. Further studies should examine the effect of the intervention in the longer term.

Depressão e suas implicações no aleitamento materno

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a prevalência de sintomas depressivos num grupo de mães de crianças entre 12 e 16 meses do município de São Leopoldo (RS) e suas associações com tempo de aleitamento materno e aspectos do desenvolvimento da criança. MÉTODO: Foram avaliadas 263 mães de crianças recrutadas ao nascimento em uma maternidade que atende população de baixo nível socioeconômico. Os sintomas depressivos foram avaliados por meio do Inventário para Depressão de Beck. RESULTADOS: Foi observado que 35,7% das mães apresentaram sintomas de depressão. Quanto à classificação, 18,3% apresentaram depressão leve, 11%, depressão moderada, e 6,5%, grave. As mães sem companheiros (razão de prevalência - RP = 1,70; IC95% = 1,20-2,38) e provenientes de famílias não-nucleares apresentaram mais sintomas depressivos (RP = 1,38; IC95% = 0,99-1,92). As freqüências de aleitamento materno exclusivo por 6 meses (RP = 1,86; IC95% = 0,94-3,68) e aleitamento materno aos 12 meses (RP = 1,80; IC95% = 1,26-2,58) foram maiores no grupo de mães sem sintomas depressivos. CONCLUSÃO: É necessária maior atenção à saúde mental das mulheres, considerando a alta prevalência de sintomas depressivos nessa população e a forte associação com o menor tempo de aleitamento materno.

A continuous-scale measure of child development for population-based epidemiological surveys: a preliminary study using Item Response Theory for the Denver Test

A method for translating research data from the Denver Test into individual scores of developmental status measured in a continuous scale is presented. It was devised using the Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST) but can be used for Denver II. The DDST was applied in a community-based survey of 3389 under-5-year-olds in Porto Alegre, Brazil. The items of success were standardised by logistic regression on log chronological age. Each child's ability age was then estimated by maximum likelihood as the age in this reference population corresponding to the child's success and failures in the test. The score of developmental status is the natural logarithm of this ability age divided by chronological age and thus measures the delay or advance in the child's ability age compared with chronological age. This method estimates development status using both difficulty and discriminating power of each item in the reference population, an advantage over scores based on total number of items correctly performed or failed, which depend on difficulty only. The score corresponds with maternal opinion of child developmental status and with the 3-category scale of the DDST. It shows good construct validity, indicated by symmetrical and homogeneous variability from 3 months upwards, and reasonable results in describing gender differences in development by age, the mean score increasing with socio-economic conditions and diminishing among low-birthweight children. If a standardised measure of development status (z-scores) is required, this can be obtained by dividing the score by its standard deviation. Concurrent and discriminant validity of the score must be examined in further studies.

Fatores de risco para a falência do transplante ortotópico de fígado no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil

Fatores de risco para falência do transplante ortotópico de fígado com doador cadáver foram investigados em estudo longitudinal retrospectivo com informações da Central Estadual de Transplantes e prontuário clínico de residentes no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, submetidos, após os 15 anos de idade, pela primeira vez, a esse transplante de janeiro de 1999 a julho de 2003 (n = 313). Houve 13% de falências (n = 41) no primeiro mês, 11% (n = 34) de 2 a 12 meses e 5% (n = 17) após esse período; 88% das falências resultaram em óbito, 12%, em retransplante. Nos modelos multivariados, a taxa de falência foi maior para renda familiar menor que dez salários-mínimos, idade maior que 45 anos, cor não branca, mau estado geral à época do transplante e doador com 56 anos ou mais. Gênero feminino evidenciou efeito apenas no modelo bruto, perdendo o efeito no modelo multivariado. Apoio social, com complementação de renda e pronto diagnóstico com ingresso na lista em boas condições clínicas, pode favorecer o sucesso do transplante hepático.

