Synthesis and characterization of a novel 18F-labeled 2,5-diarylnicotinamide derivative targeting orexin 2 receptor

Orexin 2 receptor (OX2R) is thought to play an important role in the arousal-promoting function, but its distribution and function in the pathophysiology of orexin-mediated disorders remains to be fully elucidated. In the present study, we synthesized and characterized a novel 18F-labeled 2,5-diarylnicotinamide (DAN) derivative as a potential positron emission tomography (PET) probe for in vivo imaging of OX2R. In in vitro binding experiments, [18F]DAN-1 selectively bound to OX2R. In a biodistribution study using normal mice, [18F]DAN-1 displayed moderate brain uptake (2.10% ID per g at 10 min post-injection). In addition, the radioactivity in the mouse brain at 30 min post-injection was significantly decreased by co-injection with nonradioactive DAN-1, but high nonspecific binding was observed. These results suggested that further structural modifications of [18F]DAN-1 are needed to use it for imaging OX2R in the brain.

Efficacy and toxicity profiles of two chemoradiotherapies for stage II laryngeal cancer - a comparison between late course accelerated hyperfractionation (LCAHF) and conventional fractionation (CF)

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the treatment results of late course accelerated hyperfractionation (LCAHF) compared with conventional fractionation (CF) for stage II laryngeal cancer.

METHODS

Fifty-nine consecutive patients treated for stage II laryngeal cancer were retrospectively reviewed. Thirty-two patients underwent LCAHF, twice-daily fractions during the latter half with a total dose of 69 Gy. Twenty-seven patients received CF of 70 Gy.

RESULTS

The local control rates (LCRs), overall survival (OS), and disease-specific survival (DSS) at 5 years were 80.6%, 74.0%, and 90.4%, respectively, after LCAHF and 64.7%, 68.2%, and 90.5%, respectively, after CF. There were no significant differences in LCR, OS, and DSS (p = .11, 0.68, and 0.69, respectively). In a small number of patients with supraglottic cancer, LCAHF was associated with a significantly higher LCR at 5 years compared with CF (100% vs. 41.7%; p = .02).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report that compared the results of LCAHF and CF for stage II laryngeal cancer. We could not find significant differences in LCR, DSS, and OS rates between LCAHF and CF groups. Although in a small number of patients with supraglottic cancer, LCAHF may improve the LCR compared with CF.

Systemic and Eosinophilic Lesions in Rats with Spontaneous Eosinophilia (mes Rats)

The mes rat is from an inbred mutant colony of rats with spontaneous eosinophilia. In order to investigate the pathogenesis of the mes rat, the histopathology and hematology for 76 mes rats were examined at several weeks of age. Tissue eosinophilia developed at 8 weeks of age when the blood eosinophil was 500 cells per microliter or more. Subsequently, eosinophilia progressed with age, and splenic eosinophilopoiesis and erythropoiesis appeared simultaneously. Many inflammatory lesions were induced after 10 weeks of age when the blood eosinophils became 1,000 cells per microliter or more. Gastroenteritis and mesenteric lymphadenitis were seen in 44 of 47 (94%) and 31 of 47 (66%) rats, respectively, after 10 weeks of age. Aortitis that deteriorated with age was found in 19 of 39 (49%) rats after 12 weeks of age. Hepatic fibrosis was found in four rats that exhibited severe eosinophilia and anemia. These results are comparable to the features of a hypereosinophilic syndrome in humans and other animals.

Haematological data for Matsumoto Eosinophilic Shinshu rats as determined by an automated haematology analyser

The Matsumoto Eosinophilic Shinshu (MES) rat originated from an inbred mutant colony of rats with spontaneous eosinophilia. As part of an investigation of the pathogenesis of the MES rat, we examined the haematology data for 106 males and 88 females and age-associated changes using an automated haematology analyser, flow cytometric analysis and morphological examination. The data at 10 weeks of age showed the MES rats had higher counts for eosinophils and neutrophils, slightly higher counts for lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils, and large unstained cells (LUCs), and slightly lower values for the erythrocytic parameters when compared with Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. In data for MES rats aged 8 to 20 weeks, eosinophil counts increased with age up to 20 weeks together with some increased neutrophil counts. After 11 weeks of age, counts for lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils, and LUCs in the MES rats were also slightly increased. In female MES rats, flow cytometric analysis showed increased counts for pan-T+ cells, but blasts, abnormal granulocytes and lymphocytes were not detected morphologically. The MES rat characterized by the haematological findings could be a useful animal model for studies of hypereosinophilia.

Effect of Lipopolysaccharide on the Progression of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in High Caloric Diet-Fed Mice

The incidence of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is increasing. Because gut microbiota have been highlighted as one of the key factors in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome, we investigated the involvement of the bacterial component in the progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) to NASH. C57BL/6 mice were fed with maintenance food (MF, groups A and B) or a high caloric diet (HCD, groups C and D) for 1 month. Mice were then divided into four groups: Groups A and C were inoculated with PBS, while groups B and D were inoculated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plus complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). The inoculations were performed a total of 3 times over 3 months. At 6 months, while hepatic steatosis was observed in groups C and D, cellular infiltration and fibrosis were less evident in group C than in group D. Inflammatory cytokines were upregulated in groups B and D. 16S rRNA pyrosequencing of whole colon homogenates containing faeces showed that certain bacterial groups, such as Bacteroidaceae, Peptostreptococcaceae and Erysipelotrichaceae, were increased in groups C and D. Although loading of bacterial components (LPS) resulted in hepatic inflammation in both MF- and HCD-fed mice, HCD feeding was more crucial in the progression of NAFL during the triggering phase.

Adhesive strength of bioactive oxide layers fabricated on TNTZ alloy by three different alkali-solution treatments

Bioactive oxide layers were fabricated on Ti-29Nb-13Ta-4.6Zr alloy (TNTZ) by three different alkali solution treatments: hydrothermal (H), electrochemical (E), and hydrothermal-electrochemical (HE). The adhesive strength of the oxide layer to the TNTZ substrate was measured to determine whether this process achieves sufficient adhesive strength for implant materials. Samples subjected to the HE process, in which a current of 15mA/cm(2) was applied at 90°C for 1h (HE90-1h), exhibited a comparatively higher adhesive strength of approximately 18MPa while still maintaining a sufficiently high bioactivity. Based on these results, an oxide layer fabricated on TNTZ by HE90-1h is considered appropriate for practical biomaterial application, though thicker oxide layers with many cracks can lead to a reduced adhesive strength.

Practical 3DCT imaging of the vestibular aqueduct for Meniere's disease

CONCLUSION

Radiographic visualization of the vestibular aqueduct (VA) from a lateral inside view was effective in assessing patients with Meniere's disease (MD). There were no VA shapes specific to MD on radiography, except for an obliterated VA. This technique could yield more accurate images and functional assessment of the VA for MD evaluation in a clinically useful and convenient manner, without requiring morphologic measurement.

OBJECTIVE

To visualize the detailed images of the VA using three-dimensional (3D) computed tomography (CT) and discuss its clinical utility in assessing MD.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The VAs in 13 healthy subjects and 25 MD patients, who were definitely diagnosed according to criteria described by the Committee on Hearing and Equilibrium of the American Academy of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS), were imaged from the medial and lateral sides using 3DCT and compared to conventional CT images.

RESULTS

Examination of the VA from both the lateral outside and inside views on 3DCT yielded more precise images than generated by conventional CT and could be useful to estimate the VA function. The estimated VA function in the MD ears was significantly abnormal compared to the function in healthy ears. An obliterated VA was characteristic of affected MD ears.

Site-specific analysis of B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas of the head and neck: A retrospective 10-year observation

CONCLUSION

B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (B-NHL) in the head and neck most commonly affected the oropharynx and the cervical lymph node in sexagenarian patients, with more than 70% of these cases being diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). Accordingly, B-NHL should be considered one of the most important differential diagnoses of head and neck malignancies.

OBJECTIVES

It has previously been reported that the majority of head and neck malignant lymphomas are B-NHLs. This analysis aimed to assess the site-specific profiles of B-NHL of the head and neck.

METHODS

The medical records of patients with B-NHL of the head and neck diagnosed between January 2004 and December 2013 were retrospectively reviewed. The clinical parameters of these patients, including age, sex, site distribution, and histopathologic sub-type, were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 153 cases (95 males; 58 females) were included in this analysis (male-to-female ratio = 1.64:1). The patient age at the time of diagnosis ranged from 30-92 years (median = 68 years). The oropharynx was the most commonly affected site (40.5%), followed by the cervical lymph nodes (33.3%). The most common histopathologic sub-type was DLBCL (71.9%), followed by follicular lymphoma (11.1%), and extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (9.2%).

A clinical study of malignant tumors of Stensen's duct

CONCLUSION

Malignant tumors of Stensen's duct are often squamous cell carcinomas. Surgery is the treatment of choice, and maintaining an adequate safety margin and performing parotidectomy may help to reduce postoperative recurrence.

OBJECTIVES

Since malignant tumors of Stensen's duct are extremely rare, the number of cases is limited in single-facility studies, making it difficult to perform a sufficient number of clinical examinations. Therefore, we reviewed 26 cases with Stensen's duct malignancies to examine their clinical features.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of 26 cases with Stensen's duct malignancies, including 1 patient whom we treated and 25 cases previously reported in the English literature, and analyzed their clinical parameters, including age, sex, affected side, chief complaint, tumor size, histopathology, treatment method, and treatment outcome.

RESULTS

Most cases were diagnosed in patients between 40 and 69 years of age. The chief complaint was swelling in the cheek in 24 patients, in 14 of whom the swelling was painful. The most common tumor diameter range was 10-19 mm. Squamous cell carcinoma was the most frequent histopathology. The recurrence rate in surgical patients who did not undergo parotidectomy was 60%, whereas in patients who underwent parotidectomy, the recurrence rate was only 7%.

Three-dimensional cone beam computed tomography imaging of the membranous labyrinth in patients with Meniere's disease

CONCLUSION

Three-dimensional cone beam computed tomography (3DCT) images revealed characteristic malformations of the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear in Meniere's disease (MD). The morphology of the membranous region between the vestibular cecum of the cochlea and the saccule of ears with MD was compared to that of healthy ears. The present study supports the hypothesis proposed earlier that reuniting duct blockade is a result of the dislodgement of saccular otoconia.

OBJECTIVE

To visualize the membranous labyrinth using 3DCT and to investigate the pathology of MD.

METHODS

A preparatory study was conducted to determine the optimal 3DCT window settings for the detection of water, muscle, calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and bone. Based on this preparatory study, the ears of 13 healthy volunteers and 25 MD patients definitely diagnosed according to the criteria issued by the Committee on Hearing and Equilibrium of the American Academy of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS), were visualized.

RESULTS

The differences in the membranous labyrinth between MD ears and healthy ears could be visualized using 3DCT. The images were classified into three types based on their morphological pattern. The ears of patients with MD were different from normal ears in terms of this classification.

Metagenome fragment classification based on multiple motif-occurrence profiles

A vast amount of metagenomic data has been obtained by extracting multiple genomes simultaneously from microbial communities, including genomes from uncultivable microbes. By analyzing these metagenomic data, novel microbes are discovered and new microbial functions are elucidated. The first step in analyzing these data is sequenced-read classification into reference genomes from which each read can be derived. The Naïve Bayes Classifier is a method for this classification. To identify the derivation of the reads, this method calculates a score based on the occurrence of a DNA sequence motif in each reference genome. However, large differences in the sizes of the reference genomes can bias the scoring of the reads. This bias might cause erroneous classification and decrease the classification accuracy. To address this issue, we have updated the Naïve Bayes Classifier method using multiple sets of occurrence profiles for each reference genome by normalizing the genome sizes, dividing each genome sequence into a set of subsequences of similar length and generating profiles for each subsequence. This multiple profile strategy improves the accuracy of the results generated by the Naïve Bayes Classifier method for simulated and Sargasso Sea datasets.