Estado nutricional e fatores associados à estatura de crianças da Terra Indígena Guarita, Sul do Brasil

O estado nutricional de crianças menores de cinco anos e fatores associados à estatura foram estudados usando dados de um programa para controle da desnutrição e mortalidade na Terra Indígena Guarita, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, 2001/2002. Índices antropométricos foram calculados em escores-z da referência CDC/2000. Na primeira avaliação pelo programa, 34,7%, das crianças apresentavam baixa estatura, 12,9% baixo peso para idade, 4,2% baixo peso para estatura e 8,7% sobrepeso. Baixa estatura foi mais prevalente em meninos e maiores de um ano. Modelos de regressão linear múltipla sugerem que a altura foi, em média, menor quando a água para alimentação era de fonte/poço/rio (p = 0,046), não havia geladeira para conservar alimentos (p = 0,021), a mãe era menor de 16 anos ao nascimento do mais velho entre os filhos menores de cinco anos (p = 0,019) e analfabeta (p = 0,083). O destino dos dejetos evidenciou efeito apenas no modelo bruto. Não houve evidência de efeito do número de filhos menores de cinco anos. Políticas de inclusão social e provisão de recursos sociais e de saúde são potencialmente relevantes para a saúde e nutrição nessa população.

Impactos da implementação dos dez passos da alimentação saudável para crianças: ensaio de campo randomizado

Efeitos de uma intervenção baseada na implementação dos Dez Passos para uma Alimentação Saudável: Guia Alimentar para Crianças Menores de Dois Anos sobre as condições nutricionais e de saúde de lactentes em famílias de baixa renda. Randomizou-se duzentos recém-nascidos para o grupo intervenção e trezentos para o grupo controle. O grupo intervenção recebeu orientações dietéticas no primeiro ano de vida. Os dois grupos receberam visitas aos 6 e 12 meses e acompanhamento de rotina pelos seus pediatras. Os resultados (n = 397) mostraram que a intervenção associou-se a maior proporção de aleitamento materno exclusivo aos 4 meses (RR = 1,58; IC95%: 1,21-2,06) e 6 meses (RR = 2,34; IC95%: 1,37-3,99) e amamentadas aos 12 meses (RR = 1,26; IC95%: 1,02-1,55) e a menor proporção de crianças que apresentaram diarréia (RR = 0,68; IC95%: 0,51-0,90), problemas respiratórios (RR = 0,63; IC95%: 0,46-0,85), uso de medicamentos (RR = 0,56; IC95%: 0,34-0,91) e cárie dental (RR = 0,56; IC95%: 0,32-0,96) na faixa etária de 12 a 16 meses. Não houve efeito da intervenção sobre a ocorrência de anemia, internações hospitalares e estado nutricional. Os resultados sugerem que o programa de orientações dietéticas promoveu modificações positivas nas práticas alimentares e nas condições de saúde da criança, porém foi insuficiente para prevenir a anemia ferropriva.

Desigualdade social nas taxas de cesariana em primíparas no Rio Grande do Sul

OBJETIVO: Investigar o efeito das desigualdades sociais nas taxas de cesariana em primíparas, com gravidez única e parto hospitalar. MÉTODOS: Estudo realizado no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul em 1996, 1998 e 2000. Foram utilizados dados do Sistema de Informação de Nascidos Vivos no cálculo das taxas anuais e das razões de chance de cesariana (RC) brutas e ajustadas para condições sociais (escolaridade e idade maternas, etnia/cor da pele e macro-regional de saúde), duração da gestação e número de consultas pré-natal. RESULTADOS: A taxa de cesarianas foi de 45%, e acima de 37% para todas as macro-regionais. As taxas aumentaram entre: mulheres de etnia indígena e negra, mulheres com mais de 30 anos, residentes nas macro-regiões Metropolitana, Vales e Serra, e com mais de seis consultas no pré-natal. Razões brutas e ajustadas indicaram taxas negativamente associadas para todas as categorias de etnia/cor, quando comparadas à cor branca da pele do recém-nascido, em especial para etnia indígena (RCaj=0,43; IC 95%: 0,31-0,59), positivamente associadas à escolaridade (RCaj=3,52; IC 95%: 3,11-3,99) e idade maternas mais elevadas (RCaj=6,87; IC 95%: 5,90-8,00), e maior número de consultas pré-natal (RCaj=2,16; IC 95%: 1,99-2,35). Os efeitos de idade e escolaridade mostraram estar parcialmente mediados pelo maior número de consultas pré-natal nas mulheres com idade e escolaridade mais elevadas. As taxas variaram entre as macro-regionais, sendo maiores na região da Serra, economicamente mais rica. CONCLUSÕES: Altas taxas de cesariana no sul do Brasil constituem problema de saúde pública e estão associadas a fatores sociais, econômicos e culturais, os quais podem levar ao mau-uso da tecnologia médica na atenção ao parto.