Evaluation of usefulness of fine-needle aspiration cytology in the diagnosis of tumours of the accessory parotid gland: a preliminary analysis of a case series in Japan

CONCLUSION

The accuracy and sensitivity of fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) in this analysis were not satisfactory, and the false-negative rate seemed to be higher than for parotid tumours. The possibility of low-grade malignancy should be considered in the surgical treatment of accessory parotid gland (APG) tumours, even if the preoperative results of FNAC suggest that the tumour is benign.

OBJECTIVES

Little is known about the usefulness of FNAC in the preoperative evaluation of APG tumours, probably due to the paucity of APG tumour cases. We examined the usefulness of FNAC in the detection of malignant APG tumours.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective analysis of 3 cases from our hospital, along with 18 previously reported Japanese cases. We compared the preoperative FNAC results with postoperative histopathological diagnoses of APG tumours and evaluated the accuracy, sensitivity, specificity and false-negative rates of FNAC in detecting malignant APG tumours.

RESULTS

There were four false-negative cases (19.0%), three of mucoepidermoid carcinomas and one of malignant lymphoma. One false-positive result was noted in the case of a myoepithelioma, which was cytologically diagnosed as suspected adenoid cystic carcinoma. The accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of FNAC in detecting malignant tumours were 76.2%, 60.0% and 90.9%, respectively.

Twelve-year-old girl with intracranial epidural abscess and sphenoiditis

We report the case of a 12-year-old girl with an intracranial epidural abscess and sphenoiditis. Although she had no history of sinusitis, she developed acute severe headache, fever, and vomiting. Emergent CT and MRI showed a spherical space-occupying lesion of diameter 3 cm in the right cranial fossa with rim enhancement. The lesion was thought to be an epidural abscess adjacent to the right sphenoiditis. On the basis of the MRI findings, we performed emergent surgery to drain the abscess and sinusitis because of severe and rapidly worsening headaches. The patient showed great improvement the day after the operation. Intravenous antibiotics were administered for 8 days. She has completely recovered, with neither sequelae nor recurrence at 7 months after the operation. We believe that this report will be a useful reference for cases of acute onset headache and may be helpful in diagnosis and treatment decisions for severe sinusitis-related intracranial abscess in childhood.

[Clinical features of accessory parotid gland tumors]

Accessory parotid gland tumors are relatively rare; hence, adequately detailed clinical analyses of these tumors are difficult to perform at a single institution. In this report, we describe the findings for 65 patients [29 men, 36 women; median age, 51 (9-81) years] with accessory parotid gland tumors, consisting of 4 cases documented by us and 61 cases previously reported by other Japanese authors. Approximately 50% of the patients were treated in an otolaryngology department, while the remaining patients were treated in plastic surgery, oral surgery, or dermatology departments. In 4 patients, the results of preoperative fine-needle aspiration cytology indicated that the tumor was benign; however, the postoperative histopathology results revealed malignant tumors. The frequencies of malignant and benign tumors were 44.6% (n = 29) and 55.4% (n = 36), respectively. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma and pleomorphic adenoma were the most frequent types of malignant and benign accessory parotid gland tumors, respectively. Among the various surgical methods that were used, such as direct cheek and intraoral incisions, a standard parotidectomy incision was the most preferred treatment approach for these tumors. Recently, an endoscopic approach has also been found to yield satisfactory results. An optimal approach should be selected after evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of these methods. No definite guidelines are available regarding the choice of elective neck dissection and postoperative radiation therapy for malignant accessory parotid gland tumors. Although tumor resection (plus elective neck dissection) and postoperative radiation therapy have been frequently performed for various kinds of malignant accessory parotid gland tumors to date, additional studies are needed regarding the criteria for selecting elective neck dissection and postoperative radiation therapy. Since the malignancy rate for accessory parotid gland tumors is higher than that for parotid gland tumors, the possibility of malignancy (especially mucoepidermoid carcinoma and carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma) should be considered when resecting accessory parotid gland tumors, even if the results of preoperative fine-needle aspiration cytology indicate that the tumor is benign.

Clinical analysis of 21 cases of cervical tuberculous lymphadenitis without active pulmonary lesion

CONCLUSION

The necessity of considering cervical tuberculous lymphadenitis (CTL) should be emphasized even today for the differential diagnosis of cervical lymphadenopathy, particularly when it is located in the posterior triangle and supraclavicular regions even in patients without active pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB).

OBJECTIVE

This study was conducted to highlight the characteristics of patients with CTL without active PTB who were treated in our department.

METHODS

Between 2004 and 2011, 21 cases of CTL without active PTB were included in this retrospective study. Histological examination after excisional biopsy of the affected lymph node was performed in 18 patients using hematoxylin and eosin staining and Ziehl-Neelsen (Z-N) staining for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) identification. Growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was detected by culturing and/or nucleic acid amplification tests including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and transcription-mediated amplification (Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Direct: MTD).

RESULTS

The male to female ratio was 1:1.3. Patient ages ranged from 22 to 89 years. Eighteen patients (85.7%) complained of indolent unilateral cervical lymphadenopathy in the posterior triangle (26.5%), internal jugular (24.5%), or supraclavicular nodes (18.4%). Positive rates of AFB according to Z-N staining and culturing of M. tuberculosis and/or PCR or MTD were 33.3% (6/18) and 72.2% (13/18), respectively.

Anatomic distribution of hematolymphoid malignancies in the head and neck: 7 years of experience with 122 patients in a single institution

CONCLUSION

Most hematolymphoid malignancies in the head and neck were malignant lymphomas that most often occurred in sexagenarian men. Approximately 80% of them were B-cell lymphomas with a predominance of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) in both nodal and extranodal sites. Our results were compatible with those in a previous study that was conducted in the central part of Japan.

OBJECTIVES

This analysis was performed to describe the anatomic distribution of hematolymphoid malignancies that were diagnosed by biopsy in our department.

METHODS

Clinical medical records of 122 patients with hematolymphoid malignancies in the head and neck from January 2004 to December 2010 were retrospectively reviewed. The anatomic site of origin according to the histopathology of each malignancy was analyzed.

RESULTS

The incidence ratio of hematolymphoid malignancies was 15.1%. The male:female ratio was 2.3:1. Ages ranged from 17 to 89 years (median, 66). Of the 122 cases, 121 were lymphoid neoplasms (4 cases of Hodgkin lymphoma and 117 cases of non-Hodgkin lymphoma) and the remaining 1 was myeloid. The most common histopathology was DLBCL (54.9%), followed by follicular lymphoma (8.2%), and peripheral T-cell lymphoma (8.2%). Most commonly, the oropharynx (36.1%) and the cervical lymph node (34.4%) were affected.

[Tracheal cartilaginous sleeve in craniosynostosis]

Tracheal cartilaginous sleeve (TCS) is a congenital malformation involving fusion of the tracheal arches that may be isolated to a few tracheal arches, include the entire trachea, or extend beyond the carina into the bronchi. Tracheotomy was required in 9 of 23 craniosynostosis cases undergoing gradual distraction at Osaka City General Hospital from March 2002 to April 2006. TCS was diagnosed in 5 of 9 cases-four Pfeiffer patients and one Crouzon patient. Diagnosis was made intraoperatively during tracheotomy or at autopsy. 3D-CT was not useful in diagnosing TCS. Aggressive management of respiratory infection and pulmonary secretion, selection of appropriate tracheostomy tubes, and endoscopic evaluation are very important to care in managing TCS patients.

Elevated levels of soluble CD163 in sera and fluids from rheumatoid arthritis patients and inhibition of the shedding of CD163 by TIMP-3

The aim of the present study was to evaluate levels of soluble CD 163 in sera and fluids from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients and elucidate the mechanism that regulates the shedding of CD163. Levels of soluble CD163 in sera and fluids from RA patients were examined by a sandwich enzyme immunoassay and Western blotting. To determine the effects of tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase (TIMPs) on the shedding of CD163 from monocytes/macrophages, levels of soluble CD163 in cultures of monocytes/macrophages and the expression of CD163 on monocytes/macrophages in the presence or absence of TIMPs were examined by a sandwich enzyme immunoassay and flow cytometry, respectively. The clinical marker that was most associated with serum levels of soluble CD163 was levels of CRP. TIMP-3, but not TIMP-1 or TIMP-2, inhibited the shedding of CD163 from monocytes/macrophages. It was shown that serum levels of soluble CD163 are a sensitive and reliable marker to monitor activated macrophages in synovitis from RA patients and the results imply that the responsible proteinase for the shedding of CD163 is not a member of the matrix metalloproteinases, but is likely to be a member of ADAMs.

Mitotic index and ki-67 nuclear antigen labeling index as predictors of chemotherapy response in uterine cervical carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine if the mitotic index (MI) and the Ki-67 nuclear antigen labeling index (Ki67LI) obtained from biopsy specimens could be used as predictors of chemotherapy response in uterine cervical carcinomas.

METHODS

Six patients with squamous cell carcinoma who received neoadjuvant chemotherapy before radical surgery were entered into the study. The MI and the Ki67LI were evaluated using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)-stained and immunostained slides before and after chemotherapy. Tumor size was measured three-dimensionally by magnetic resonance imaging. We compared the values of MI and Ki67LI with changes in tumor size.

RESULTS

The cases were classified according to the percentage reduction in tumor mass: one case showed a marked response (98%), four showed a moderate response (53-78%), and one showed a slight response (approximately 0%). In the case with a marked response, the MI values before chemotherapy and 3 and 7 days after chemotherapy were 15, 2, and 0, respectively. The corresponding Ki67LI values were 51, 16, and 0, respectively. In the moderate response cases, the corresponding MI values before and 3 and 7 days after chemotherapy were 3.9-13.6, 0.8-1.6, and 1.6-4.0, respectively. The Ki67LI was 21.8-44.2 before chemotherapy, with two cases increasing and two decreasing at 7 days after chemotherapy. In the case showing a slight response, the MI values before chemotherapy and 3 and 7 days after chemotherapy were 0.5, 0.8, and 1.0, respectively. The Ki67LI was 4.0 before chemotherapy and increased slightly to 6.0 at 7 days after chemotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

In six cases examined, high MI and Ki67LI values before chemotherapy and a marked decrease in MI shortly after chemotherapy appeared to be predictors of good neoadjuvant chemotherapy response in uterine cervical carcinomas.

Apolipoprotein J/clusterin is induced in vascular smooth muscle cells after vascular injury

BACKGROUND

Understanding the precise molecular mechanisms underlying the phenomenon of restenosis after PTCA may help us to develop a new strategy for the treatment of restenosis after PTCA. The purpose of this study was to identify the genes involved in vascular restenosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Applying a differential hybridization method to a model of the balloon-injured rabbit aorta, we identified 6 cDNA clones that were upregulated after injury. Northern blot showed that 5 genes, but not apolipoprotein J (apoJ)/clusterin, were constitutively expressed in noninjured aorta and upregulated after balloon injury. ApoJ mRNA was not detectable in noninjured aorta (control), began to be expressed at 6 hours after injury, showed a peak level at 24 hours (a 48-fold increase), gradually declined, and returned to the control level at 24 weeks. Western blot and immunohistochemistry demonstrated no expression of apoJ protein in noninjured aorta, an expression of apoJ at 2 days after balloon injury, and a peak level (a 55-fold increase) at 2 to 8 weeks. The expression of apoJ protein continued until 24 weeks after injury. In situ hybridization revealed that apoJ mRNA was expressed in smooth muscle cells (SMCs) of media at 2 days after injury and in SMCs of media and neointima at 2 weeks. To analyze the function of apoJ, stably transfected rabbit SMCs were created. The expression of apoJ stimulated proliferation and migration of SMCs.

CONCLUSIONS

ApoJ is dramatically induced in media and neointima after vascular injury, suggesting that apoJ contributes to restenosis after angioplasty.