Social inequalities in maternal opinion of child development in southern Brazil

AIMS AND METHODS

Concurrent validity of maternal opinion of child development was estimated in a cross-sectional, population-based survey of 6-59-mo children (n=3025), using a standard measure devised from the Denver Developmental Screening Test.

RESULTS

Sensitivity, specificity and negative predictive value increased with maternal education and family income. Positive predictive value was higher in low-income families and children with impairments, low birthweight and long hospital stays.

CONCLUSION

Children at social and clinical risk should be assessed more carefully, even if maternal report is normal or advanced.

Eqüidade na alocação de recursos para a saúde: a experiência do estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil

O artigo analisa a distribuição de recursos, estabelecida pela política de Municipalização Solidária da Saúde (MSS) da Secretaria de Estado da Saúde do Rio Grande do Sul (SES/RS) ao examinar sua potencialidade de desconcentrar recursos, conforme o tamanho da população residente e o nível de desenvolvimento humano municipal, o período analisado foi o ano de 2001. A partir da adoção dos critérios, verifica-se um deslocamento de recursos financeiros para municípios com menor concentração populacional que obtiveram em seus Fundos Municipais de Saúde recursos em valores até então não captados pelas outras formas de financiamento da saúde, ocorrendo uma desconcentração de recursos. Para avaliar se a política da MSS beneficiou os municípios em piores condições socioeconômicas, utilizou-se o Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano - Municipal (IDH-M), que no Rio Grande do Sul apresenta pequenas variações (apenas municípios com IDH-M médio e alto. Mesmo assim, verificou-se que a política de MSS prevê a distribuição de metade dos recursos para 34% da população dos municípios com os menores índices do IDH-M, apontando a grande capacidade desta política para a desconcentração de recursos aos municípios que necessitam ter potencializados seus serviços de saúde para a melhoria das condições de vida da população.

Determinants of growth retardation in Southern Brazil

A cross-sectional population-based study of determinants of growth retardation in under-five children (3,389) in the city of Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil estimated odds ratios (OR) for stunting, defined as height-for-age < -2 zeta-scores of the NCHS standards. Hierarchical modeling based on a framework of the process of stunting was used. Stunting prevalence was 6.8%; the main determinants were per capita family income < 0.8 times the minimum wage (OR: 3.95; 95%CI: 2.10-7.42), maternal illiteracy (OR: 17.17; 95%CI: 4.43-66.54), living in a wooden or mixed-construction house (OR: 2.33; 95%CI: 1.35-4.01), inadequate housing (OR: 2.75; 95%CI: 1.70-4.43), maternal age at the child's birth < 20 years (OR: 1.73; 95%CI: 1.11-2.70), being an adopted child (OR: 3.28; 95%CI: 1.52-7.07), third-born child or greater (OR: 2.04; 95%CI: 1.15-3.62), birth interval < 24 months since previous child (OR: 1.69; 95%CI: 1.13-2.53), subsequent sibling (OR: 1.91; 95%CI: 1.16-3.13), multiple birth (OR: 2.40; 95%CI: 1.04-5.50), low birth weight (OR: 3.79; 95%CI: 2.38-6.02), and hospitalization in the first year of life (OR: 1,65; 95%CI: 1.01-2.68). The findings can be used by primary healthcare services to design specific interventions to prevent stunting.

[Social inequalities and other determinants of height in children: a multi-level analysis]

A cross-sectional household survey of height among children under five years of age (n = 2,632) was conducted in the city of Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Multi-level linear regression was applied to investigate the effect of socioeconomic and demographic factors, physical and social environment, and health conditions on children s height, measured by the height-for-age z-scores of the National Center for Health Statistics standards. Area of residence (census tract) was classified as good versus poor in terms of housing and sanitation standards. On average, children s height was -0.18 z-score. Average height increased with maternal and paternal schooling, parents work skills, per capita family income, improved housing, maternal age, birth intervals, and birth weight. Height decreased with hospitalization in the first two years of life, number of under-five children in the household, and preterm birth. In the poor residential areas, the effect of maternal schooling was twice as great as in the better-off areas. The effect of parental work skills was only evident in the more deprived areas. Area of residence modified the effects of socioeconomic conditions on children s growth. Housing and sanitation programs are potentially beneficial to offset the negative effect of social disadvantage on children's growth.