Age-dependent and tissue-specific CAG repeat instability occurs in mouse knock-in for a mutant Huntington's disease gene

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the expansion of CAG repeats in exon 1 of the HD gene. To clarify the instability of expanded CAG repeats in HD patients, an HD model mouse has been generated by gene replacement with human exon 1 of the HD gene with expansion to 77 CAG repeats. Chimeric proteins composed of human mutated exon 1 and mouse huntingtin are expressed ubiquitously in brain and peripheral tissues. One or two CAG repeat expansion was found in litters from paternal transmission, whereas contraction of CAG repeat in litters was observed through maternal transmission. Elderly mice show greater CAG repeat instability than younger mice, and a unique case was observed of an expanded 97 CAG repeat mouse. Somatic CAG repeat instability is particularly pronounced in the liver, kidney, stomach, and brain but not in the cerebellum of 100-week-old mice. The same results of expanded CAG repeat instability as observed in this HD model mouse were confirmed in the human brain of HD patients. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive cells have been found to be increased in the substantia nigra (SN), globus pallidus (GP), and striatum (St) in the brains of 40-week-old affected mice, although without neuronal cell death. The CAG repeat instability and increase in GFAP-positive cells in this mouse model appear to mirror the abnormalities in HD patients. The HD model mouse may therefore have advantages for investigations of molecular mechanisms underlying instability of CAG repeats.

Effects of baicalein isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis Radix on adhesion molecule expression induced by thrombin and thrombin receptor agonist peptide in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells

We examined the effects of various flavonoids isolated from the roots of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi on adhesion molecule expression induced by thrombin and thrombin receptor agonist peptide (SFLLRNPNDKYEPF, TRAP) in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Thrombin and thrombin receptor agonist peptide induced endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 (ELAM-1) expression. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression was also induced by thrombin, but not by TRAP. Baicalein isolated from Scutellariae Radix inhibited ELAM-1 expression induced by thrombin and thrombin receptor agonist peptide dose-dependently, with 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 5.53 +/- 1.68 microM and 2.44 +/- 1.08 microM, respectively. Furthermore, baicalein inhibited thrombin-induced ICAM-1 expression with an IC50 of 9.67 +/- 1.28 microM. In addition, baicalein inhibited the expressions of ELAM-1 and ICAM-1 stimulated by protein kinase C (PKC) activator phorbol myristate acetate (PMA).

Visualization, direct isolation, and transplantation of midbrain dopaminergic neurons

To visualize and isolate live dopamine (DA)-producing neurons in the embryonic ventral mesencephalon, we generated transgenic mice expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of the rat tyrosine hydroxylase gene promoter. In the transgenic mice, GFP expression was observed in the developing DA neurons containing tyrosine hydroxylase. The outgrowth and cue-dependent guidance of GFP-labeled axons was monitored in vitro with brain culture systems. To isolate DA neurons expressing GFP from brain tissue, cells with GFP fluorescence were sorted by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. More than 60% of the sorted GFP(+) cells were positive for tyrosine hydroxylase, confirming that the population had been successfully enriched with DA neurons. The sorted GFP(+) cells were transplanted into a rat model of Parkinson's disease. Some of these cells survived and innervated the host striatum, resulting in a recovery from Parkinsonian behavioral defects. This strategy for isolating an enriched population of DA neurons should be useful for cellular and molecular studies of these neurons and for clinical applications in the treatment of Parkinson's disease.

Promoter analysis and characteristics of the 5'-untranslated region of the mouse glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor gene

We have cloned the mouse GDNF cDNA and genomic DNA to study the molecular mechanism of gene expression. Primer extension and RT-PCR analyses indicated that the mouse gene contains 1086 bp of 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) [Gene 203 (1997) 149]. In this report, we identified the core promoter region of mouse GDNF and examined the role of the 5'-UTR in gene expression. Promoter deletion analyses indicated that the proximal region (-81 to +28), which includes a TATA-box, is necessary for high-level expression of GDNF. Using reporter constructs encoding luciferase or fusion gene of GDNF to enhanced green fluorescent protein that were transiently transfected to mouse astroglial cell-line TGA-3 cells and rat glioma C6 cells, we investigated effects of the 5'-UTR on promoter activity. Luciferase reporter assay indicated that a region downstream of the transcription initiation site may include a positive regulatory element, while two more distal regions appear to contain negative regulatory elements, which was correlated to the mRNA level based on RNase protection assay. Both negative regulatory elements attenuated promoter activity in a position-dependent manner. Nuclear proteins from C6 glioma cells were shown to interact with several regions (+65/+105, +233/+265, and +554/+582) including each of the regulatory elements, suggesting that regulation of GDNF expression by the 5'-UTR occurred mainly at the transcriptional level.

Roles of oxygen radical production and lipid peroxidation in the cytotoxicity of cephaloridine on cultured renal epithelial cells (LLC-PK1)

To clarify the mechanism of cephalosporin nephrotoxicity, the cytotoxic effects of cephaloridine (CER), a nephrotoxic cephalosporin antibiotic, on the pig kidney proximal tubular epithelial cell line (LLC-PK1) were studied in culture. CER increased the content of hydrogen peroxide and decreased the activity of catalase in the treated cells, followed by an increase in the content of lipid peroxide and decreases in both glutathione peroxidase activity and in the non-protein sulfhydryl content. The levels of NADPH-dependent hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion production by microsomes prepared from LLC-PK1 cells, and by NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase purified from the rat renal cortex were significantly increased by paraquat. The production of these molecules was antagonized by p-chloromer-curibenzoate, an inhibitor of NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase. On the other hand, CER did not significantly affect the production of hydrogen peroxide or superoxide anions. These results suggested that the cytotoxic effect of CER on cultured LLC-PK1 cells was due to the increases in hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxide levels and not microsomal oxygen radical production, and that the mechanism of this cytotoxicity is very different from that of paraquat which induces microsomal oxygen radical production.

Cephaloridine-induced inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase activity in the mitochondria of cultured renal epithelial cells (LLC-PK(1)) as a possible mechanism of its nephrotoxicity

To clarify the mechanism of cephalosporin nephrotoxicity, the effects of cephaloridine (CLD), a nephrotoxic cephalosporin antibiotic, on the mitochondria of the pig kidney proximal tubular epithelial cell line LLC-PK(1) were studied in culture. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase in the mitochondria of LLC-PK(1) cells was significantly decreased from 9 h after addition of 1.0 mM CLD to the cultured cells. These effects were dose-dependent and accompanied with a significant decrease in the ATP content in the cells, followed by marked morphological changes in the mitochondria. These alterations were observed in the treated cells before the increase in lipid peroxidation. The activities of NADH-cytochrome c reductase and succinate dehydrogenase in the mitochondria and NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase, NADH-cytochrome b(5) reductase, and 7-ethoxycoumarin O-deethylase in the microsomes of the treated cells were not affected. Superoxide anion production by the mitochondria prepared from LLC-PK(1) cells or NADH-cytochrome c reductase was not affected by addition of CLD (1-10 mM), but adriamycin (0.1 mM) or paraquat (0.1 mM) significantly increased the superoxide anion production. These results suggested that the primary action of CLD is inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase activity in the mitochondrial electron transport chain, which decreases intracellular ATP content in renal tubular epithelial cells and that these effects of CLD are followed by increased lipid peroxidation and cellular injury.

Differential toxic effects of gentamicin on cultured renal epithelial cells (LLC-PK1) on application to the brush border membrane or the basolateral membrane

Aminoglycoside antibiotics are generally accepted to accumulate in renal proximal tubule cells from the luminal surface and show toxic effects on the cells. The binding affinity and membrane permeability of aminoglycoside antibiotics are different at the brush border membrane (BBM) and the basolateral membrane (BLM) of proximal tubule cells. This study was performed, therefore, to investigate the differential effects of the aminoglycoside antibiotic gentamicin (GM) on cultured LLC-PK1 cells, a pig kidney proximal epithelial cell line, after addition to the BBM or the BLM side. LLC-PK1 cells were cultured on microporous membranes until forming confluent monolayers, and then GM was added to either the BBM or the BLM side. GM caused release of enzymes from the organelles, with a higher level of release observed following addition to the BBM side than that to the BLM side. Patterns of [3H]GM uptake by the cells differed in a manner dependent on whether it was added to the BBM or the BLM side. That is, the cellular uptake from the BBM side increased with incubation time, while that from the BLM side showed rapid saturation. These results suggested that aminoglycoside antibiotics show differential effects on cultured proximal epithelial cells and have differential patterns of cellular uptake when added to the BBM or the BLM side.

A new erythrocyte fragility test: a simple procedure utilizing stirring

In this study, a new simple method to measure erythrocyte fragility with stirring of diluted blood (stirring method) was introduced and evaluated with anemic rats given beta-acetylphenylhydrazine (APHZ) or clofibrate. APHZ at a dose of 40 mg/kg caused significant decreases in hemoglobin and hematocrit 24 hr after administration. However, the marked elevation of erythrocyte fragility was already detectable after 6 hr by our stirring method. At a dose of 10 mg/kg APHZ, although no significant changes in the erythrocytic parameters were observed throughout the experimental period (72 hr), the blood stirring method revealed a marked elevation of erythrocyte fragility 6 hr after administration. Similarly with clofibrate, no changes in erythrocytic parameters were noted following 100 mg/kg or 300 mg/kg administration, but the enhanced fragility was evident with the stirring method. Thus, using our approach, the erythrocyte fragility could be detected at an earlier stage and with greater sensitivity than by decreases in erythrocytic parameters. The results suggest that the stirring method will prove to be useful for detecting erythrocyte fragility in safety studies.

Hematological characteristics of rats spontaneously developing eosinophilia

Hematological and genetic characteristics of newly found eosinophilic rats were studied. Hematologically, high blood eosinophil counts started at 6 weeks of age. Almost all 10-week-old rats had eosinophilia with individual counts above 500/microliter and 5 to 100 times the normal level. Proliferating eosinophils had normal morphology. An increase in lymphocyte counts was observed at 5 weeks of age, one week earlier than the onset of eosinophilosis. In bone marrow, proliferation of eosinophils was also observed at 8 weeks of age and thereafter progressed, suggesting a role in the pathogenesis of eosinophilia in this rat. The results of genetic cross experiments revealed the disease to be hereditary. The spontaneously eosinophilic rat therefore warrants attention as a model for studying the underlying mechanisms of human and animal eosinophilia.

Requirement of divalent galactoside-binding activity of ecalectin/galectin-9 for eosinophil chemoattraction

We have previously isolated and cloned a novel eosinophil chemoattractant (ECA) from a human T-cell-derived expression library. This ECA, termed ecalectin, is a variant of human galectin-9, a member of a beta-galactoside binding animal lectin family, which contains two conserved carbohydrate recognition domains (CRDs). In the present study, we addressed whether carbohydrate binding activity is required for the ECA activity of ecalectin and whether both CRDs are essential for this activity. Recombinant full-length wild-type ecalectin (ecalectin-WT) and N-terminal and C-terminal CRD (ecalectin-NT and -CT, respectively) were generated. All of these recombinant proteins exhibited affinity for lactose, a property shared by galectins, but ecalectin-WT exhibited substantially higher hemagglutination activities than ecalectin-NT and -CT. Furthermore, ecalectin-WT showed over 100-fold higher ECA activity than ecalectin-NT and -CT; combination of recombinant domain fragments did not reconstitute the ECA and hemagglutination activities of the full-length protein. ECA activity of ecalectin-WT was inhibited by lactose in a dose-dependent manner. Site-directed mutation of positions Arg(65) of ecalectin-NT and Arg(239) of ecalectin-CT to an aspartic acid residue resulted in the loss of both lactose-binding and ECA activities. We conclude that divalent galactoside-binding activity is required for eosinophil chemoattraction by ecalectin.

Modest neuropsychological deficits caused by reduced noradrenaline metabolism in mice heterozygous for a mutated tyrosine hydroxylase gene

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the initial and rate-limiting enzyme for the biosynthesis of catecholamines that are considered to be involved in a variety of neuropsychiatric functions. Here, we report behavioral and neuropsychological deficits in mice carrying a single mutated allele of the TH gene in which TH activity in tissues is reduced to approximately 40% of the wild-type activity. In the mice heterozygous for the TH mutation, noradrenaline accumulation in brain regions was moderately decreased to 73-80% of the wild-type value. Measurement of extracellular noradrenaline level in the frontal cortex by the microdialysis technique showed a reduction in high K(+)-evoked noradrenaline release in the mutants. The mutant mice displayed impairment in the water-finding task associated with latent learning performance. They also exhibited mild impairment in long-term memory formation in three distinct forms of associative learning, including active avoidance, cued fear conditioning, and conditioned taste aversion. These deficits were restored by the drug-induced stimulation of noradrenergic activity. In contrast, the spatial learning and hippocampal long-term potentiation were normal in the mutants. These results provide genetic evidence that the central noradrenaline system plays an important role in memory formation, particularly in the long-term memory of conditioned learning.