[Risk factors for overweight in children from Southern Brazil]

Risk factors for overweight were investigated in a cross-sectional survey of children aged 12-59 months in the Southern Brazilian city of Porto Alegre (n = 2,660). Odds ratios (OR) for overweight, defined by weight/height > 2 z-scores of the NCHS standards, were estimated for socioeconomic and demographic conditions, social environment, and childhood health events. Prevalence of overweight was 6.5%. In the multivariate model, the odds of overweight were positively associated with maternal education (schooling > 12 years, OR = 2.36; 95%CI: 1.21-4.60; 9-11 years, OR = 2.07; 95%CI: 1.16-3.70) and family income per capita > 2 times the minimum wage (OR = 1.86; 95%CI: 1.13-3.08) and negatively associated with maternal work (OR = 0.72; 95%CI: 0.52-0.99). Odds were higher for children born large-for-gestational-age (OR = 2.29; 95%CI: 1.36-3.85) and lower for children born small (OR = 0.57; 95%CI: 0.33-0.99), as compared to those born with adequate birth weight for gestational age. Paternal schooling, parental occupation, and maternal age at the child's birth were associated with overweight in the unadjusted model only. Programs are needed to prevent overweight during childhood, with special attention to families and children at increased risk.

Characteristics of HIV antiretroviral regimen and treatment adherence

The relationship between characteristics of HIV antiretroviral regimens and treatment adherence was studied in adolescent and adult patients who underwent antiretroviral therapy from January 1998 to September 2000, at the Service for Specialized Assistance in Pelotas. The patients were interviewed on two occasions, and the use of antiretrovirals during the previous 48 hours was investigated by a self-report. Adherence was defined as use of 95% or more of the prescribed medication. Social-demographic variables were collected through direct questionnaires. The antiretroviral regimen and clinical data were copied from the patients' records. Associations between the independent variables and adherence were analyzed by means of logistic regression. The multivariate analysis included characteristics of the antiretroviral regimens, social-demographic variables, as well as perception of negative effects, negative physiological states, and adverse effects of the treatment. Among the 224 selected patients, 194 participated in our study. Their ages varied from 17 to 67 years; most patients were men, with few years of schooling and a low family income. Only 49% adhered to the treatment. Adherence to treatment regimens was reduced when more daily doses were indicated: three to four doses (odds ratio of adherence to treatment (OR)=0.47, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.22-1.01) and five to six (OR=0.24, 95% CI 0.09-0.62); two or more doses taken in a fasting state (OR=0.59, 95% CI 0.11-0.68), and for patients who reported adverse effects to the treatment (OR=0.39, 95% CI 0.19-0.77). Most of the regimens with more than two daily doses of medication included at least one dose apart from mealtimes. The results suggest that, if possible, regimens with a reduced number of doses should be chosen, with no compulsory fasting, and with few adverse effects. Strategies to minimize these effects should be discussed with the patients.

Proposta de metodologia para selecionar indicadores de desigualdade em saúde visando definir prioridades de políticas públicas no Brasil

Promover a saúde com eqüidade é um grande desafio para os gestores públicos. A magnitude das desigualdades sociais em saúde e os recursos escassos impõem que as prioridades para a gestão pública se fundamentem no conhecimento da situação de saúde e do impacto de políticas, programas, projetos e ações sobre a saúde e seus determinantes. Este artigo apresenta a proposta metodológica de construção e seleção de indicadores de desigualdades em saúde utilizada pela Pesquisa Avaliativa de Desigualdades em Saúde no Rio Grande do Sul (PADS-RS) para auxiliar a definição de prioridades para a gestão pública. Os indicadores foram construídos visando avaliar desigualdades em saúde como diferenças na qualidade de vida e capacidades humanas socialmente determinadas. A metodologia baseia-se em princípios de promoção ativa da eqüidade que orientam (1) o Sistema Único de Saúde Brasileiro, (2) as pesquisas avaliativas de desigualdades em saúde realizadas no Reino Unido e (3) o método RAWP (Resources Allocation Working Party) de alocação de recursos financeiros públicos em saúde entre regiões e considera as peculiaridades dos sistemas oficiais de informação no Estado e no Brasil.