Poroid hidradenoma. Report of a case with cytologic findings on fine needle aspiration

BACKGROUND

Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) can be used for establishing a diagnosis of cutaneous lesions, especially in cases with cyst formation. Poroid hidradenoma is eccrine neoplasm with both solid and cystic components.

CASE

A 77-year-old female presented with a slightly elevated nodule in the skin on her left elbow. The tumor was well demarcated, 2.7 x 2.4 cm and soft, and overlying skin was slightly reddish. FNAC revealed two types of cell: one had abundant cytoplasm in which small to large, occasionally multinucleated nuclei with small but distinct nucleoli were evident. Chromatin was finely granular, and nuclear membrane was thin and almost smooth. Another type of cell had scanty cytoplasm and a round to oval nucleus with small but prominent nucleoli. Histologic diagnosis was poroid hidradenoma.

CONCLUSION

FNAC can be useful for diagnosing intradermal cystic lesions before surgical resection.

Motor and learning dysfunction during postnatal development in mice defective in dopamine neuronal transmission

Mice lacking expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the first and rate-limiting enzyme of the catecholamine biosynthetic pathway, in dopaminergic neuronal cell types were generated by a transgenic rescue approach to clarify the role of dopamine signaling during postnatal development. Introduction of the TH transgene directed by the dopamine beta-hydroxylase gene promoter into TH knockout mice restored noradrenaline and adrenaline synthesis, preventing perinatal lethality and cardiac dysfunction in the knockout mice. Lack of TH expression in the cells that normally express the dopaminergic phenotype resulted in a marked reduction of dopamine accumulation in the tissues, which led to multiple behavioral abnormalities at the juvenile stage. These abnormalities were characterized by a reduction in spontaneous locomotor activity, blockade of methamphetamine-induced hyperactivity, cataleptic behavior, and defects in active avoidance learning. In contrast, development of the pituitary gland as well as production and secretion of the pituitary peptide hormones dependent on hypothalamic dopaminergic control were normally maintained, despite defective dopamine synthesis. These results demonstrate that dopamine neurotransmission is essential for controlling spontaneous and voluntary movement and associative learning during postnatal development through the nigrostriatal and mesocorticolimbic pathways.

Analysis of voluntary finger movements during hand tasks by a motion analyzer

Finger movements have primarily been classified by the final position of the hand and finger during deliberate hand activities, rather than as a description of the movement process. In addition, as of yet there have been no reports based upon objective data from the analysis of the motion of three finger joints during movement, and no reports exist that describe the relationship of the three joints' motion during these movements. This paper describes the relationship of the three finger joints during simple finger movements and hand tasks using measurements and analysis from a two-dimensional motion analyzer. Two prehensile movements were examined in 15 healthy volunteers: pure finger extension from finger flex position in different wrist positions (dorsi-flexion position, neutral position and palmar-flexion position of the wrist joint) and the grasping of discs of different diameter (10, 11, 12 and 13 cm). In the sequence of pure finger extension, where the grasping task was not requested, results showed that the movement was started from the proximal joint and extended to the distal joint of the finger, and full finger extension accomplished from distal to proximal, one after another, in any wrist position in most subjects. With the grasping of a disc, however, joint movement was initiated from distal to proximal and the final motion for grasping was carried to completion from the proximal to distal joints of the finger in most subjects. In addition, it was recognized that the proportion of the angular change in each of the three joints was different, as were the time duration of the joint motion and the pattern of the angular change. From these results, it is suggested that deliberate activities of the finger and sophisticated joint movements provided delicate adjustments to fit the fingers to the size of the object, as compared to the simple finger extension movement.

Rotational action of the supraspinatus muscle on the shoulder joint

The shoulder joint allows three-dimensional movement. In order to analyze the function of the muscles which act on the shoulder joint, three-dimensional movements, including rotation, must be considered. Among muscles participating in the shoulder joint movement, the supraspinatus muscle is known to have abduction and stabilization effects on the shoulder joint. However, the rotational function of the supraspinatus muscle has not been identified, because few studies have been reported on it. This study investigates the rotating function of the supraspinatus muscle using electrical stimulation, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and anatomical examination. Electrical stimulation was applied selectively to the supraspinatus muscle of healthy subjects using percutaneous wire electrodes. The electrical stimulation was given at different positions of the shoulder joint. It was found that the electrically induced rotational movements changed their direction depending on the position of the shoulder joint. When the humerus was relatively in internal rotation, internal rotation resulted. When it was in external rotation, external rotation occurred. Regarding the abduction angle of the shoulder joint, external rotation was induced with an increase in the abduction angle, whereas internal rotation occurred when the abduction angle was decreased. By the dissection of cadavers and MRI examination, it was indicated that the relation between the running direction of the supraspinatus muscle and the center of rotation of the humeral head was dependent on the position of the shoulder joint. Those findings supported the results of electrical stimulation of the supraspinatus muscle at various shoulder positions. These results indicate that the bi-directional rotating function of the supraspinatus muscle is characterized by an anatomical relationship between the running direction of the supraspinatus muscle and the center of rotation of the humeral head.

Pharmacological studies on the novel antiallergic drug HQL-79: I. Antiallergic and antiasthmatic effects in various experimental models

The effects of oral administration of 4-benzhydryloxy-1-[3-(1H-tetrazol-5-yl)-propyl]piperidine (HQL-79), a newly synthesized antiallergic drug, in various experimental allergic and asthmatic models were investigated. HQL-79 markedly inhibited immediate hypersensitivity reactions such as passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in rats, antigen-induced bronchoconstriction and nasal vascular permeability in actively sensitized guinea pigs, like epinastine and ketotifen did. Airway eosinophilia in repeatedly antigen-exposed guinea pigs was suppressed by chronic administration of HQL-79 for 2 weeks. In another experiment, the antigen-induced late asthmatic response (LAR) in metyrapone-treated guinea pigs was also ameliorated by chronic treatment with HQL-79. Moreover, HQL-79 partially inhibited the toluene diisocyanate-induced delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction in mice when administered chronically during the immunization period. The corticosteroid dexamethasone inhibited the airway inflammatory responses in guinea pigs and the DTH in mice. These results indicate that HQL-79 has potent inhibitory effects on the immediate hypersensitivity reactions, and when administered chronically, it also inhibits airway eosinophilia, LAR and DTH, similarly to corticosteroids.

Pharmacological studies on the novel antiallergic drug HQL-79: II. Elucidation of mechanisms for antiallergic and antiasthmatic effects

The effects of 4-benzhydryloxy-1-[3-(1H-tetrazol-5-yl)-propyl]piperidine (HQL-79), a newly developed antiallergic drug, on various chemical mediators and on chemical mediator release were investigated. Orally administered HQL-79 strongly inhibited the histamine-induced skin reaction in rats, and histamine- and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)-induced bronchoconstriction in guinea pigs. HQL-79 inhibited antigen-induced release of leukotriene (LT) B4, LTC4, histamine and prostaglandin (PG) D2 from the chopped lung tissues of actively sensitized guinea pigs. On the other hand, release of PGE2, one of the bronchoprotective prostanoids, was significantly enhanced by HQL-79. In an in vivo experiment, chronic administration of HQL-79 clearly reduced PGD2 contents and enhanced PGE2 contents in the lungs of repeatedly antigen-exposed guinea pigs. In biochemical studies, HQL-79 inhibited mouse spleen PGD synthase in a concentration-dependent manner. None of the antiallergics such as epinastine, terfenadine, oxatomide and cetirizine inhibited the PGD synthase. HQL-79 did not affect PGE synthase in sheep vesicular gland microsomes. These results suggest that antiallergic and antiasthmatic effects of HQL-79 could be ascribed to antihistaminic- and anti-5-HT effects, chemical mediator release inhibition, PGE2-release enhancement and PGD synthase inhibition. It is considered, in particular, that the differential modulation of PGD2 and PGE2 production is a conspicuous pharmacological feature of HQL-79.

Prevention of dopaminergic neuron death by adeno-associated virus vector-mediated GDNF gene transfer in rat mesencephalic cells in vitro

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is known as a potent neurotrophic factor for dopaminergic neurons. Since adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector is a suitable vehicle for gene transfer into neurons, rat E14 mesencephalic cells were transduced with an AAV vector expressing GDNF. When compared with mock transduction, a larger number of dopaminergic neurons survived in AAV-GDNF-transduced cultures (234% and 325% of controls at 1 and 2 weeks, respectively; P < 0.01). Furthermore, the dopaminergic neurons in the latter cultures grew more prominent neurites than those in the former. These findings suggest that AAV vector-mediated GDNF gene transfer may prevent dopaminergic neuron death, and is therefore a logical approach for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.

Biological Species of Armillaria in Japan

Pairing tests with isolates of Armillaria in culture were used to identify species of Armillaria and their distribution throughout Japan. The existence of 10 intersterile groups of Armillaria was determined by pairing haploid single spore isolates obtained from 20 basidiocarps from a wide geographic distribution in Japan. Two to four haploid tester isolates from each intersterile group were then paired to biological and morphological species with haploid tester isolates from Europe and North America identified in previous studies. Japanese haploid tester isolates were then paired with 190 haploid or diploid isolates and compatibility reactions were used to identify these to species. Of the 10 intersterile groups identified in Japan, 7 were authenticated as A. gallica, A. nabsnona, A. ostoyae, A. cepistipes, A. mellea, A. sinapina, or A. tabescens. Three of the groups were not compatible with any of the tester species. The distribution and host relationships of the Japanese biological species are also discussed.

Open-loop tracking performance of a limb joint controlled by random, periodic, and abrupt electrical stimulation inputs to the antagonist muscle pair

The ability of the cat's ankle joint to track various input signals when controlled by electrically elicited motor unit recruitment, firing rate and antagonist muscle coactivation was examined. Pseudo-random, sinusoidal and staircase signals were used to control the soleus and tibialis anterior muscles isometrically and with a 250-g pendulum. Tracking was evaluated through cross correlation for pseudo-random and sinusoidal signals, and by rise time and steady-state error in step signals. Better tracking was obtained in isometric conditions than in load-moving conditions. Pseudo-random signals resulted in 250-ms delay between input and isometric torque output. For load-moving conditions, 340-ms and 400-ms delay in torque and angle were obtained. For sinusoids, delays decreased from 240 ms at 0.5 Hz, to 140 ms at 2 Hz in isometric conditions. Time delays for angle were between 300 and 400 ms, decreasing as frequency increased. Poor cross correlation was found for torque in load-moving conditions, because of pendulum nonlinear dynamics. Step size was not uniform in staircase trials, with steady-state errors between 9% and 39%, and rise times between 200 and 1000 ms. It is concluded that open-loop joint control results in poor tracking, presumably because it is devoid of feedback mechanisms.

Cloning and structural organization of the gene encoding the mouse glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, GDNF

cDNA for glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) was cloned from mouse neonatal brain by the method of 5'-rapid amplification of cDNA end (5'-RACE), and the sequence of it's 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) was determined. The mouse GDNF gene was then isolated from a genomic library and analyzed for its nucleotide sequence. In vitro translation analysis indicated that the second ATG codon in an open reading frame is the translation start point. Structural analysis of the isolated clones showed that the GDNF gene was separated into three exons and the actual translation start point was present in the second exon. RNA blot hybridization analysis indicated that the GDNF mRNA is approximately 4.5 kb long. The transcriptional start site in the GDNF gene was determined and a typical TATA box sequence was found in the promoter region. On the other hand, the gene expression of GDNF in C6 glioma cells was transiently induced by treatment with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), but not by forskolin.